Completion of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of the Russian state. Overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke."Moscow is the third Rome." The role of the church in state building. Social structure of society. Forms of feudal land tenure. Cities and their role in the unification process. Features of the formation of a centralized state in Russia. The growth of the international authority of the Russian state. Identification of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples.
Establishment of the autocratic power of the tsar. Reforms of the mid-16th century. Creation of bodies of an estate-representative monarchy. Expansion of Russian territory under Ivan the Terrible. Oprichnina. Enslavement of the peasants. Establishment of the Patriarchate.
Troubles. Suppression of the ruling dynasty. Exacerbation of socio-economic contradictions. The crisis of traditional Russian society in conditions of external danger. Results of the Troubles.
Restoration of autocracy. The first Romanovs. Elimination of the consequences of the Troubles. Growth of the territory of the state. Legal registration of serfdom. New phenomena in economics. Manufactories. Orthodox Church. Old Believers. Social movements of the 17th century. The maturation of the prerequisites for the transformation of the country.
Formation of national identity and culture of the peoples of Russia in the 15th – 17th centuries. Strengthening secular elements in Russian culture of the 17th century.
Russia in the XVIII – mid-XIX centuries.
Peter's transformations. Proclamation of the Empire. Absolutism. Transformation of the nobility into the ruling class. Preservation of traditional orders and serfdom in the conditions of modernization. Russia during the period of palace coups. Creation of a class society. Reforms of the state system in the first half of the 19th century.
Features of the Russian economy in the 18th – first half of the 19th centuries: serfdom and the emergence of bourgeois relations. The beginning of the industrial revolution.
The emergence of political ideology in the second half of the 18th century. Russian Enlightenment. Decembrist movement . Slavophiles and Westerners. Russian utopian socialism. Conservatives.
The transformation of Russia into a world power in the 18th-19th centuries. Patriotic War of 1812. Imperial foreign policy of Russia. The Crimean War and its consequences for the country.
Russia in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
Abolition of serfdom. Reforms of the 1860s - 1870s. Bourgeois relations in industry and agriculture. Preservation of remnants of serfdom. Autocracy, class system and modernization processes. Policy of counter-reforms. The role of the state in the economic life of the country. Russian monopoly capitalism and its features. Reforms S.Yu. Witte and P.A. Stolypin, their results.
Ideological movements, political parties and social movements in Russia at the turn of the century. Growing economic and social contradictions. Social Democrats. Bolshevism as a political ideology and practice. Revolution 1905-1907 The formation of Russian parliamentarism.
Development of the education system. The science. The spiritual life of Russian society in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries.
“Eastern Question” in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. Russia in the system of military-political alliances at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Russo-Japanese War. Russia in the First World War. Aggravation of socio-economic and political contradictions in wartime conditions.
Revolution and Civil War in Russia
Revolution of 1917. Provisional Government and Soviets. Tactics of political parties. Bolsheviks and the proclamation of Soviet power. Constituent Assembly. Peace of Brest-Litovsk. Formation of a one-party system. Civil war and foreign intervention. The policy of "war communism". "White" and "red" terror. Russian emigration.
Transition to a new economic policy.
USSR in 1922-1991.
Education of the USSR. Selecting merging paths. Soviet type of statehood. Nation-state building.
Party discussions about methods of socialist modernization of society. New economic policy and reasons for its collapse. The concept of building socialism in a single country. Establishment of the personality cult of I.V. Stalin. Mass repression. Constitution of 1936
Industrialization and collectivization. "Cultural Revolution". Creation of the Soviet education system. Ideological foundations of Soviet society.
Diplomatic recognition of the USSR. Problems of choosing a foreign policy strategy for the USSR between the world wars. USSR on the eve of the war.
The Great Patriotic War. The main stages and radical changes in the course of military operations. Soviet military art. The heroism of the Soviet people during the war. Partisan movement. USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition. Home front during the war. Ideology and culture during the war.
Restoration of the economy. Ideological campaigns of the late 40s - early 50s. The formation of the world socialist system. The Cold War and its impact on the country's economy. The USSR's mastery of nuclear missile weapons.
Combating the consequences of the cult of personality. Economic reforms of the 1950s–1960s. The reasons for their failures. The concept of building communism. Theory of developed socialism. Constitution of 1977. Dissident and human rights movement.
Soviet culture in conditions of crisis of the socialist social system. Science and education in the USSR.
Slowdown in economic growth. “Stagnation.” Attempts to modernize Soviet society. The era of perestroika. Formation of a multi-party system. "Publicity". Crisis of communist ideology.Interethnic conflicts.
Achieving military-strategic parity between the USSR and the USA. Policy of détente. USSR in global and regional conflicts. Afghan war.
Reasons for the collapse of the USSR.
Russian Federation (1991-2003)
August events of 1991. Formation of a new Russian statehood. Events of October 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation 1993 Interethnic and interfaith relations in modern Russia. Chechen conflict. Political parties and movements of the Russian Federation. Commonwealth of Independent States. Union of Russia and Belarus.
Transition to a market economy.
Modern Russian culture. Russia in the conditions of the formation of the information society.
Russia in integration processes and the formation of a modern international legal system. Russia and the challenges of globalism.
Elections of the President of Russia in 2000. A course towards strengthening statehood, economic recovery, social and political stability, strengthening national security, and a worthy place for Russia in the world community.
LEVEL REQUIREMENTS
GRADUATE TRAINING
As a result of studying history at a basic level, the student must
Know
· basic facts, processes and phenomena that allow us to understand the integrity and consistency of domestic and world history;
· periodization of world and national history, spatial and temporal framework of the historical events being studied;
· modern versions and interpretations of the most important problems of national and world history;
· historical conditionality of modern social processes;
· features of Russia's historical path, its role in the world community;
Be able to
· search for historical information in sources of various types;
· critically analyze the source of historical information (characterize the authorship of the source, time, circumstances and purposes of its creation);
· analyze historical information presented in different sign systems (text, map, table, diagram, audiovisual series);
· distinguish between facts and opinions, historical plots and historical explanations in historical information;
· establish cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena and, on this basis, reconstruct the image of the historical past;
· participate in discussions on historical issues, formulate your own position on the issues discussed, using historical information for argumentation;
· present the results of studying historical material in the forms of a summary, abstract, historical essay, review;
use acquired knowledge and skills in practical activities and everyday life:
· determine one’s own position in relation to the phenomena of modern life, based on one’s idea of their historical conditionality;
· critically evaluate social information received from outside, using the skills of historical analysis;
· be able to correlate your actions and the actions of others with historical forms of social behavior;
· realize oneself as a representative of a historically established civil, ethnocultural, religious community, a citizen of Russia.
Italics in the text highlight material that is subject to study, but is not included in the Requirements for the level of graduate training.
The Russian state in the second half of the 15th - early 17th centuries.
Foreign policy in the 16th century.
Period of Troubles
Culture of the 16th century
Formation of the Russian centralized state
The formation of the Russian centralized state chronologically coincides with the formation of monarchies in a number of Western European countries, but at the same time it has its own specifics. A special type of feudal society with an autocracy at its head and a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry was formed in Russia, different from the general European one.
The birth of the Russian state took place in civil strife, the struggle with the Golden Horde, the Kazan, Crimean (from the beginning of the 16th century), the Lithuanian principality, the Livonian Order, and the Kingdom of Sweden.
The uniqueness of Russian statehood was determined:
the length and openness of the borders;
the confessional isolation of Russian Orthodoxy;
the fact that the Russian state could become centralized only by throwing off the economic and political dependence of the Horde.
The following can be distinguished reasons for the formation of the Russian state:
It should also be noted that the process of formation of the Russian centralized state proceeded simultaneously in three directions:
unification of lands around Moscow;
strengthening the grand ducal power in Moscow;
the struggle to overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
The unification of Russian lands was completed under Ivan III and his son Vasily III.
During the reign Ivan III Vasilievich(1462 - 1505) (Fig. 1.4.1 
) the possessions of the Moscow prince increased significantly. The Yaroslavl (1463) and Rostov (1474) principalities were annexed to Moscow peacefully. As a result of military actions of 1471-1478. The Novgorod Republic was conquered. The armed forces were used in the subjugation of the Tver principality (1485). It was necessary to wage a war with Lithuania for the annexation of the Verkhovsky principalities (in the upper reaches of the Oka River). The Vyatka Land (1489), Great Perm (1472) and the Ugra Land (1500), where Finno-Ugric and other peoples lived, became part of the Moscow Principality (Fig. 1.4.2 
).
During the reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505), the possessions of the Moscow prince increased significantly. The Yaroslavl (1463) and Rostov (1474) principalities were annexed to Moscow peacefully. As a result of military actions of 1471-1478. The Novgorod Republic was conquered. The armed forces were used in the subjugation of the Tver principality (1485). It was necessary to wage a war with Lithuania for the annexation of the Verkhovsky principalities (in the upper reaches of the Oka River). The Vyatka Land (1489), Great Perm (1472) and the Ugra Land (1500), where Finno-Ugric and other peoples lived, became part of the Moscow Principality.
While the Moscow state was consistently strengthened, processes of disintegration continued on the territory of the Golden Horde. The Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazakh, and Uzbek Khanates arose. An attempt to restore its former power was made by the Khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat. He decided to bring the Russian ulus into submission, which had stopped paying tribute. However, the events of 1480, which went down in history as "Standing on the Ugra River", showed the illusory nature of this plan. Despite the difficult situation (the onslaught of the Livonian Order in the west, the appearance of Lithuania as an ally of Akhmat, the internecine quarrel with the Grand Duke of the brothers Ivan III), the Moscow state was able to emerge victorious, demonstrating its strength. Moscow was perceived by the population as an all-Russian center that solved the problem of people's liberation. Akhmat withdrew his army from the banks of the river. Ugrians, which became the fact of the end of the Horde’s power over Russia. This is how national sovereignty was gained. And in 1502, under the blows of the Crimean Khanate, the Great Horde was completely defeated.
After the fall of Byzantium, the Principality of Moscow remained the only independent Orthodox state. In 1485, Ivan III took the title “Sovereign of All Rus'”. As a result of the increase in political power, the tasks of both foreign and policy changed. Moscow is beginning to actively enter the international arena. More than two dozen European and Asian states are becoming diplomatic partners of Russia. Among the allies of Ivan III are the Crimean Khanate and the Kazan Khanate, where Moscow’s protege was placed on the throne. Connections are established with the Ottoman Empire, Rome, Venice, Milan, Moldova, Hungary, and the Holy Roman Empire. Many Western specialists are invited to Moscow: doctors, architects, builders, jewelers, foundry workers, cannon craftsmen, and ore seekers. Roman diplomacy considered it possible to use the growing strength of Rus' in the fight against the Turkish threat.
In the Baltic region, which was troubled for Moscow, the threat came from the Livonian Order and Sweden. The longtime enemy of Moscow, the Principality of Lithuania, intended to create an anti-Russian coalition, and the fight against it diverted a lot of energy. True, success accompanied Moscow, since due to national and religious oppression, the Russian princes of Lithuania sought to come under the leadership of Ivan III. Thus, the Novgorod-Seversky lands, the possessions of the princes Starodubsky, Trubetskoy, and Mosalsky, became part of Rus'. The western border of Rus' has advanced a hundred kilometers.
Moscow's claims to a worthy role in world politics were not least determined by the idea of Russian succession from Byzantium. The second wife of Ivan III was the niece of the last Emperor of Constantinople -. Probably, not without her influence, a ceremony was established in Moscow, demonstrating the special position of the sovereign-autocrat, free to make his decisions. The genealogy of the Moscow Rurikovichs was traced back to the ancient Roman emperor Augustus. Imperial ambitions were expressed in the work “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”. The Russian state adopted the Byzantine coat of arms - in the form of a double-headed eagle, and in Moscow a grandiose construction of the Kremlin began according to the plan of Aristotle Fiorovanti and temples, designed to prove the greatness of the “Third Rome”. This idea - about Moscow as the “Third Rome” - was voiced at the beginning of the 16th century. in the message of the Pskov elder Philotheus to Vasily III. According to this idea, the Moscow state is assigned a special historical mission: being the center of the true Christian faith, it must be responsible for the fate of the entire Orthodox world.
