If a syllable is an integral part of a speech tact (a phonetic word), then the speech tact is an integral part of a phrase. “Just as a syllable is “supported” by a syllable-forming tonal element, so a phonetic word has its own supporting element, a constructive minimum: this is a stressed syllable.” From the above it follows that tact- This is part of a phrase consisting of several syllables united by one stress. The unity, the integrity of the beat, is thus created by the stress.
Stress is the selection of one of the syllables using various phonetic means. non-monosyllabic words as part of a speech bar or phrase against a background of unstressed syllables.
From the definition it follows that stress presupposes unstress, which means that stress does not belong to a separate syllable, and even more so to a separate vowel of a stressed syllable.” Spreading over the entire length of the word, as if superimposed on it, the stress thereby acts as supersegmental (supersegmental, supralinear) with means of organizing a beat as a phonetic unit.
The concept of speech tact (phonetic word) is built taking into account the so-called clitic, i.e. words that do not have stress and are adjacent to significant words, together with which they make up phonetic word. The clitics most often are words of auxiliary parts of speech - prepositions, postpositions, articles, conjunctions, particles, etc.
Depending on the place of adjacency to the significant word, clitics are divided into proclitics(front connection: sub-window) And enclitics(rear connection: will you come?). Sometimes there are cases of stress shifting within a phonetic word from the significant part to the auxiliary part, as a result of which the significant word takes the place of the clitic, for example, pu-field, zb-back, bz-forest.
There are three main types of stress - dynamic(power, expiratory), quantitative(quantitative) and musical(tonal).
Dynamic stress is characterized by an intensification of the voice in a stressed syllable against the background of a weakening of the voice in unstressed syllables, which can result in not only a quantitative, but also a qualitative reduction, observed, in particular, in the Russian language (see § 18).
Dynamic stress can be:
1. Fixed(permanent), i.e. assigned to the same syllable: in Czech, Hungarian, Latvian languages, the stress is assigned to the first syllable; in Polish – after the last syllable
etc.
2. Unfixed(free), i.e. unfixed to the same syllable, as, for example, in Russian: nest(on the first syllable), nest(on the second syllable), nest(on the third syllable), etc.
If possible, transition from one syllable to another within the same word, i.e. when changing it forms, distinguish movable And motionless dynamic stress. Examples from Russian: head, head, head, But Gulova(movable stress) and slyny, slyny, slyny... slyny, slyny etc. (fixed stress).
Quantitative– this is a quantitative (longitudinal) stress. It is achieved by lengthening the vowel of a stressed syllable and is possible only in those languages in which “there is no phonologically significant difference between vowels in length and shortness.” In its pure form, quantitative stress (as well as other types of stress) is not found in any language. It is predominant in the Indonesian language. Elements of quantitative stress are also inherent in the Russian language, which is why it is more correct to consider it as expiratory-quantitative.
Musical stress is a tonal, melodic stress, characterized by a change in vocal tone in pitch within the same syllable. It was found in many Indo-European languages of the distant past (in Ancient Indian, Ancient Greek). Among modern languages, musical stress is inherent in Chinese, Dungan, Thai, Vietnamese and some other languages. The number of tones varies by language: for example, Chinese has 4 tones, Vietnamese has 6.
Phrase and intonation
Phrase- the largest phonetic unit that cannot be identified with the sentence as the main communicative unit of the syntactic level of language. The following judgments of Prof. are noteworthy in this regard. S.O. Kartsevsky (quoted from the book): “... a phrase does not necessarily have to take the form of a sentence. A phrase has nothing to do with grammar at all... A phrase is a unit of actualized communication. It does not have its own grammatical structure. It has a special phonetic structure, which consists of intonation. It is the intonation that creates the phrase.”
Intonation- a complex phenomenon. It represents a unity of interconnected components: melody, intensity, duration, tempo of speech and a system of pauses. Together with stress, intonation forms prosodic language system is supersegmental agent organizing a phrase, forming a statement and identifying its meaning.