Son of Ivan III - Vasily III(1505-1533) continued his father’s policy of unifying Russian lands and centralizing power. In 1510, he managed to annex Pskov, where veche administration was abolished and governors from Moscow were installed. In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from Lithuania, became part of the state. In 1521 Ryazan was annexed to Russia. Under Vasily III, Russia began to play a prominent role in European affairs. He repeatedly waged wars and negotiations with Poland, Lithuania, Denmark, Austria, the Livonian Order, and the Crimean Khanate.
Centralization of power. The new lands included in the Moscow Principality retained their characteristics for a long time. But the logic of the centralization process required the introduction of uniform standards of living throughout the country. This concerned central and local government, tax and legal systems, and the spiritual sphere. In 1497, the first all-Russian Code of Law was compiled. It was mainly devoted to issues of legal proceedings. Here the norm of a single period for the transfer of privately owned peasants from one owner to another was also introduced. The transition was allowed in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 14) and a week after St. George's Day, subject to payment of the elderly (tax). This measure was relevant in the context of the development of the local system.
The annexation of new territories to Moscow and the policy of confiscation of lands from the local nobility and the church (especially in the Novgorod possessions) allowed Ivan III to concentrate a large fund of state lands in his hands. These lands were distributed as estates to nobles for their service. This is how the formation of the service class began, directly dependent on the sovereign. It consisted of the prince's slaves, landowners of former appanage princes, and impoverished patrimonial landowners from princely and boyar families. Moreover, patrimonial owners could simultaneously have both patrimonies and estates located in different regions of the country.
These noble landowners formed the noble militia, which replaced the former princely squads. The Moscow state now had a strong, well-armed army designed to repel external aggression. But it needed land provision, and this presupposed the further growth of territories and their cultivation by dependent peasants. Therefore, the strong power of the sovereign, who granted estates, seemed to be the ideal of the service nobility.
The highest position in the social hierarchy was occupied by the descendants of appanage princes - representatives of the Rurikovich family. They found themselves in the service of the Moscow ruler, and they were “besieged.” A new meaning has been added to the word “boyar”, meaning “rank”. The boyars, along with the okolnichy, sat in the Boyar Duma - an advisory body under the sovereign. The old Moscow boyars found themselves pushed out of power. The princes and boyars formed the core of the Sovereign's court, from which all appointments to military and civil service were made. Seniority was determined by the origin and service significance of the clan.
The most important central authorities were the Grand Palace and the Treasury. Here the order system and sectoral management in the state apparatus originated. Over time in orders The leading role will be played by clerks - people from various social strata. Local government of the country, which was divided into counties, volosts and camps, was represented by governors and volostels. Their activities were carried out with the help of the staff they brought with them. All the service people of the Moscow sovereign addressed him in official documents using the formula: “Behold, your servant.”
The growing autocratic power was supported by the church. But among the churchmen there was no unity on the issue of the monasteries owning land territories. Some church leaders, followers Joseph Volotsky - Josephites, considered it necessary to provide monasteries with land property to enable active social activities. Their ideal was the union of church and state. Others, followers of the Trans-Volga elder Nil of Sorsky - non-acquisitive- expressed an opinion about the detachment of monks from worldly concerns, increasing the moral authority of the clergy, free from land ownership. Ivan III first accepted the point of view of non-acquisitive people, which suited his interests.
However, at the church council of 1503, the Josephites won. The church managed to defend its right to own the lands. The Grand Duke was forced to reconcile himself and supported the followers of Joseph Volotsky. The Josephites put forward the thesis about the divine origin of the grand ducal power. The union of the autocratic state and the Orthodox Church became even closer.
The processes of centralization continued in the 16th century, by the beginning of which the name “Russia” was increasingly assigned to the Moscow state.
Russia during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible
Economy . The main occupation of the Russian population in the 16th century remained arable farming. Almost throughout the entire territory of the state, a three-field system was widespread, when the first plot was sown with spring crops, the second with winter crops, and the third remained unsown (resting fallow). The yield from such a system did not increase, but was stable. The most common winter crop was rye, and the most common spring crop was oats. The peasants kept horses, cows, sheep, and poultry.
The community (peace) played an important role in the lives of peasants. Its functions included the distribution of arable plots and vegetable gardens, the use of hayfields, fishing areas, lakes and rivers, and the distribution of state taxes and duties. The community was preserved even when state lands were transferred into private hands.
In the 16th century handicraft production expanded. Bakers, pie makers, whipping makers, tanners, rawhide makers, etc. appeared in the cities. The most common type of craft was the production of weapons. The quality of the weapons cast at the Cannon Yard was so high that it was forbidden to sell them to the southern and eastern neighbors.
The growth of cities continued, and their importance as centers of crafts and trade increased. The largest trade and craft centers were Moscow, Pskov, Arkhangelsk, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Tver, Novgorod, Tula, Smolensk, Nizhny Novgorod. The main population of the cities were artisans and merchants.
Trade developed. A large number of urban and rural trades and markets appeared, where local artisans sold their products, and peasants sold food products. Once a year, fairs were organized near large cities or monasteries. The main product at fairs was bread. Honey, salt, livestock, meat, fish and handicrafts were also traded here. Fairs contributed to strengthening economic ties between different regions of the country.
Russia's main foreign trade partners were Poland, Livonia, Hansa, the Principality of Lithuania, the Tatar khanates, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Ottoman Empire. Close trade ties were established with England. In 1556, the British received the right to duty-free trade throughout the country. The first major seaport in Russia was Arkhangelsk (Novokholmogory until 1613).
The growth and development of trade required monetary reform. A single all-Russian monetary unit was introduced - the Moscow ruble. In 1534, the state Mint was founded in Moscow, which produced coins for the whole country.
Political processes. After the death of Vasily III, his son Ivan was only 3 years old. Before his death, the tsar appointed a guardian council of seven influential boyars, who were supposed to look after Ivan for up to 15 years. But soon Ivan’s mother, Elena Glinskaya, took control of the state into her own hands. She continued her husband's policy of centralizing the state. During her reign, a monetary reform was carried out, and uniform measures of length and weight were introduced. The queen died unexpectedly in 1538 (as contemporaries believed, she was poisoned). Boyar rule began (1538-1547), which was characterized by murder, imprisonment, and forced monastic vows. The early death of his parents and a similar environment developed in the young prince such qualities as rigidity, morbid suspicion and suspiciousness.
At the age of 16, Ivan stated Metropolitan Macarius about his desire to be married not to a great reign (as was the case before him), but to a kingdom. The Metropolitan supported his intention, which meant a significant strengthening of the supreme power. The adoption of the royal title by the ruler of the state also raised the international authority of Russia. On January 16, 1547, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Metropolitan crowned Ivan IV with the Cap of Monomakh to the throne. Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich became the first “God-crowned Tsar” (Fig. 1.4.3 
).
First period of reign Ivan IV, @@@nicknamed the Terrible (1549-1560), was favorable for the Russian state. Together with the tsar, the Elected Rada ruled - the circle of Ivan IV's close associates. It included nobleman A.F. Adashev, priest Sylvester, princes M.I. Vorotynsky, A.M. Kurbsky, Sheremetev boyars, clerk I.M. Viskovaty. The elected Rada also enjoyed the support of the head of the church, Metropolitan Macarius. During this period, a number of reforms were developed and put into effect, which had as their main goal strengthening the power of the king and strengthening statehood.
In 1549, a new state body was created - the Zemsky Sobor, which was elected by the population and included representatives of the clergy, nobility, the elite of the townspeople and the black-sown (state) peasants. The Zemsky Sobor resolved the most important state issues. Thus, Russia turned into an estate-representative monarchy, like most European countries of that time.
In 1550, at the Zemsky Sobor, a new Code of Law was approved, in which further enslavement of peasants was carried out (an increase in payments for living on the land of the feudal lord), the norms for the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George’s Day were clarified, a unit for collecting taxes was established, and punishment for bribery was introduced , the rights of governors were limited.
In 1550, military reform was carried out. During military campaigns, localism was abolished. People with military talent were appointed to the highest military positions, regardless of the nobility of their family. First created standing army- Streltsy regiments, which received money, weapons and uniforms from the treasury. A chosen thousand was formed - the core of the local militia, subordinate to the king. In 1556, the “Code of Service” was adopted, which determined the exact norms of compulsory military service for all landowners.
In 1551 the Church Council was assembled. The church reform introduced uniform church rituals, recognized all local saints as all-Russian, limited monastic land ownership, and outlined measures to strengthen the morality of the clergy.
In 1556 it was held local government reform. The system of feeding and viceroys was abolished. In counties where private land ownership predominated, the positions of provincial elders were introduced, who were elected by landowners. In counties where the majority of the population were black-growing peasants, and in urban township communities, zemstvo elders were elected. In cities, local government was carried out by city clerks. The functions of elected bodies included: court, collection of taxes, preservation of law and order.
The reforms fulfilled their objectives:
central state power and the supreme position of the king strengthened;
the country's military power strengthened;
the prerequisites were created for solving foreign policy problems.
After returning from the Kazan campaign, the tsar suddenly and seriously fell ill. Nearing death, he demanded that his entourage take an oath to his newly born son. But the courtiers, who remembered the horrors of boyar rule, were in no hurry to go through this procedure. They preferred to see on the throne not the baby Tsar, but Ivan IV’s cousin, Prince Staritsky. After his recovery, the king changed a lot. It seemed to him that he was surrounded by enemies, ready to betray him at any moment. In 1560, the Tsar's beloved wife, Anastasia, died. Rumors spread throughout Moscow that she was “harassed” by Sylvester and Adashev, to whom the queen did not forgive their hesitations during the king’s illness. Ivan, whose disagreements with the members of the Chosen Rada were intensifying, willingly believed these rumors. Both close associates were condemned by the Zemsky Sobor, and soon deprived of their lives.
The discontent of the boyars intensified after this massacre. Many noble people fled abroad, including Prince Kurbsky, who was close to Ivan. Meanwhile, the Livonian War was fought with varying degrees of success. Victories were followed by defeats, for which the tsar blamed the traitorous commanders. Ivan the Terrible decided to become the sole ruler, eliminate the independence of the boyars and deprive them of influence on state affairs. For this purpose, the oprichnina was introduced.
Oprichnina (1565 - 1572)- the policy of Ivan the Terrible, which led to the division of the Russian state into zemshchina(governed by the Boyar Duma) and oprichnina(sovereign inheritance) with a special army - guardsmen. It was accompanied by a series of repressions as a means of achieving political goals. Landowners whose estates became part of the oprichnina (these were the richest and most prosperous regions of the country) had to leave their possessions. Their lands were split up and transferred to the guardsmen, and in return they were given possessions in distant places. Oprichnina significantly weakened the economic power of the old boyar-princely families.
The oprichnina delivered the main blow to those forces that could threaten the autocracy. In particular, the appanage prince Staritsky was poisoned along with his family. The massacre in Veliky Novgorod continued for about six weeks against the boyars, who were accused of plotting against the tsar. Metropolitan Philip, who did not support the tsar, was strangled. Oprichnina strengthened the regime of personal power of Ivan the Terrible, but plunged the state into an economic crisis. In addition, the oprichnina army showed its inability to repel the attack of the Crimean Tatars on Moscow, after which the tsar decided to abolish the oprichnina.
The results of the reign of Ivan IV were:
strengthening the status of autocratic power as supreme;
weakening of the boyar-princely nobility, suppression of opportunities for the development of the political model of Russia according to the Polish-Lithuanian version of the aristocratic class monarchy;
further enslavement of peasants ( “Decree on reserved years” 1581 introduced a ban on peasant transition from one feudal lord to another);
the economic crisis caused by the Livonian War and the oprichnina;
lack of a worthy successor.
Foreign policy in the 16th century.
In the 16th century, the Russian state faced the following foreign policy tasks:
the fight against the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates - the remnants of the Golden Horde;
achieving access to the Baltic Sea;
return of lands that were part of the ancient Russian state.
As in the domestic policy of Ivan the Terrible, the first period of tsarist rule was marked by successes in foreign policy activities. In 1552, after stubborn resistance, the Kazan Khanate was annexed, in 1556 - the Astrakhan Khanate. Russia did not at all seek to seize these former Horde territories (with whose governments it immediately established diplomatic relations), since doing this after the collapse of the Horde was not particularly difficult for both Ivan III, Vasily III, and the young Ivan IV. However, this did not happen for a long time, since representatives of the Kasimov dynasty, friendly to Russia, were in power in the khanates at that time. When representatives of this dynasty were defeated by their competitors and a pro-Ottoman Crimean dynasty was established in Kazan (which by that time had become one of the centers of the slave trade) and Astrakhan, only then was a political decision made about the need to include these lands into Russia. The Astrakhan Khanate, by the way, was bloodlessly included in the Russian state.
In 1555, the Great Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate entered Russia's sphere of influence as vassals. Russian people come to the Urals, gain access to the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. Most of the peoples of the Volga region and the North Caucasus submitted to Russia. Russia included the lands where the Chuvash, Udmurts, Mordovians, Mari and many others lived. In the Caucasus, friendly relations were established with the Circassians and Kabardians, and other peoples of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The entire Volga region, and therefore the entire Volga trade route, became Russian territories, on which new Russian cities immediately appeared: Ufa (1574), Samara (1586), Tsaritsyn (1589), Saratov (1590).
In 1556, Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. The annexation of the Volga region ensured the security of the southern and southeastern borders of Russia and opened the way for direct trade and political contacts with the countries of the East. The entry of these lands into the empire did not lead to any discrimination or oppression of the ethnic groups inhabiting them. Within the empire, they fully preserved their religious, national and cultural identity, traditional way of life, as well as management systems. And most of them reacted to this very calmly: after all, the Moscow state was part of the Dzhuchiev ulus for a significant time, and Russia, which had adopted the experience of managing these lands accumulated by the Horde and was actively implementing it in the implementation of its internal imperial policy, was perceived by them as the natural heir to the Mongol proto-empire.
The central event in Russian foreign policy during the reign of Ivan the Terrible was Livonian War (1558-1583). The reason for the war was the refusal of the Livonian Order to pay tribute to Russia for the city of Yuryev. Russian troops entered the Baltic states and occupied Dorpat (Yuryev), Narva, and approached Revel and Riga. The Livonians requested a truce. The Russian Tsar agreed. This was a serious mistake. The Livonian Order became part of Lithuania, and Russia found itself faced with a new strong enemy - the Polish-Lithuanian state, as well as its allies - Denmark and Sweden. After Stefan Batory became king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russians were driven out of Livonia. In 1581, the Poles invaded Russian territory and besieged Pskov. Sweden also began military operations against Russia and captured Narva. Russia was unable to fight a war on two fronts and was forced to retreat. In 1582, a truce was concluded with Poland, and in 1583, peace was concluded with Sweden. Russia was defeated in the war.
In the 16th century the development of the eastern territories began. The advance of the Russians into Siberia was also not due to any national super-task or state policy for the development of these lands. V.L. Makhnach explained the development of Siberia, which began in the 16th century, by two factors: firstly, the aggressive policy of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, who made constant raids on Stroganov’s possessions, and secondly, the tyrannical rule of Ivan IV, fleeing from whose repressions, Russian people fled to Siberia.
In the Siberian Khanate, formed around 1495, which, in addition to the Siberian Tatars, included the Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls), Trans-Ural Bashkirs and other ethnic groups, there was a constant struggle for power between two dynasties - the Taibungs and the Sheibanids. In 1555, Khan Taibungin Ediger turned to Ivan IV with a request for citizenship, which was granted, after which the Siberian khans began to pay tribute to the Moscow government. In 1563, power in the Khanate was seized by Sheibanid Kuchum, who initially maintained vassalage relations with Russia, but later, taking advantage of the turmoil in the Russian state in 1572 after the Crimean Khan's raid on Moscow, broke off these relations and began to pursue a fairly aggressive policy towards the border lands of the Russian states.
The constant raids of Khan Kuchum prompted the eminent and wealthy trading people the Stroganovs to organize a private military expedition to protect the borders of their possessions. They hire Cossacks led by Ataman Ermak Timofeevich (Fig. 1.4.4 
), they arm them, and they, in turn, unexpectedly for everyone, defeat Khan Kuchum in 1581-1582, who, by the way, had established diplomatic relations with Moscow, and capture the capital of the Siberian Khanate - Isker. The Cossacks, of course, could not solve the problem of settling and developing these lands and, perhaps, would soon have left Siberia, but a stream of fugitive Russian people poured into these lands, fleeing the repressions of Ivan the Terrible, who began to actively develop sparsely populated new territories.
The Russians did not encounter much resistance in the development of Siberia. The Siberian Khanate was internally fragile and soon found itself annexed to Russia. Kuchum's military failures led to the resumption of civil strife in his camp. A number of Khanty and Mansi princes and elders began to provide assistance to Ermak with food, as well as pay yasak (tax) to the Moscow sovereign. The elders of the indigenous Siberian peoples were extremely pleased with the reduction in the size of the yasak that the Russians collected, compared to the yasak that Kuchum took. And since there was a lot of free land in Siberia (you could walk a hundred or two hundred kilometers without meeting anyone) - there was enough space for everyone (both Russian explorers and indigenous ethnic groups), the development of the territory proceeded at a rapid pace.
In 1591, Khan Kuchum was finally defeated by Russian troops and submitted to the Russian sovereign. The fall of the Siberian Khanate, the only more or less strong state in these expanses, predetermined the further advance of the Russians across the Siberian lands and the development of the expanses of eastern Eurasia.
Thus, by the end of the 16th century, Russia implemented its foreign policy plans only in the eastern direction.
Period of Troubles
At the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries. Russia has entered a period, the events of which plunged the country into a systemic crisis that affected all spheres of society and brought Russia to the brink of destruction of state principles and loss of independence. In pre-revolutionary historiography, this period was called the Troubles. In the literature there is no unambiguous approach to defining the essence of the Troubles. Some researchers believe that this is a peasant war, others call the Time of Troubles a hidden intervention, and others insist that the Time of Troubles can be called a civil war. We believe that the concept of “Troubles” is broader. It includes elements of civil war, intervention, social struggle, economic crisis, changes in ideology and much more. This is a complex of events caused by the formation of the state-serf system in Russia and at the same time contributing to the strengthening of this system.
In the literature, there are several interpretations of the chronology of the Troubles. Some historians believe that it began immediately after the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, others attribute its beginning to the first social unrest (1602-1603). There is no consensus about the end of the Time of Troubles. According to one version, the end of the Time of Troubles is considered to be the date of the accession of Mikhail Romanov (1613), according to another - the Deulin truce with Poland (1618). In our opinion, the most acceptable periodization is the division of the Troubles into 3 stages:
1598-1605 - the reign of Boris Godunov and the beginning of the Time of Troubles.
1605-1607 - False Dmitry I and the Peasant War.
1608-1613 - Polish-Swedish intervention, end of the Time of Troubles.
In the last years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russia found itself in a difficult situation. The Oprichnina and the Livonian War caused a protracted economic crisis, the strengthening of serfdom and the actual enslavement of peasants (the abolition of St. George's Day) exacerbated social contradictions.
One of the reasons for the Troubles was the dynastic crisis.
Shortly before his death on November 19, 1581, Ivan the Terrible killed his eldest son, the heir to the throne, John. The new heir of Ivan the Terrible was weak and sick Feodor (1584-1598) who was not interested in government affairs.
According to the descriptions of contemporaries, Fyodor Ioannovich (Fig. 1.4.5 
) was short, obese and always pale. He did not inherit the aristocratic beauty of his ancestors. They say that he always smiled, moved slowly, stiffly. Tsar Fedor is known for his extraordinary meekness, combined, as N.M. wrote. Karamzin, “with a timid mind, with boundless piety, with indifference to worldly greatness.” “On the thunderous throne of a fierce tormentor,” continued N.M. Karamzin, “Russia saw a man of fasting and silence, born more for a cell and a cave than for the power of the sovereign.” A kind, meek and merciful tsar could become a dream come true for Russia tormented by Ivan the Terrible. But the trouble is that Fyodor Ioannovich was not capable of ruling: sickly and weak, stupid at best, and weak-minded at worst. Both the boyars and the common people were worried that due to the young tsar’s inability to govern, unrest would begin again in the country. But it didn’t come to this, since Fyodor Ioannovich transferred all affairs of state management into the hands of Boris Fedorovich Godunov, his wife’s brother.
Thus, Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich reigned, but did not rule. Boris Godunov turned out to be an intelligent, cunning and skillful politician. The boyars closest to the throne were very dissatisfied with his rise, but Godunov managed to cope with them. Relative calm established itself in the state: Russia was resting and recovering from the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
The most important tasks facing the country at that time were overcoming the economic crisis and uniting the upper ranks of society. Since 1592, the Decree on reserved years began to operate permanently, and in 1597 a decree was issued on a 5-year search for runaway peasants. These measures contributed to the strengthening of local and patrimonial land ownership.
In 1590, during the next war with Sweden, Russia managed to return the cities of Yam, Koporye, and Ivangorod, lost under Ivan the Terrible. In 1591, the Crimean Khan Kazy-Girey attempted to raid Moscow. It was defeated under the walls of the city not far from the Danilov Monastery. This is the last Tatar raid on the capital of the Russian state.
During the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich, the city of Arkhangelsk was founded on the White Sea, and the fortresses of Tobolsk, Pelym, Berezov, Obdorsk (currently Salekhard) and others were built in Siberia.
One of the few decisions of Fyodor Ioannovich himself was the establishment of the patriarchate in 1589. The first Patriarch of Moscow was St. Job.
Fyodor Ioannovich had no sons. His heir was considered the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible and Maria Fedorovna Nagoy, Tsarevich Dmitry. By decision of Boris Godunov, in order to avoid unrest and disagreements on the issue of succession to power, Tsarevich Dmitry and his mother Maria Fedorovna lived in Uglich. And there young Dmitry died on May 15, 1591. The cause of his death has not been precisely established. An official investigation concluded that the prince, who suffered from epilepsy, accidentally ran into his own knife during a seizure. Rumor claimed that Dmitry was killed by Godunov.
One way or another, with the death of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, the Rurik dynasty was interrupted, which, according to N.M. Karamzin, “Russia owes its existence, name and greatness - from such a small beginning, through a number of stormy centuries, through fire and blood, achieving dominance over the North of Europe and Asia, to the warlike spirit of its rulers and people, to the happiness and providence of God!”
On February 17, 1598, the Zemsky Sobor elected his brother-in-law Fyodor Ioannovich to the kingdom - Boris Godunov(1598-1605) (Fig. 1.4.6 
). The close relationship outweighed the distant relationship of possible contenders for the throne. No less important was the fact that Godunov had actually ruled the country on behalf of Fedor for a long time and had no intention of letting go of power after his death.
Boris's reign began successfully. The new king developed trade and cultural ties with Western Europe. He provided benefits to English and German merchants, sent a group of noble children to study in Europe, and invited foreigners to Russia. Godunov's government sought to stabilize the situation in Russia. His policy was quite balanced and reasonable. A number of measures were taken to improve the health of the households of the serving nobility, a limit was placed on the growth of church holdings, the activities of the orders were streamlined, and great successes were achieved in foreign policy.
However, truly terrible events soon broke out. In 1601 there were long rains, and then early frosts struck and, according to a contemporary, “the strong scum killed all the labor of human affairs in the fields.” The following year, the crop failure repeated. A famine began in the country and lasted three years. The price of bread increased 100 times. Boris forbade the sale of bread above a certain limit, even resorting to persecution of those who inflated prices, but did not achieve success. In an effort to help the hungry, he spared no expense, widely distributing money to the poor. But bread became more expensive, and money lost value. Boris ordered the royal barns to be opened for the hungry. However, even their supplies were not enough for all the hungry, especially since, having learned about the distribution, people from all over the country flocked to Moscow, abandoning the meager supplies they still had at home. About 127 thousand people who died of hunger were buried in Moscow, but not everyone had time to bury them. Cases of cannibalism appeared. People began to think that this was God's punishment. The conviction arose that Boris's reign was not blessed by God, because it was lawless, achieved through untruth. Therefore, it cannot end well.
In 1601-1602 Godunov even went so far as to temporarily restore St. George’s Day. True, he did not allow an exit, but only the export of peasants. The nobles thus saved their estates from final desolation and ruin. The permission given by Godunov concerned only small service people; it did not extend to the lands of members of the Boyar Duma and the clergy. But this step did not increase the king’s popularity, and popular riots began.
One of the significant popular unrest at the beginning of the Time of Troubles is considered to be the performance of Cotton Kosolap, whose detachment operated near Moscow itself in 1603. Government troops suppressed this rebellion with great difficulty, losing their leader, Voivode Basmanov, in a fierce battle.