The main component of intonation is melody of speech, i.e. movement of vocal tone in pitch; other signs are accompanying. With this in mind, the phrase can be defined as follows: phrase - This is a segment of speech, united by a special intonation, phrasal stress and concluded between fairly long pauses.
The busiest part of a phrase is its end, where it usually concentrates phrasal stress, For example: Before-nbmi was highhump/ We-we had torest/before we startascend e .
When it is necessary to particularly highlight or emphasize one or another part of a statement, they use the possibilities logical stress, which represents displaced phrasal stress. Examples:
1) My brotheryesterdayreturned from a business trip.2) My brother returned yesterdayfrom a business trip. 3) My brotherI returned from a business trip yesterday.
Summarizing the information related to the phonological aspect of phonetics, we present the division of phonology for better perception and consolidation in memory in the form of the following diagram:
conclusions
Phonetics is the study of the sound structure of language. It is an independent branch of linguistics that studies the material side of units of expression. It is divided into general and private. The course “Introduction to Linguistics” examines the basic issues of general phonetics.
Within the framework of phonetics, phonetics proper (phonetics in the narrow sense of the word) and phonology are distinguished. The subject of phonetics proper is the area of prelinguistics, which studies the sound matter of language in the articulatory-acoustic aspect. The subject of phonology is the study of the structural and functional patterns of the sound structure of a language.
Phonology is divided into phonemics and prosody. Phonemics is the study of the theory and description of phonemes, revealing the unique structure and functioning of phonological units of the segmental (linear) level of language. Prosodics is a section of phonology that studies the structure and functions of stress and intonation as supersegmental (nonlinear) means of organizing phonetic units that exceed the length of phonemes (syllables, speech beats, phrases).
General phonetics covers a wide range of issues related to the conditions of sound formation, based on the capabilities of the human pronunciation apparatus; universal classifications of vowels and consonants are constructed; the patterns of sound combinations, their combinatorial-positional and proper-positional changes in the flow of speech (assimilation, accommodation, reduction, etc.) are studied. Despite the importance of studying speech sounds in articulatory and acoustic aspects, the main task of phonetics is the study of the sound structure of a language in the phonological dimension. For, in fact, “linguistic research begins from the moment when those that represent the basic elements of communication are identified from physical and physiological phenomena... In other words, only elements that carry information are essential in linguistics.”
It is no coincidence that phonology is called functional phonetics. She evaluates all information about sound material from the point of view of the functions performed by the elements of the sound structure of the language in the process of its “work”. The main ones of these functions are distinctive(distinctive) and identifying(identifying). Based on these functions, a definition of a phoneme is constructed as the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language, which serves to delimit and identify symbolic (bilateral) units of language - morphemes and words in their forms.
Modern phonology has a good methodology for studying the sound structure of a language in its analytical and dynamic aspects. Here, rules have been developed for identifying phonemes and determining the range of their variation depending on the specific positional structure of the sound level of specific languages. Finding themselves in various positional conditions in the process of language functioning, phonemes are subject to various modifications, including cases of neutralization - positional removal of the opposition of elements of the linguistic structure. Depending on the possibility or impossibility of subsuming sounds of weak positions under strong ones, solvable and insoluble neutralization are distinguished. In the first case, sounds of weak positions act as variants of the corresponding phonemes ([^] – variant of the phoneme<О>in the presence of living positional alternation in root allomorphs <вод>a: [vΛdb] // [woods]); in the second case ([ sΛbbka]) if it is impossible to check with a strong position, the sound [ Λ ] must be qualified as a representative of a hyperphoneme<о\а>.
Phonological phenomena that extend to speech segments that exceed the length of phonemes and syllables as minimal non-sign units are the subject of prosody. As a section of phonology, it covers the area of supersegmental overlays of two varieties - accentological and intonation in their interrelation, which involves the study of the patterns of functioning of sound objects at the level of speech beats and phonetic phrases.
Main literature
1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. Chapter “Phonetics and Phonology” for any edition of the textbook.