At this time, rumors persistently spread throughout Moscow that Tsarevich Dmitry had miraculously escaped massacre and was about to appear in his state to make life easier for the common people. And indeed, in 1602, monk Grigory Otrepyev, who fled to the Polish-Lithuanian state, declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry. The Polish king Sigismund III initially did not want to openly interfere in Russian affairs and helped the impostor secretly. False Dmitry I secretly converted to Catholicism and promised to marry the daughter of the Sandomierz governor Marina Mnishek. He generously made promises: to the Pope - to introduce Catholicism in Russia, to the Polish king - Smolensk and the Seversk land, to his father-in-law - Novgorod, Pskov and a million in gold. In the end, Sigismund III allowed him to recruit a detachment in his lands.
Godunov assessed the threat hanging over him: compared to the “born” sovereign, he was nothing. It is no coincidence that his detractors called him a “slave king.” At the beginning of 1604, a letter from a foreigner from Narva was intercepted, in which it was announced that the Cossacks had Dmitry, who had miraculously escaped, and that great misfortunes would soon befall the Moscow land.
On October 16, 1604, False Dmitry I with a handful of Poles and Cossacks moved towards Moscow. Even the curses of the Moscow Patriarch did not cool the people's enthusiasm. Peasants, townspeople, Cossacks and even nobles joined him. The people willingly believed in the “good and fair” king. On January 21, near the village of Dobrinichi, a battle took place between the forces of the impostor and the royal army led by Prince F.I. Mstislavsky. False Dmitry I was completely defeated and miraculously escaped by fleeing to Putivl.
During this critical period for the impostor, on April 13, 1605, Boris Godunov unexpectedly died. Already in 1599, references to his illnesses appeared; the king was often unwell in the 1600s. April 13, 1605 Boris Godunov seemed cheerful and healthy, he ate a lot and with appetite. Then he climbed the tower, from which he often overlooked Moscow. He soon left there, saying that he felt faint. They called a doctor, but the king became worse: blood began to flow from his ears and nose. The king fainted and soon died. There were rumors that Godunov poisoned himself in a fit of despair; the version of natural death is more likely, since Godunov was often ill before. He was buried in the Kremlin Archangel Cathedral.
Boris's son, Fyodor, an educated and extremely intelligent young man, became king. Soon there was a rebellion in Moscow, provoked by False Dmitry. Tsar Fedor and his mother were killed, leaving only Boris's daughter, Ksenia, alive. A bleak fate awaited her as the impostor's concubine. It was officially announced that Tsar Fedor and his mother were poisoned. Their bodies were put on display. Then Boris’s coffin was taken out of the Archangel Cathedral and reburied in the Varsonofevsky Monastery near Lubyanka. His family was also buried there: without a funeral service, like suicides.
The path of False Dmitry I to the Russian throne was open.
Moscow opened the gates to the impostor and swore allegiance to the “true Tsar” Dmitry. However, the new king was in no hurry to fulfill his promises. He did not even think of freeing the peasants from serfdom; moreover, he allowed the nobles to secure the peasants who came to them in the years of famine. The boyars also did not want to submit to an impostor without clan and tribe. In addition, the new tsar promised them to obey the Boyar Duma in everything, but in fact removed the boyars from conducting state affairs. Even the Poles who made up the court of False Dmitry I expressed dissatisfaction, since he was in no hurry to transfer Russian lands to the Poles. Discontent was brewing in Moscow.
The last straw was the marriage of False Dmitry I to Marina Mniszech, which was attended by about 2 thousand Polish guests. The wedding took place with many violations of Orthodox customs, the bride did not convert to Orthodoxy, and the guests beat and robbed the residents.
The boyar elite organized a new uprising. On the night of May 17, 1607, the conspirators broke into the Kremlin, captured and killed False Dmitry I.
Three days later, a hastily assembled Zemsky Sobor from the residents of Moscow proclaimed the organizer of the conspiracy against False Dmitry I, Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), a noble boyar from the Rurik family, as the new king.
But this did not bring stabilization to the situation. The country was agitated by rumors about the rescue of “Tsar Dmitry.” The center of the anti-government movement was the city of Putivl in the south of the country. The rebel Cossacks, peasants and townspeople were led by the former military slave of Prince Telyatevsky, Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov. Gathering large forces, he moved towards Moscow.
In the fall of 1606, having defeated several royal detachments, Bolotnikov approached Moscow and settled in the village of Kolomenskoye. Crowds of people flocked to the camp of the rebels - archers, Cossacks, peasants and slaves, as well as nobles and boyars dissatisfied with the rule of Vasily Shuisky. The siege of Moscow lasted 5 weeks and ended in defeat on December 2, 1606. The rebels retreated to Kaluga and Tula.
Vasily Shuisky managed to gather a large army and in the battle of Kashiroy in May 1607, Bolotnikov suffered a new defeat and took refuge with the remnants of his army behind the fortress walls of Tula. The siege lasted about 4 months. By order of Shuisky on the river. Upa a dam was built and the city was flooded. Famine began in Tula, and on October 10, 1607, the rebels surrendered. A brutal reprisal was inflicted on the participants of the uprising. Bolotnikov was exiled to a monastery, where he was soon blinded and drowned. Uprising under the leadership of I. Bolotnikov 1606-1607. It is considered to be the first peasant war in Russia.
But Vasily Shuisky did not celebrate the victory for long. A new impostor has appeared in Rus', a protege of the Poles - False Dmitry II. According to one version, he was found in Mogilev at the request of Ivan Bolotnikov. In appearance, he resembled False Dmitry I. In May 1608, the tsarist troops were defeated near Bolkhov and a detachment of False Dmitry II, consisting of Polish mercenaries, moved to Moscow. Along the way, he was joined by the remnants of the Bolotnikovites and the Cossack detachments of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky. In June 1608, they approached Moscow, but, having suffered defeat, set up camp near the village of Tushino, for which False Dmitry II received the nickname “Tushinsky thief.”
In fact, dual power was established in the country. Tushino had its own Boyar Duma, its own orders, its own patriarch (Filaret Romanov, captured by the Poles). Boyars and nobles flocked here, dissatisfied with the rule of Vasily Shuisky. Tushino detachments controlled a significant territory of the Russian state. Initially, the Russian population supported the Tushino Tsar, but soon the popular mood changed. The Tushino Poles behaved like conquerors, ruining and robbing the population, which caused legitimate indignation of the masses. People's militias began to gather everywhere. Monasteries became centers of resistance. The Trinity-Sergius Monastery withstood a 16-month siege, but never surrendered to the enemy.
In order not to lose control of the situation, Vasily Shuisky decided to ask for help from Poland's enemy - Sweden. In the spring of 1609, Russian-Swedish troops under the command of the Tsar’s nephew Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky set out from Novgorod. The Tushins began to suffer defeats, and on March 12, 1610, Skopin-Shuisky entered Moscow. The impostor managed to escape to Kaluga. In April 1610, Skopin-Shuisky died unexpectedly. There were rumors that he was poisoned on the orders of Dmitry Shuisky, the Tsar's brother, who was afraid of his nephew's popularity.
Meanwhile, the situation in the country has become tense. The Russian-Swedish alliance gave Poland the desired pretext for an open invasion of Russia (Poland and Sweden were at war). In September 1609, Poland declared war on Russia. The Polish king began the siege of Smolensk. Vasily Shuisky's attempt to send an army to help Smolensk ended in failure; it was defeated by the Polish hetman S. Zholkiewsky. From near Smolensk Zholkiewski moved towards Moscow. In a battle near the village of Klushino, he defeated the tsar’s army under the command of Dmitry Shuisky and went from Mozhaisk to Moscow.
Meanwhile, False Dmitry II again approached Moscow. The fate of Vasily Shuisky was decided. On July 17, 1610, the king was overthrown and forcibly tonsured as a monk. Power passed into the hands of the “Seven Boyars” - a government of 7 boyars headed by F.I. Mstislavsky. The boyars decided to call the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne, provided that he converted to Orthodoxy. On the night of September 21, 1610, the boyars opened the gates of Moscow and let the army of Hetman Zholkiewski into the city, thereby betraying the national interests of Russia.
The Swedes also took advantage of Russia's plight. After the Klushino defeat, part of the Swedish troops went north and later, in 1611, captured Novgorod and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland.
False Dmitry II failed to correctly assess the situation and stand at the head of the popular movement against the invaders. Repeatedly betrayed by his supporters, he now trusted no one. There was general mistrust and suspicion in his environment. Brutal executions began. In December 1610, the impostor was killed during a hunt by his own guard.
The Polish-Swedish intervention brought Russia to the brink of collapse and loss of national independence. Foreign intervention caused a widespread upsurge of the patriotic movement. The Ryazan people were the first to oppose the Poles. They created the First People's Militia, led by Prokopiy Lyapunov. Soon they were joined by the Cossacks of I. Zarutsky and the detachment of Prince D.T. Trubetskoy. In March 1611, an advanced militia detachment occupied the outskirts of Moscow. At the same time, an uprising began in Moscow. Weakly armed militias and rebels were forced to retreat, and soon disagreements in the leadership of the militia led to its collapse. Prokopiy Lyapunov was killed.
In the summer of 1611, the situation in Russia was extremely difficult. The Polish king captured Smolensk, the Swedes negotiated with the Novgorod boyars on recognition of the Swedish prince Karl Philip as the Russian Tsar. The troops of the Crimean Khan invaded Russian soil from the south. The Russian state, having neither a central government nor an army, was on the verge of a national catastrophe.
Nizhny Novgorod became the new center of the liberation movement. In the fall of 1611, the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk appealed to the townspeople to gather a new militia to liberate Moscow. The call was warmly supported by the townspeople, who decided to donate a third of their property to create the militia. Prince D.M. was invited to lead the Second Militia. Pozharsky. In March 1612, the militia moved towards Moscow and in August approached the capital. On August 22-24, fierce battles took place under the walls of the capital, the Poles were defeated. Moscow was finally liberated on October 26, when the interventionists holed up behind the walls of the Moscow Kremlin surrendered.
After the liberation of Moscow, the second most important task was the restoration of central authority in Moscow. In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor was assembled, which was attended by about 700 people from various classes. 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the son of Metropolitan Philaret, who was in Polish captivity at that time, was elected tsar. The new tsar became a symbol of independence and the Orthodox faith. Russia emerged from the Time of Troubles.
The final end of the Time of Troubles is considered to be the cessation of hostilities with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. In 1617, the Treaty of Stolbovo was concluded with Sweden, according to which Novgorod was returned to Russia, but it lost lands along the Gulf of Finland and lost access to the Baltic. In 1618, a truce was established with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russia lost Smolensk and the Seversky cities, Russian prisoners returned to their homeland, including Mikhail Romanov’s father, Filaret.
The consequences of the Troubles were catastrophic. Many lands of the south and west were devastated and abandoned. Russia suffered significant territorial losses (the return of these lands will take 100 years). Among the internal political results: the accession of a new dynasty, a fragile social peace, and many unresolved problems. After the Troubles, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, “the political tradition, the old custom on which order was maintained in the Moscow state of the 16th century, was interrupted.” The Time of Troubles largely determined the further development of the Russian state.
Culture of the 16th century
The process of the formation of a single centralized state was also reflected in the development of Russian culture. Many features of the development of local cultural traditions were lost. Entire schools of icon painting disappeared, as happened, for example, with Tver icon painting. Art of the 16th century closely related to the interests of the state. During the reign of Ivan IV, the state began to directly control art. Such measures, of course, harmed art, encouraging handicrafts and mindless repetition of “samples.”
Second half of the 16th century. turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. Due to crises in domestic and foreign policy, as well as disasters at the end of the 16th century. many cultural processes go deep and reassert themselves only in the next century.
Science and literacy. During this period, literacy developed in Rus'. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many industries. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written monuments (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicraft products indicate that literate people were never translated into Rus'. Wealthy people kept written records of their farms; from the 16th century Various types of accounting books have been preserved. Guides appeared on grammar, arithmetic, and herbal treatment (alphabet books, herbalists, etc.).
Russian travelers expanded their range of geographical knowledge. They left descriptions of their travels. Such are the merchants V. Poznyakov and T. Korobeinikov. Russian people, penetrating north into Siberia, compiled descriptions, “blueprints” of new lands; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign countries.