2. Kochergina V.A. Introduction to linguistics. – 2nd ed. – M.: Publishing house Moskovsk. University, 1991. – P.10-71.
3. Golovin B.N. Introduction to linguistics. Section “Phonetics” for any edition of the textbook.
additional literature
1. Kuznetsov P.S. On the issue of stress phonology // Reformatsky A.A. From the history of Russian phonology. – M.: Nauka, 1970. – P.360-367
2. Reformatsky A.A. Language, structure and phonology // Reformatsky A.A. From the history of Russian phonology. – M.: Nauka, 1970. – P.516-523.
3. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary / Ch. Ed. V.N. Yartseva. – M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1991. – Article “Phonology” (p. 555-557).
CHAPTER 5. LEXICOLOGY
Speech tact
(speech link). Part of a phrase (a group of words, less often one word), highlighted by rhythmic and intonation means. When dividing a phrase into segments, a speech tact, an expiratory group and a syntagma may coincide, but they represent phenomena of a different order: a speech tact is an intonational concept, an expiratory group is a physiological concept, syntagma is a semantic-syntactic concept.
Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .
See what “speech tact” is in other dictionaries:
Speech tact. Syntagma (speech beat) is a segment of a phonetic phrase characterized by special intonation and beat stress. Pauses between bars are optional (or short), and the bar stress is not very intense. To tie? ... Wikipedia
speech tact
phonetic syntagm (or speech tact)- A segmental unit, which is characterized by special intonation and syntagmic stress. In this case, pauses between syntagmas are not necessary. The division of a phrase into syntagms depends on the meaning: How happy her words / friends were. – How the words / words made her happy... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
I m. 1. A metrical musical unit is each of the beats, usually equal in duration, into which a musical work is divided in accordance with the number of metric stresses in it; unit of rhythmic movement (in music). 2. Graphic... ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova
I m. 1. A metrical musical unit is each of the beats, usually equal in duration, into which a musical work is divided in accordance with the number of metric stresses in it; unit of rhythmic movement (in music). 2. Graphic... ... Modern explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by Efremova
A unit of rhythmic and intonation division of speech, pronounced in one continuous pronunciation flow and distinguished by pauses. see speech beat, phonetic word... Dictionary of linguistic terms
Introduction
The section of the subject “Stage Speech” - the logic of stage speech - develops the ability to convey ideas in spoken speech. Mastery of the logic of stage speech makes it possible to convey in sound the thoughts of the author contained in the text of a role, story, lecture, helps to organize the text in a certain way in order to most accurately and meaningfully influence the partner on stage and the viewer.
The rules for logical reading of a text are not formal laws alien to our spoken language. They were formed as a result of observations of writers, linguists and theater workers on living Russian speech. The rules for logical reading of text are based on the peculiarities of Russian intonation and grammar (syntax) of the Russian language.
Logical analysis of the text of a role, a story, a lecture, or any public speech, of course, does not replace verbal action - it is the beginning, the foundation of work on the text, a means of identifying the author’s thoughts.
In order for the author’s phrase to sound to the viewer, it is necessary to pronounce it extremely accurately, that is, determine the place and duration of logical pauses, determine the main stressed word, and note secondary and tertiary stresses. In other words, to do this you need to know the rules for placing pauses and stress.
When the phrase is analyzed and organized in this way, the listener will have the opportunity to appreciate the depth of thought contained in the text, the beauty of the author’s language, and the features of his style.
M.O. Knebel, talking about Stanislavsky’s work with students in his studio, testifies that in the last years of his life Stanislavsky especially stubbornly sought to strictly adhere to the rules of the logic of stage speech - the placement of logical pauses, stress, correct rendering of punctuation marks in the sound, etc. She says: “Every year Stanislavsky more and more insistently demanded the study of the laws of speech, demanded constant training, special work on the text.”
Speech beats and logical pauses
Each individual sentence of our spoken speech is divided according to its meaning into groups consisting of one or more words. Such semantic groups within a sentence are called speech beats. A speech tact is a syntactic unity, that is, a speech tact can be composed of a subject group, a predicate group, a group of adverbial words, etc.