An overview of world history was given by Chronographs of the 15th-16th centuries, which glorified the activities of princes, church hierarchs, canonized saints, as well as Lives (Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh, Stephen of Perm, etc.).
Translated literary works were in circulation; From them, as well as various collections, educated Russian people drew thoughts and sayings of Democritus, Aristotle and other philosophers and writers.
Social thought. In the writings of religious freethinkers-heretics of the 16th century. bold judgments are preached about the need for a “cheap” church, about the meaninglessness of church sacraments and icons. Theses about the trinity of God are disputed. The equality of people, nations, and faiths is proclaimed. These reformative, fundamentally humanistic ideas were strangled in the early and mid-16th centuries.
A remarkable feature of the 16th century. - the flourishing of journalism. The most important issues of society become the subject of wide discussion not only by church, but also by secular authors who develop ideas:
centralization;
strengthening the grand ducal and royal power;
the role of the church;
about the situation of the peasantry, etc.
The emergence of book printing in Russia was of great importance. The printing of books began only in the middle of the 16th century, under Ivan the Terrible. In the early 50s. XVI century The first printing house begins its activities in Moscow.
Painting. In the 16th century The subject matter of ancient Russian painting began to expand significantly. Much more often than before, artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the edifying narratives of parables and, most importantly, to the legendary historical genre.
Never before has a historical theme occupied so much space in the works of icon painters. In this regard, genres and interest in everyday life are increasingly penetrating artistic creativity, and Russian realities are increasingly appearing in compositions.
At the same time, in the painting of the 16th century. there is a noticeable attraction to abstract “philosophizing.” The church and the state strictly controlled icon painting, so at that time icon painting originals (collections of samples) became widespread, in which the iconography of the main plot compositions, as well as individual characters, was established.
Moscow painting of the late 15th century. marked by considerable achievements. This is due to the work of outstanding masters - Dionysius and his school. He himself and his assistants decorated with frescoes the cathedrals of the Joseph-Volokolamsk, Pafnutievo-Borovsky, Ferapontov monasteries and others. Through their efforts, the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin was created.
The creations of Dionysius clearly reflected the main milestones of his time:
winning independence from the Horde;
unification of Russian lands;
creation of a single state led by Moscow.
That little of everything that painting of the late 15th-16th centuries gave to Russian art can be defined as:
mastery in drawing;
brightness of colors;
joyful feeling of being;
rise of national spirit.
But at the same time, there is a certain departure from the mighty examples of Andrei Rublev and Theophanes the Greek, a decrease in the heroic breath of art from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. At the same time, the progressive development of painting prepared his future successes.
Architecture. The most outstanding achievement of Russian architecture at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. was the construction of the Moscow Kremlin buildings. Old, dilapidated buildings were replaced with new ones: Uspensky; Arkhangelsk; Annunciation Cathedrals; Temple-pillar of Ivan the Great.
For ceremonial receptions, the Faceted Chamber was built. A whole complex of buildings made up the palace of the Grand Duke. Finally, new fortress walls and strelnitsy (towers) appeared.
In the 16th century built on an even greater scale. Many churches and cathedrals were built throughout the country. Some of them have occupied an outstanding place in domestic and world architecture. Such, for example, is the famous Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (now within the city). It was built (1532) on the occasion of the birth of Grand Duke Vasily III's son Ivan, the future Tsar the Terrible. The model for the building was the ancient wooden tent-style churches. Throughout the century, wooden construction continues to predominate. In addition to the ubiquitous huts, mansions of rich people are being built.
Masters of filigree, embossing, foundry, jewelry, and silk embroidery achieve high perfection.
Life. In the 16th century Life basically retained its previous features. But there was also something new. Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with various outbuildings, residential and economic, for themselves, servants, livestock and poultry. The houses were mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with dishes, silver and copper, tin and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). There were sometimes clocks on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, jewelry, dishes, and clothing; oriental shoes, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in the royal palaces and courtyards.
The nobles even then began to cut their hair short, shave or pluck their mustaches and beards in the Western style.
The food was plentiful and varied. Spices were used for seasoning: pepper and saffron, cinnamon and cloves. We were familiar with lemons, raisins, almonds, rice and sugar.
Noble people had fun at feasts with buffoons, playing folk instruments, and dancing. No matter how the church pursued the “demonic games,” it was difficult to get them out. They were interested in bear baiting, dog hunting and falconry. At home they played dice and cards, checkers and chess.
Ordinary nobles lived more modestly. The bulk of the population - peasants - lived in wooden huts, covered with straw or shingles; there were cages for property, sheds for livestock, and sheds. The huts were heated in black and illuminated with torches. In winter, small livestock and poultry were placed in them. The furnishings in the hut were very meager: wooden, roughly made tables and benches, clothes were stored in chests and boxes (for the poor, they hung them on poles leaning against the wall).
In summer they wore clothes made of homemade canvas, in winter - from homespun cloth and lamb fur, on their feet - bast bast shoes, for those who were richer - boots.
Utensils - wooden and clay: dishes and plates, ladles, ladles, bowls, cups, cups, wooden spoons and clay pots, occasionally - cauldrons and frying pans made of iron and copper.
Bread and pies, jelly, beer and kvass were made from grain and flour; They ate cabbage, fresh and pickled, carrots and cucumbers, beets and horseradish, radishes and turnips. Meat was on the table mainly on holidays. We ate a lot of fish, river and lake.
Similar to the peasants, but more prosperous, the townspeople lived in cities. The yard often consisted of an upper room standing on a hut, a hallway on a basement, a cage on a basement, a bathhouse; it is surrounded by a tyn with a gate that had a canopy. There were mica and “glass” windows. In the house, among other things, there were icons, sometimes richly decorated, a lot of dishes, including silver, and clothes, sometimes fur.
The guests, large trading people, lived richly - stone chambers, a large amount of dishes, gold and silver, and other property.
Folk festivals with songs, dances, and buffoon performances gave working people the opportunity to take a break from work. There were also circus performances with a bear, goat and other animals. Buffoons walked all over Russia, as well as throughout Europe, right up to Italy. The authorities and especially the clergy persecuted buffoons.
In general, Russian culture of the 16th century. is of great importance. Firstly, it fully reflected the final transition from fragmented Rus' to a centralized state with its new requirements for art. Further, she was able to withstand the ideological pressure of the second half of the century and prepare the consciousness of the Russian people for the significant changes and shifts that occurred in the cultural development of the 17th century.
Control questions
Under which rulers of the Moscow principality was a single centralized state formed?
What lands became part of Russia under Ivan III?
Describe the reign of Vasily III.
What two periods is the reign of Ivan the Terrible divided into?
What reforms did the Elected Rada carry out?
What is oprichnina? State its goals and consequences.
Describe the results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible.
What reasons led Russia to the Time of Troubles?
What popular unrest took place during the Time of Troubles? How did they end?
List the consequences of the Troubles.
Russian state and society in the second half of the 19th century. 1. Industrial revolution. 2. Abolition of serfdom 3. Transformations of Alexander II in the spheres of public administration and social structure: zemstvo, judicial, urban, military and educational reforms. 4. Russian foreign policy in the 60s -90s. XIX century 5. Social movements.
began later than in economically developed European countries; began under the dominance of a serf-dominated economy, which had the most negative impact on its pace and geography; constrained by the relative slowness of the formation of large entrepreneurial capital; did not cause the rapid growth of new classes of the industrial bourgeoisie and industrial proletariat. THESE FEATURES ARE EXPLAINED BY THE PRESERVATION OF THE FEDERAL SYSTEM OF ECONOMY Railway St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo
The reign of Alexander II (1855 -1881) The main directions of domestic policy “GREAT REFORM” of the 60s -70s. XIX century Abolition of serfdom 1861 Military reform 1861 Judicial reform 1864 Zemstvo reform 1864 Urban reform 1864 Public education reform 1863 -1964
Prerequisites for the abolition of serfdom Economic low labor productivity; the progressive dispossession of peasants; increase in corvée work; landowners' debt to the state; the budget deficit increased; The serf system preserved poverty. Social increased the number of attempts by disgruntled peasants on the lives of landowners; there was an increase in peasant unrest; the growth of peasant discontent, which instilled fear of the threat of a new “Pugachevism”. Politically, without the abolition of serfdom, it turned out to be impossible to strengthen and improve the state system of government; without reforms it is impossible to overcome the country's backwardness; socio-political life intensified (- conservative - liberal - radical movements) Spiritual national consciousness was infringed, society and part of the ruling circles awakened to the search for ways to overcome backwardness; the need to return Russia to the status of a great power, lost as a result of defeat in the Crimean War;
BASIC PROVISIONS OF THE REFORM OF FEBRUARY 19, 1861 The basic principles and conditions for the abolition of serfdom were formulated in the Manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of free rural inhabitants...” and the Regulations. The Manifesto and the “Regulations” dealt with three main issues: Redemption transaction Personal liberation Allotment of land The peasant could own movable and immovable property, enter into transactions, act as a legal entity; the peasant was freed from the personal guardianship of the landowner, could, without his permission, marry, enter the service and educational institutions, change his place of residence, and join the class of burghers and merchants; The government began to create local self-government bodies for liberated peasants. the peasants were freed with land, that is, with a field allotment, the size of a cat. depending on the region of Russia it was different; the peasants did not receive land for free, but had to buy it from the landowner; peasants for 9 years could not give up their land allotment and leave the rural community; peasants, using a cat. there was more land than provided for by the norms of the reform, the surplus had to be returned to the landowner by “cuts”; upon receiving the land, the peasants were obliged to pay its cost; the peasants' payments to the landowner lasted for 20 years. She gave birth to a specific temporary condition of peasants who had to pay quitrents and perform some duties until they completely bought out their allotment, i.e. 20% of the value of the land;
The historical significance of the abolition of serfdom was the beginning of the accelerated modernization of the country - the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society, which undermined the basic foundations of both serfdom and subsistence ways of life; The "Great Reform" gave freedom to millions of people. The possibility and fruitfulness of peaceful transformations in Russia, carried out on the initiative of the authorities; a powerful impetus to the economic and social progress of the country, opened up the opportunity for the broad development of market relations, led to the establishment of capitalist relations; the liberation of the peasants changed the moral climate in the country and influenced the development of social thought and culture as a whole; the severity of redemption payments interfered with the process of peasant farming entering into market relations and led many peasants to impoverishment; A labor system developed that resembled corvée with all its negative consequences and slowed down the development of both peasant and landowner economies. Manifesto on the abolition of serfdom
the reform of 1861 was called the “great”; Alexander II - the honorary title of “Tsar Liberator”; the change in the legal status of such a large group of the population as the peasantry could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia; the liberation of the peasants was to be complemented by a number of other reforms.
non-estate elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced; zemstvos were elected by all classes for a three-year term and consisted of administrative bodies (district and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (district and provincial zemstvo councils); elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - meetings of councilors (deputies) were held on the basis of property qualifications, according to curiae. The first land-owning curia. The second curia is urban. The third curia is the curia of rural peasant societies. zemstvos were deprived of any political functions, their activities were limited to resolving local issues. They were responsible for public education, for public health, for timely food supplies, for the quality of roads, for insurance, for veterinary care and much more; Zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes, impose duties on the population, and form zemstvo capital.
Zemstvo self-government Chairman of the Provincial Zemstvo Assembly Provincial Zemstvo Government Chairman District Zemstvo Assembly District Zemstvo Government Elections of councilors (deputies from zemstvos) 1 time in 3 years by electoral curia Landowning Large and medium-sized land owners Urban City owners Peasant Rural Peasant societies
Judicial reform of 1864 The classless nature of judicial activity was introduced, i.e., the formal equality of all classes before the law The irremovability of judges and their independence from administrative authorities was proclaimed. Openness and competitiveness of legal proceedings were introduced. The Bar was established (jurors or private attorneys). The institution of jurors was created to consider complex cases. criminal cases The election of some judicial bodies (magistrates) was introduced. The judicial system was simplified and the number of courts was reduced. The preliminary investigation system was changed. now it was carried out not by the police, but by judicial investigators who were part of the district courts
Judicial system of Russia According to the reform of 1864, the Emperor Congress of Justices of the Peace World Court Elected by the District Zemsky Assembly Senate Supervisory and control functions Special courts Trial Chamber District Court Volost for peasants for the clergy for the military for high dignitaries Appointed by the Emperor
Military reform (1862 -1874) military settlements were destroyed, humiliating corporal punishment was abolished; the country was divided into military districts; the officer corps has been qualitatively improved and updated; a system of military education was created (military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year training period were created. People of all classes were admitted to them); technical re-equipment of the army was carried out; in January 1874, all-class military service was proclaimed. All men at the age of 20, without distinction of class, were subject to conscription into the army and navy.
CITY REFORM OF 1870 In 509 of 1130 cities, elected self-government was introduced - city councils elected for four years; the city duma (administrative body) elected its permanent executive body - the city government, which consisted of the city mayor (also elected for four years) and several members; the mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city council; city councils were under the control of government officials; only residents with property qualifications had the right to elect and be elected to the city duma; The competence of city government was limited to resolving purely economic issues. EDUCATIONAL REFORM 1863 Teaching at universities received more freedom, they became available to students, both men and women; in 1863, a charter was issued, according to which the professorial corporation received self-government. Students did not receive the right to influence in any way the order at the university, which was the reason for frequent “student riots”; June 14, 1864 Regulations on primary public schools: the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people; On November 19, 1864, a new charter for gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all classes. But due to the high fees, this was only available to children of wealthy parents; in 1869, higher women's university-type courses were opened in St. Petersburg (higher Bestuzhev courses).
Russian foreign policy in the 60s -90s. XIX century Russia faced difficult tasks in the field of international relations: 1. The need to free itself from the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty. 2. Eliminate the “neutralization” of the Black Sea. 3. Strengthen the security of your southern borders. 4. Gain the opportunity to provide more active assistance to the Balkan Slavic peoples in their struggle against the Ottoman enslavers. In Russian foreign policy of this period, the following major problems can be identified: 1. Annexation of Central Asia. 2. Participation in resolving the eastern question. 3. Real assistance to the national liberation movement of the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. 4. Expanding relations with the United States and Latin American countries.
Annexation of Central Asia Two reasons prompted the autocracy to annex this region: 1. Economic reason. The middle one, with its vast territory and undeveloped industry, was a first-class market and source of raw materials for the young Russian industry. Textile products, metal products, etc. were sold there. Mainly cotton was exported from Central Asia. 2. Political reason. It was associated with the struggle against England, which tried to turn Central Asia into its colony. Progress of annexation: In 1864, troops under the command of Major General M.G. Chernyaev launched an attack on Tashkent, but the first campaign ended in failure. Only in 1865 did Russian troops capture Tashkent. In 1867, the Turkestan General Governorate was formed, which became the center of a further attack on Central Asia. In 1868, the Kokand Khanate became dependent on Russia. In 1868, troops under the command of K. P. Kaufman captured Samarkand and Bukhara. The two largest states - Kokand and Bukhara, while maintaining internal autonomy, found themselves subordinate to Russia. On June 10, 1873, after the capture of the capital of the Khiva Khanate, an agreement was concluded with the khan, according to which he became a vassal of the king and renounced independent foreign relations with other states. Khiva fell under the protectorate of Tsarist Russia. The annexation of Central Asia to Russia had objectively progressive significance. It consisted of the following: 1. Slavery was abolished. 2. The endless feudal strife and ruin of the population ended. 3. Central Asia was drawn into the sphere of capitalist relations, which laid the foundations for the development of an advanced economy and culture. 4. The annexation connected advanced Russian culture with the original culture of the peoples of Central Asia.
In the 1870s. Russia is creating a navy in the Black Sea, restoring destroyed fortresses and beginning to resolve the eastern question. During these years, the liberation movement in the Balkans intensified, which the Turks tried to suppress using the most brutal measures. Russia provided support to the Balkan peoples; In April 1877, when the impossibility of settling the matter peacefully became obvious, Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. This war, which cost Russia many victims, ended in its grandiose victory. Having captured the Turkish fortress of Plevna, Russian troops crossed the Balkans and won victories in Southern Bulgaria; In February 1878, an agreement was signed in the town of San Stefano, according to which Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received complete independence. Bulgaria became an autonomous principality, its dependence on Turkey was limited to the payment of tribute. The strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and the Middle East region frightened the Western European powers. They protested against the Treaty of San Stefano and threatened Russia with war. Under these conditions, the Russian government agreed to convene a pan-European congress, which took place in Berlin in the summer of 1878. Finding itself isolated, the Russian delegation was powerless to defend the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano; On July 1, 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed. The Bulgarian lands south of the Balkan Range formed the Turkish province of Eastern Rumelia. Austria-Hungary received the right to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. In Transcaucasia, only Kars, Ardahan and Batum with their districts remained with Russia; The Russian-Turkish War ended the national liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples. The victory of the Russian army was due to the popularity of this war in Russia. The Russian people and the Russian army were the decisive force that ensured victory over Turkey.
FAR EASTERN DIRECTION IN RUSSIA'S FOREIGN POLICY In the second half of the 19th century. the Far Eastern direction in Russian foreign policy gradually changed its peripheral character; The Anglo-French sabotage in Kamchatka during the Crimean War, the weakening of China and its transformation into a country dependent on Anglo-German-French capital, the rapid growth of Japanese naval and ground forces showed the need to strengthen Russian economic and military-strategic positions in the Far East. According to the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689, the lands along the left bank of the Amur were recognized as Russia, and from the Ussuri River to the sea were undelimited. In 1858, in the city of Aigun, the commander-in-chief of the Chinese troops, I. Shan, and the governor general of Eastern Siberia, N. N. Muravyov, signed an agreement in which the actual border was recognized. According to the Treaty of Beijing (1860), the right bank of the Ussuri River and further south to the sea was recognized as the possession of Russia. The agreement was approved by Bogdykhan and signed by the Russian diplomatic representative Ignatiev. Precise maps were drawn up to define the border, they were sealed, and they were exchanged between both sides. RESULT: According to the Aigun (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties with China, Russia was assigned the territory along the left bank of the Amur River and the entire Ussuri region.
EUROPEAN DIRECTION IN RUSSIA'S FOREIGN POLICY. CREATION OF MILITARY-POLITICAL BLOCKS. A new balance of political and military forces was emerging in the world. By the beginning of the 80s. In Europe, there was a sharp strengthening of Germany. The positions of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans strengthened; Avoiding European conflicts, England intensified colonial conquests; England actually turned out to be the owner of the Black Sea straits. The English Navy was in the Sea of Marmara. As a result of the Berlin Congress, England received the right to seize Cyprus and had a strong influence on Turkish politics. In May 1879, the British government imposed the Treaty of Gandom on Afghanistan, which placed the country under an English protectorate; At the end of 1879, contacts began between Russia and Germany on the issue of normalizing relations. On June 6, 1881, an Austro-Russian-German treaty called the “Union of Three Emperors” was signed. The agreement established the mutual obligations of the parties to maintain neutrality in the event of war between one of them and a fourth country. The treaty established cooperation between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans, and also provided for measures to prevent the entry of Turkish troops into Eastern Rumelia and facilitated its reunification with Bulgaria; In 1887, the “Union of Three Emperors” expired. The aggravation of Russian-Austrian contradictions in the Balkans ruled out its extension for a new term. This coincided with a new aggravation of Franco-German contradictions. There is a real threat of war. In June 1887, a secret Russian-German treaty was signed in Berlin, which went down in history under the name “Union of Two Emperors” or “reinsurance agreement”; In 1882, the conclusion of the Triple Alliance between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy. Early 90s There were signs of a rapprochement between the participants of the Triple Alliance and England. Under these conditions, a rapprochement between Russia and France began. On August 27, 1891, a Russian-French alliance was concluded in secrecy. A year later, a military convention was signed between Russia and France. The final formalization of the Russian-French alliance did not take place immediately. Only in January 1894 was the treaty ratified by Alexander III and acquired a binding character - the Franco-Russian Union. (beginning of the Entente alliance)
Revolutionary movements and circles 1. “Land and Freedom” (1861 -1864) N. N. Obruchev, A. A. Sleptsov, N. I. Utin 2. Terrorist group “Hell” 1863 -1866) N. A. Ishutina, I. A. Khudyakova 3. “People’s reprisal” (1869 -1871)P. G. Nechaeva 4. “The Tchaikovites” M. A. Nathanson, N. V. Tchaikovsky 5. “Walking among the People” (1873 -1875) 6. “Black Redistribution” G. V. Plekhanov, L. G. Deitch
The labor movement and the beginning of the spread of Marxism Strikes 1885 Nikolskaya manufactory in Orekhovo-Zuevo (Morozov strike) 1872 Krenholm manufactory (Narva) Marxist circles in Russia Circle Year, place Leaders Activities Blagoev's circle 1883 -1885 St. Petersburg D. Blagoev Study of Marxism, its propaganda among workers, newspaper “Worker” Fedoseev’s circle 1888 Kazan N. E. Fedoseev Organization of students. unrest at Kazan University. Brusnev's circle 1889 -1892 St. Petersburg M.I. Brusnev Propaganda of Marxism, creation of workers' circles. Demonstrations
The processes of change in the political system that took shape during the reign of Ivan III were not completed simultaneously with the unification of the lands of the Russian state. The political system of a centralized state was fully formed only in the middle of the 16th century. during the reforms of Ivan IV the Terrible.
Ivan IV Vasilievich became Grand Duke at the age of 3. Under the young prince in 1533–1538. his mother Elena Glinskaya was the regent. In 1535, Elena Glinskaya carried out a monetary reform - a unified monetary system and a unified system of weights and measures were introduced in the country. The period after the death of Elena Glinskaya - from 1538 to 1547 - is called boyar rule, when power passed from one boyar group to another.
In December 1546, Ivan IV declared to Metropolitan Macarius his desire to “be crowned king,” and on January 16, 1547 he was solemnly crowned, becoming the first Tsar of Moscow.
The reign of Ivan IV the Terrible is conventionally divided into two stages:
1) the period of reforms of the late 1540s - 1550s;
2) the period of the oprichnina from 1565 until the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584 (the oprichnina was officially abolished in 1572, but in fact the policy of the oprichnina continued).
In historical literature there is a concept of “two Ivans” - a wise tsar-reformer until the early 1560s. and a cruel ruler after the introduction of the oprichnina.
Reforms of Ivan the Terrible. From the late 1540s. Ivan the Terrible, with the support of the “Chosen Rada,” carries out a number of reforms aimed at strengthening the central royal power.
1. In 1549, Ivan the Terrible convened the first Zemsky Council - the “Cathedral of Reconciliation” - to stop the struggle of boyar groups for power, at which he announced the need for reforms.
2. In 1550, a new Code of Law was adopted, which eliminated the judicial privileges of appanage princes and strengthened the role of central state judicial bodies. The Code of Law limited the power of governors, strengthened the control of the tsarist administration, and introduced a uniform amount of court fees. The peasants retained the right to move to St. George's Day, but the amount of the elderly was increased from 1 ruble to 1 ruble 25 kopecks.
3. In 1550, a decree about the “chosen thousand” was issued, according to which the tsar carried out a “sort of people”: there was a replacement of service people - nobles and boyar children - in the capital. Estates in Moscow and the surrounding area were received by service people from other cities who were not involved in the boyar intrigues of the 1530s–1540s.
4. In 1551, a church council was held, which received the name Stoglavy, based on the main document adopted. In Stoglav, the unification of church rituals was carried out, all locally revered saints were recognized as all-Russian, a strict iconographic canon was established, demands were formulated for improving the morals of the clergy, and a ban on usury among priests was introduced.
5. Military reform. In 1550, the formation of rifle regiments began and a restriction on localism was introduced for the period of hostilities. In 1556, the “Code on Service from Patrimonies and Estates” was adopted, establishing a uniform procedure for military service, which was inherited, for nobles and boyar children.
6. In the 1550s. The formation of the order system is completed. 7. Continuation of the labial reform in 1555–1556. - abolition of feedings, all power in the districts passed to elected provincial and zemstvo elders, and in cities - to favorite heads.
Thus, the reforms of the Elected Rada outlined the path to strengthening and centralization of the state and contributed to the formation of an estate-representative monarchy. A new system of public administration has emerged in Russia:
- tsar
– Boyar Duma
– Zemsky Sobor
– orders
- city clerks, provincial and zemstvo elders, favorite heads, governors.