In each speech beat there is a word that, according to its meaning, should be highlighted in the spoken speech by raising, lowering or strengthening the sound of the voice. This intonation emphasis of a word is called logical stress. A single speech tact rarely contains a complete thought. The stress of each speech beat must be subordinated to the main stress of the whole sentence.
In spoken speech, each speech beat is separated from the other by stops of varying duration. These stops are called logical pauses. In addition to pauses and stops, speech beats are separated from one another by changes in the pitch of the voice. These changes in voice pitch during the transition from one speech beat to another give intonation variety to our speech.
There can be no pause within a speech beat, and all the words that make up a speech beat are pronounced together, almost like one word. In writing, one or another punctuation mark usually indicates a logical pause. But there can be significantly more logical pauses in a sentence than punctuation marks.
Logical pauses can be of varying duration and content; they are connecting and disconnecting. In addition to them, there are backlash pauses (pauses for gaining air - “air”, from the German Luft - air) and, finally, psychological pauses.
Designation in writing of logical pauses of different durations:
" - a backlash, which serves to add breath or highlight an important word that comes after it;
/ - pause between speech beats or sentences closely related in meaning (connective);
// - longer connecting pause between speech beats or between sentences;
/// an even longer connecting-disconnecting (or dividing) pause (between sentences, semantic and plot pieces).
K.S. Stanislavsky in his book “The Actor’s Work on Oneself” wrote: “Take a book and a pencil more often, read and mark what you read by speech beats. Stuff your ear, eye and hand with this...Marking speech bars and reading from them are necessary because they force you to analyze phrases and delve into their essence. Without delving into it, you won’t be able to say the correct phrase. The habit of speaking in beats will make your speech not only harmonious in form, understandable in delivery, but also deep in content, as it will force you to constantly think about the essence of what you are saying on stage... Work on speech and words should always begin with division into speech beats or, in other words, from the placement of pauses.”
Connective pauses, not marked with punctuation, occur in sentences:
between the group of subject and predicate (unless the subject is expressed by a pronoun);
for example: My daughter / listened with curiosity.
between two subjects or between two predicates before the connecting conjunctions “and”, “yes” before the dividing conjunction “or”, etc.;
for example: The languor / and heat / intensified.
after adverbial words at the beginning of a sentence (less often, at the middle or end of a sentence).
for example: Since my school years / I have felt the beauty of the Russian language, / its strength / and density.
A disjunctive logical pause is placed between sentences if they do not directly develop each other’s thoughts.
for example: With this word he turned over on one leg and ran out of the room. /// Ibrahim, left alone, hastily opened the letter.
Backlash (connective pause) is very short, it is better to use it as an additional pause before the word that we want to highlight for some reason; like getting air.
Psychological pause - introduced into the text by the actor in the process of working on the role; in writing it can be indicated by an ellipsis. This pause belongs entirely to the realm of verbal action.
for example: I don’t love anyone and... I won’t love anyone again.
Close to the psychological pause is the so-called pause of silence or interrupted speech, when unsaid words are replaced by ellipses.
for example: His wife... however, they were completely happy with each other.
A phrase can be divided into speech beats, or syntagmas. Speech tact(or phonetic syntagma) is a segment of speech that makes up a phrase, united by a special intonation, rhythmic (syntagmatic) stress and concluded between two pauses that are not so long compared to interphrase pauses.
Familiar │ (“one vertical line”) indicates the boundaries of speech beats.
A phrase can consist of one speech beat or several.
For example, phrase ║ Liquid snow was falling║ consists of one measure.
Phrase ║ his fluffs flew rhythmically outside the window║ also consists of one speech beat.
In the phrase ║ and the acacia branches near the sidewalk in the summer, darkening the Turbins' windows, sagged more and more in their snowy combs║ You can distinguish different numbers of cycles:
║and acacia branches│ at the curb│ │ ║ 4 measures are allocated;
║and acacia branches by the sidewalk│ in summer the darkened windows of the Turbins│ became more and more sagging in their snowy combs║ 3 measures are allocated.