Oprichnina. In January 1565, from Alexandrova Sloboda, Ivan IV the Terrible sent an “angry” letter to Metropolitan Afanasy about “grievances” against the boyars and clergy and a “tearful” letter to the residents of the Moscow suburb that the tsar had “no anger and disgrace” against them. Ivan the Terrible refuses to return to Moscow, renounces the throne in favor of his young son Ivan Ivanovich. Under pressure from indignant Muscovites, the Boyar Duma is forced to ask Ivan the Terrible to return to the kingdom. A deputation headed by Archbishop Pimen arrived in Alexandrovskaya Sloboda.
Returning to Moscow in early February, Ivan the Terrible announced on February 3 that he was again taking over the reigns. However, he sets the condition that he should be free to execute traitors, put them in disgrace, deprive them of their property “without hassle or sorrow” from the clergy, and divides the state into the oprichnina and the zemshchina. In the oprichnina he rules autocratically, and the zemshchina lives according to the old order.
Ivan the Terrible creates an oprichnina army, an oprichnina court with the Boyar Duma. Executions of people accused of conspiracies against the Tsar and “sedition” begin throughout the country. The main blow was directed against appanage princes and boyars, who played an independent political role in the state and were able to resist the autocracy of the tsar.
In 1569–1570, Ivan the Terrible made a campaign against Novgorod, suspecting the Novgorod nobility of complicity in the conspiracy of Vladimir Andreevich Staritsky. On January 2, 1570, the oprichnina army entered Novgorod. Mass executions took place in the city. After Novgorod, Ivan the Terrible went to Pskov, where he limited himself only to the execution of several Pskov residents and the robbery of their property.
Returning to Moscow, Ivan the Terrible continued the executions. Moreover, both zemshchina figures (treasurer Funikov, printer Ivan Viskovaty, etc.) and guardsmen from the circle of the tsar himself (father and son Basmanovs, Prince Afanasy Vyazemsky, etc.) were accused of conspiring with the Novgorod “traitors”. The Moscow executions of 1570–1571 became the apogee (highest point) of the oprichnina terror.
In 1571 and 1572 The campaigns against Moscow were made by the Crimean Khan Devlet I Giray. The oprichnina army was unable to resist the Crimean Khan. In 1571, Moscow was burned by Devlet-Girey, and in the summer of 1572, the Crimean Tatars were defeated by the Zemstvo army under the command of Prince M.I. Vorotynsky. In this situation, Ivan the Terrible decides to abolish the oprichnina, unite the oprichnina and zemstvo troops, the oprichnina and zemstvo Boyar Dumas. However, the terror in the country does not stop.
Historians have different assessments of the oprichnina and the measures taken during its years. N.M. Karamzin considered the oprichnina terror to be a consequence of Ivan IV’s mental disorder. CM. Solovyov viewed the oprichnina as a struggle and assertion of new state principles against the old tribal ones. S.F. Platonov and A.A. Zimin drew attention to the anti-boyar and anti-specific nature of the oprichnina. According to A.L. Yurganov, the methods of execution proposed by the tsar himself repeated the prevailing ideas about the Last Judgment at that time, and Ivan the Terrible, thus, likened himself to God.
Consequences of the oprichnina
Political:
– strengthening the personal power of the king;
– elimination of remnants of the appanage system;
- weakening of the country's defense capability, as a result - defeat in the Livonian War.
Economic:
– economic ruin of the country, especially its central regions;
- further enslavement of the peasants.
Foreign policy of Ivan IV the Terrible
East direction– expansion of the borders of the Russian state:
– annexation of the Kazan Khanate in 1552;
– annexation of the Astrakhan Khanate in 1556;
- campaign of a detachment of Cossacks led by Ermak in 1581–1585, the beginning of the conquest of Siberia.
South direction- fight against the Crimean Khanate:
– unsuccessful campaign against Crimea in 1559;
– construction of the Great Zasechnaya Line (completed in 1566);
– campaigns of the Crimean Khan against Moscow in 1571 and 1572.
Western direction– Russia’s attempt to establish itself in the Baltic states:
– Livonian War 1558–1583
Russia begins a war against the Livonian Order, which ceased to exist in 1561. But a coalition of European states including Poland and Lithuania, united in 1569 into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as Denmark and Sweden, entered the war, which Russia, weakened by the oprichnina, was unable to resist. In 1582, a truce was concluded in Yam-Zapolye with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, according to which Russia lost all of Livonia and Polotsk. In 1583, a truce was concluded with Sweden on the Plussa River, to which Russia ceded Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Narva.
Culture under Ivan IV the Terrible
Literature. During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, a new literary genre appeared - journalism. An outstanding publicist of the 16th century. There was Ivan Semyonovich Peresvetov, who in his petitions to Ivan the Terrible proposed a project of reforms aimed at strengthening the autocratic power of the tsar while relying on the nobility.
The works of Prince Andrei Kurbsky “The History of the Grand Duke of Moscow” and his correspondence with Ivan the Terrible, in which Kurbsky opposes the autocracy of the Tsar, were of a journalistic nature.
An outstanding literary monument of the mid-16th century. is the “Domostroy” of Archpriest Sylvester. “Domostroy” is a set of advice and rules that determined all aspects of the life of a Russian person in the 16th century.
In 1563, Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets organized a printing house in Moscow, where in 1564 the first dated Russian printed book, “The Apostle,” was published. In 1574 - the first “Primer”.
Architecture. In the 16th century a new style appears in Russian architecture - tent An outstanding monument of tent-roofed architecture of the 16th century. is the Church of the Ascension built in 1532 in honor of the birth of Ivan IV in Kolomenskoye.
In 1555–1561 In honor of the capture of Kazan by Russian masters Barma and Postnik, the Intercession Cathedral on the moat, better known as St. Basil's Cathedral, was built in Moscow.
Test topic
The Russian state in the second half of the 16th century. Ivan groznyj
Saint Petersburg
Introduction
The initial period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible
Reforms of the Elected Rada: the path to centralization of state power
Oprichnina: causes, essence, consequences
The main directions of Ivan IV's foreign policy
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
In the centuries-old history of feudal Russia, it is difficult to find a time more controversial than the 16th century, especially its second half, or, as it is still called in historical literature, the time of Ivan the Terrible. The boyar strife that shook the state was followed by a short period of unity of the entire class of feudal lords around the young monarch, which, in turn, was followed by the turbulent years of the oprichnina. Military victories at that time coexisted with defeats. The economic boom of the first half of the century was replaced by an economic crisis with the decline of crafts, the agrarianization of cities and the mass exodus of peasants from the central counties of the country to the southern and eastern outskirts. The rapid development of trade was combined with the further development of serfdom, and the flourishing of Russian culture and social thought was accompanied by brutal persecution of freethinkers - heretics.
Historians of the past have puzzled a lot over the reasons for the drama of this era and its contrasts. They were seen in the struggle between good and bad historical figures, they were sought in the character of Ivan the Terrible himself, they were taken out of the struggle of the state principle with the remnants of tribal relations. We have to admit that despite the contradictory assessments and concepts of the history of Russia in the 16th century, all of them, in the general sense that is inherent in all of them, lead us to the problem of power and its significance in Russian history. This is an indisputable historiographical fact.
. The initial period of the reign of Ivan the Terrible
In December 1533, Vasily III died unexpectedly. Under the infant heir to the throne, three-year-old Ivan, a guardianship council (Regency Council) was created by will. The creation of this government body was necessary not only for governance, but also for maintaining power in the hands of its descendants. After some time, the second wife of Vasily III, Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya, a representative of the princely family of Western Russian lands, became the de facto ruler. However, she encountered resistance along the way. The first to try to seize power was Yuri Ivanovich Dmitrovsky, the brother of Vasily III, but was arrested. The attempt of Elena’s uncle, Mikhail Glinsky, was also stopped. But these were not the last attempts to seize the throne.
After the death of Elena, the period of boyar rule began (1538 - 1547), where several boyar groups existed: Glinsky, Belsky, Shuisky, Vorontsov. They all pursued different policies, but only one fact was true: first one group or another came to power.
As a child, John had to endure terrible trials that left their mark on his character. Having lost his father at the age of three, and being left an orphan at seven and a half years old, a feeling of abandonment and loneliness was deeply etched into the child’s soul. Ugly scenes of boyar self-will and violence turned his timidity into nervous timidity. From the moment of his coronation, the boy had to sit through long ceremonies for hours, perform rituals, giving up children's fun. He retained an unkind feeling towards his guardians throughout his life.
Freed from the tutelage of the boyars, the Grand Duke indulged in wild fun and games. At the age of 12, he climbed onto the peaked towers and pushed cats and dogs out of there. He rode through the streets of the city, trampled people with horses, beat and robbed.
In other words, while the state languished under the unbearable yoke of boyar tyranny, the future sovereign received a sad lesson from those around him. Thanks to the actions of the boyars, the spirit of violence in various forms took possession of the imagination and feelings of the young man, penetrated his flesh and blood. In the atmosphere of the struggle for power, the future despot matured - vengeful, extremely nervous, hot-tempered and cruel. He was not only not prevented from indulging in cruel and bloody amusements, but was even encouraged.
However, the speeches of 1547 did not disrupt the objective course of events in recent decades. They only emphasized the need for further changes. After a series of new beginnings at the turn of the 15th - 16th centuries. and their continuation in the 30s and 40s of the 16th century, the country was prepared to carry out more large-scale reforms.
. Reforms of the Elected Rada: the path to centralization of state power
Around 1549, a new government was formed from people close to young John, later called the Chosen Rada by Prince A. Kurbsky. It included: the representative of the humble but large landowners Alexei Adashev, who headed the Elected Rada, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, priest Sylvester, Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Ivan Viskovaty.
The Rada was not an official government body, but in fact for 13 years it was the government and governed the state on behalf of the Tsar.
Reforms of the Elected Rada.The new level of political organization of the country, which had developed by the middle of the 16th century, had to correspond to new state institutions - class and representative institutions that defended the interests of large regions. The Zemsky Sobor became such a body. The Council of 1549 was the first Zemsky Council, that is, a meeting of class representatives with legislative functions. Its convocation reflected the establishment of an estate-representative monarchy in Russia. However, the first Council was not yet of an elective nature and representatives of the urban trade and craft population and peasants were not present there. However, both of these categories of the population did not play a major role at the councils in the future. From 1550 to 1653, 16 councils were convened, and after the closing of the last of them there was no living memory or regret. Adoption of a new judge.Undoubtedly, the largest undertaking of the government of Ivan the Terrible was the new legislative code drawn up in June 1550, which replaced the outdated Code of Laws of 1497. Of the 99 articles of the Code of Laws, 37 were completely new, and the rest were subject to radical revision. Social legislation, included in the code of law of 1550, concerns two important issues - land ownership and the dependent population (peasants and slaves). For the first time in the code of law there was a chapter about the tsar, which stipulated the rights of the tsar, title, and form of government. A clause on high treason was also introduced. The new Code of Laws fully met the needs of the time. It introduced penalties for bribery for the first time, and introduced rules of law that still exist today. Local government reforms.The zemstvo reform was destined to acquire special significance - the introduction of zemstvo institutions and the transition to the abolition of feeding. Lands not assigned to the princely palace were included in the circle of local government. This administration was carried out by governors and volosts. The position of the manager was called feeding, since he fed at the expense of the managed. Viceroyships were given not for government work, but for court service. The reform was supposed to lead to the final elimination of the power of governors by replacing it with local governing bodies chosen from the wealthy black-growing peasantry and townspeople. The zemstvo reform, conceived as a nationwide reform, was fully implemented only in the black-plowed territories of the Russian North. As a result of the elimination of the feeding system and the creation of local estate-representative institutions, the Russian government was able to achieve the solution of the most important tasks in strengthening the centralized apparatus of power. As a result of the reform, the bulk of the nobles were freed from fed functions, which increased the combat effectiveness and increased the personnel of the Russian army; The nobility strengthened its position - it received regular remuneration for the proper performance of military service. Army reforms.The army reform that began in 1556 was also connected with the Kazan War. As a result of several unsuccessful campaigns, it became clear that the old way of organizing the army was no longer suitable for such a state, that is, the army needed transformation. The army was already staffed not only from Russian soldiers. In the second half of the 16th century, Cossacks living on the Don joined the army. Cossacks were used for border service. Having created such a recruitment system, Ivan receives a solid basis for further changes in the structure of the army. The core of the army becomes the mounted noble militia. A permanent type of troops appears - archers. They were formed as permanent contingents of infantry (partly cavalry), armed with firearms. They were collectively provided with land, city yards (not subject to taxes), a small monetary grant, while retaining the right to small trade and craft. Modernization and good living conditions for the Streltsy in the second half of the 16th century made the standing Streltsy army the most powerful fighting force of the Russian state. Thanks to the changes carried out in the army, its weapons acquired some uniformity. Each warrior had an iron helmet, armor or chain mail, a sword, bow and arrows. Adding to the changes in the army is the appearance of artillery. The artillery park serving cannons and squeakers is increasing. The military reform also included a ban on local disputes between governors; now they were all subordinate to one commander-in-chief. Appointment to senior voivodeship posts according to the principle breeds and nobility led to catastrophic consequences on the battlefield. New laws made it possible to appoint less noble, but more courageous and experienced commanders as comrades to the commander-in-chief. As a result of the reforms, a powerful, combat-ready army was created, capable of resisting a strong and large enemy. The implementation of church reform was also aimed at educating “competent” church ministers, changing the service itself, its unification, because within the church organization itself there were differences in the composition of the “saints” and there was no strict order in the performance of church rites, there was no strict system of internal regulations. Changes in the tax system.The period of reforms of the 50s coincides with the Kazan War. As you know, war and reforms required huge amounts of money and therefore various financial reforms are being carried out. In addition, Russia inherited a tax system from the time of fragmentation of the state into principalities, which was morally outdated and did not meet the requirements of the time. Tax reform had several directions. The first reform hit the monasteries the hardest. In 1548-1549, it began, and in 1550-1551, the abolition of financial seizures for the payment of basic taxes and various travel and trade duties - the main source of income for monasteries - was carried out. A single measure for determining profitability was established - “plow” - a land unit. Not only new taxes are introduced (“food money”, “polyany”), but old ones are also increased. For example, there is an increase in the rates of one of the main land taxes (“yam money”). Based on the tax changes, we can conclude that they were aimed at increasing state revenues. There is a sharp and noticeable increase in the monetary tax pressure. These transformations were distinguished by their completeness and constructiveness. As a result of the reforms, the authorities achieved uniformity in the tax sphere. Results of reform.These were the reforms of Ivan the Terrible, developed together with the members of the Elected Rada. The main feature of the transformations during the reign of the Elected Rada was the disorderliness of their implementation and at the same time their complexity. The reforms cannot be called unsuccessful, since the main institutions and institutions, the main regulatory norms, survived both the oprichnina and Ivan IV himself, which means they achieved their goal. As a result of the reforms, Russia received a new set of laws - the Code of Laws of 1550, a new system of government locally and at the center. The military service system acquired its final form and became the foundation of the Russian monarchy. The reforms were supported by the development of trade and diplomatic relations with the West. Science and art are developing, a period of prosperity of the state is beginning, and if the reforms had not encountered opposition from the aristocracy, whose rights were infringed, they would have led to even greater results. But the hostility of the boyars leads to the oprichnina. . Oprichnina: causes, essence, consequences board formidable reform Government reforms in the 1950s strengthened central power and undermined the political power of the boyars. The tsar, who was assisted by the Boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobor, had the highest power, which limited the autocracy. In 1560, Ivan got rid of the Chosen Rada. But long and difficult wars, as well as new taxes, ruined the country; there were many dissatisfied among the nobles, priests, and townspeople. Heretics called for the destruction of icons and the church itself; they preached the equality of all people and the community of property. Ivan Vasilyevich himself saw only slaves in all his subjects. Their duty, according to the king, was unquestioning submission to his will. In 1553, Ivan IV became seriously ill and made a will in favor of the baby Dmitry. However, close boyars and many appanage princes did not want to support his heir. Ivan IV recovered, but his peace of mind was broken. The tsar looked for treason everywhere and executed the boyars. A very tense situation has created in the country. Companions advised establishing a dictatorship and crushing the opposition through terror and violence. But such a major political decision could not be made without approval in the Boyar Duma. Then, in order to wrest agreement from the Duma, Ivan undertakes a major political maneuver: he decided to voluntarily leave the throne and leave Moscow. At the beginning of December 1564, the tsar and his family, guarded and accompanied by a huge convoy, left Moscow for Alexandrovskaya Sloboda. In January of the following year, he sent 2 letters, one of which was intended for Metropolitan Athanasius, and the second for the boyars and people. He accused the boyars of treason against the tsar, and the metropolitan of complicity with the boyars and assured the people that he was not angry with them. The boyars found themselves between two fires - the king and the people. The people unanimously supported the sovereign, and the boyars were forced to ask the tsar to return to the throne. The Tsar, in turn, demanded that he be given emergency powers, to which the boyars responded with obedient consent. On February 2, 1565, Ivan Vasilyevich solemnly entered the capital, and the next day he announced to the clergy, boyars and noble officials about the establishment of the oprichnina. What is the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible? Term oprichnina comes from Old Church Slavonic besides - except, that’s why the guardsmen were also called kromeshniks. In Ancient Rus', the oprichnina was the name given to that part of the principality that, after the death of the prince, was allocated to his widow. besides of all destinies. The tsarist reform included three groups of measures: In the system of a centralized state, Ioann Vasilyevich singled out besides of the entire land, significant territories in the west, north and south of the country, which constituted his special personal possession - the sovereign's inheritance or oprichnina. The supreme administration and court in the sovereign's appanage was carried out by the oprichnina Boyar Duma. The oprichnina included the cities of Mozhaisk, Vyazma, Kozelsk, Przemysl, Suzdal, Shuya, Galich, Yuryevets, Vologda, Ustyug, Staraya Russa and a number of highly profitable volosts. All princes, boyars, nobles and officials were to be forcibly evicted from all cities, districts, volosts and streets that had become state property, if they did not voluntarily register as guardsmen. For his protection, the sovereign created a guard of bodyguards from princes, boyars, nobles and children of boyars. Initially, the oprichnina corps did not exceed 1,000 people, but soon the special army was increased to 5,000 people. The selection of the guardsmen was carried out by Ivan Vasilyevich himself. Each guardsman was obliged to serve only the Tsar. For all this, the sovereign granted all those selected estates and land in those cities and volosts from which princes, boyars, nobles and officials who did not want to join the oprichnina were evicted. The guardsmen wore black clothes. They attached a dog's head and a broom to the saddle. These were signs of their position, which consisted in tracking down, sniffing out and sweeping out treason and gnawing at the sovereign’s villains - seditious people. That part of the state that remained outside the sovereign's inheritance - the oprichnina - began to be called the zemshchina. Current state affairs here were still handled by the Zemsky Boyar Duma and orders. The highest authority in judicial matters and in the field of international relations, as before, was the king. February 1565, that is, on the second day after the establishment of the oprichnina, a new streak of cruel reprisals began against those who had hitherto faithfully served the sovereign. Some boyars and princes were executed, others were tonsured as monks and exiled to distant monasteries, etc. The property of all those disgraced was confiscated. The guardsmen destroyed the boyars' houses, stole property, and drove away peasants. So, the main goal of introducing the oprichnina is to combat the remnants of political decentralization. The oprichnina terror inflicted merciless blows not only on the boyar and princely nobility, but also on the entire population of those domains where the oprichniki broke into, where they rampaged and robbed indiscriminately. The oprichnina was a powerful military punitive organization in the hands of the tsar. Naturally, the oprichnina very soon caused discontent not only among the feudal elite, but also among the masses of the common people. The entire era of bloody executions to which Russian society was subjected during the period of the oprichnina is an inappropriately severe punishment. Ivan the Terrible's unbridled desire to strengthen his personal power and his barbaric methods of combating political opponents left a terrifying imprint of despotism on all the events of the oprichnina years. . The main directions of Ivan IV's foreign policy
The main directions of Russian foreign policy in the middle and second half of the 16th century. were as follows: in the east and southeast - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and advancement into Siberia, in the south - protection from Crimean raids, in the west - an attempt to reach the Baltic Sea. The Mongol kingdom fell into pieces. Russian feudal lords hoped to receive new lands, merchants hoped to receive a trade route along the Volga, the tsarist government counted on income from tribute from the peoples of the Volga region. In Kazan and Astrakhan, in the Crimean steppes, independent khanates still existed, sometimes assuming a threatening character. Khan Saip-Tirey was able to unite several khanates and gain a foothold in Kazan in 1539. Türkiye supplied the Khan with weapons and cannons. From 1539 to 1552 there was a struggle against the Tatars. In 1548 and 1549, Ivan IV attempted to capture Kazan, but was unsuccessful. By this time, a new Streltsy army was being formed, many weapons and cannons were brought from abroad, which helped take Kazan by storm on October 2, 1552. In the same year, Bashkiria joined. Astrakhan annexed in 1556. Khan Derbysh-Ali fled when he saw the approaching Russian troops. Another khanate, the Nogai Horde, recognized its vassal dependence on Rus'. The final development of these lands ended by 1559. Around 1581 - 1582, Ataman Ermak organized campaigns in Siberia. Khan Kuchum fled after the battle. The population of Siberia agreed to pay tribute. In the mid-80s, Siberia became part of Russia. In the second half of the 1550s. The Western direction became the main one in Russian foreign policy. After the capture of Astrakhan and Kazan, the army tried its strength in a short war with the Swedes (1554 - 1557). Influenced by his first successes, Ivan IV put forward plans to conquer Livonia and establish himself in the Baltic states. The feudal lords who were interested in the war were hoping for new lands and peasants. Merchants counted on expanding trade relations through the Baltic ports. Communication with European countries, development of diplomatic relations. The reason for the start of the war was the question of the “Yuryev tribute”, which the Livonian Order had to pay to Russia. The Order did not pay tribute for a long time and did not intend to repay the penalty. In addition, he concluded a military alliance with the King of Poland and Prince of Lithuania Sigismund II Augustus. In January 1558, the Livonian War began. The main results of 1558 -1559 were the destruction of the Livonian Order. The new master Ketler gave Livonia to Sigismund. Northern Estonia came under Swedish rule. Now the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (united with Poland), Sweden and Denmark were against Livonia coming under Russian rule. Instead of one enemy, Russia had three of them. Meanwhile, two parties were formed in the Moscow government. Adashev was a supporter of the policy of the East and Crimea, and Basmanov, who advocated the continuation of the war with Livonia. The course of the war was aggravated by the Oprichnina and in 1569 the unification of Poland and the Principality of Lithuania into a single Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. After the death of the childless Sigismund (1572), turmoil began. During the years of kinglessness, Ivan the Terrible won several victories, and in 1577 Russian troops occupied almost all of Livonia, where Magnus, married to the niece of Ivan IV, was the prince, but in 1579 he went over to the side of Sweden. In 1581, the siege of Pskov took place, the Swedes captured Narva. The heroic defense of Pskov thwarted the further plans of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1583, a truce was concluded in Yam-Zapolsky with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in Plyus with Sweden. Under their terms, Russia lost all the territories acquired in Livonia and Belarus. Part of the coast of the Gulf of Finland went to Sweden. The long Livonian War (1558 - 1583) ended with the complete defeat of the Russian side. Thus, Russia implemented its plans only in the eastern direction, annexing Kazan, Astrakhan and Siberia. The access to the Baltic Sea remained closed. Conclusion
The half-century reign of Ivan the Terrible left a deep and dark mark on the history of Russia. The reign of Ivan IV showed that the first attempt at reform in Russia ended in failure. In Russia of the 16th century it was impossible to build a state either on the basis of local, communal pre-state values, or on the basis of the unlimited power of the tsar. It was necessary to seek compromises between society and government. The life of the first holder of the title of Russian Tsar, full of dramatic events, was of interest to many historians and writers. As a person and as a statesman, Ivan IV was a complex and contradictory personality. A highly educated patron of printing and a writer himself, a sovereign who did a lot to strengthen and expand the Russian state, he with his own hands destroyed what he had created, and at the same time brutally persecuted those to whom he owed the successes of domestic policy and foreign policy victories. The personality of Ivan IV the Terrible, without a doubt, is complex and contradictory, but precisely because of its originality, it will again and again attract the attention of researchers seeking to understand the essence of historical processes. Many aspects of Grozny’s activities still remain unexplored, however, an entire era of development of the Russian state is associated with his name, an era that had a huge impact on the entire subsequent course of the history of our state and led to the infamous Time of Troubles. Bibliography