The division of the speech flow into phrases and speech beats is determined by the meaning, the meaning that the speaker puts into the utterance. The presence of shades of meaning is reflected in the permissible fluctuations in the division of the speech stream.
Compare two statements, the meaning of which is determined by dividing the speech flow into beats.
We need to study │ work │ and relax
We must learn to work │ and rest
How frightened she was │ her brother’s words
How her words frightened her brother
2.3. Phonetic word
A speech beat can consist of one or more phonetic words.
Phonetic word- this is a segment of a sound chain united by one verbal stress.
Word stress- this is the selection of one of the syllables of a non-monosyllabic word.
A phonetic word may include unstressed words.
An unstressed word that comes before the stressed word to which it is adjacent is called proclitic. Proclitics are usually monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions and some particles:
on ̮ grief
co ̮ me;
proclitics sister│ And ̮ brother
said│ to ̮ sent
Not ̮ I know.
An unstressed word that comes after the stressed word to which it is adjacent is called enclitic. Enclitics are usually monosyllabic particles:
I'll tell you ̮ ka
encliticshe ̮ same
will come ̮ whether
Some monosyllabic prepositions and particles can take on stress, and then the independent word following them turns out to be an enclitic: na ̮ back, under ̮ hands, uz ̮ forest, without ̮ lead, not ̮ was.
A phonetic word can correspond to one or more lexical words.
For example, phrase IN ̮ that ̮ same night │ the wide boat │ set sail from ̮ hotels consists of 3 speech beats, each of which consists of 2 phonetic words.
Thus, a phonetic word can include two or more lexical words.
║ It was snowing hard║ his cannons flew steadily behind him ̮ window║ A ̮ branches of the stock ̮ sidewalk│ in summer the darkened windows of the Turbins│ became more and more sagging in ̮ your snow scallops║ (M. Bulgakov)
“Work on speech and words must begin by dividing into speech beats, or, in other words, by arranging logical pauses” K.S. Stanislavsky.
Semantic groups within a sentence are called speech beats. A speech beat can be composed of a subject group, a predicate group, a group of adverbial words, etc.
In each speech beat there is a word that, according to its meaning, should be highlighted in the spoken speech by raising, lowering or strengthening the sound of the voice. This intonation emphasis of a word is called logical stress. The stress of each speech beat must be subordinated to the main stress of the whole sentence.
In spoken speech, each speech beat is separated from the other by stops of varying duration. These stops are called logical pauses. In addition to stops and pauses, speech beats are separated by changes in the pitch of the voice.
There can be no pause within a speech beat, and all the words that make up a speech beat are pronounced together, almost like one word.
Logical pauses can be of varying duration and content; they are connecting and disconnecting. In addition to them, there are backlash pauses (pause for adding air) and, finally, pauses.
Let's denote pauses like this:
` - a short pause (backlash pause), which serves to catch your breath or highlight an important word that comes after it;
| - a pause between speech beats or sentences closely related in meaning (connective);
|| - a longer connecting pause between speech beats or between sentences;
||| - an even longer connecting-separation pause (between sentences, semantic and plot pieces).
Logical pauses may coincide with punctuation marks, but may not be marked in the letter.
Connective pauses not marked with punctuation:
A). between the subject group and the predicate group (except for the subject expressed by a pronoun):
Lisa | ran into the house. (B. Vasiliev “And the dawns here are quiet”)
b). between subjects or between two predicates before connecting conjunctions “and”, “yes”, before a dividing conjunction “or”, etc.:
Lisa |went to her place,| listening to mother's habitual cough | and the heavy snoring of a drunken father. (B. Vasiliev “And the dawns here are quiet”)
V). after adverbial words at the beginning of a sentence (less often - in the middle or at the end of a sentence):
Every morning | guest disappeared from home | and appeared only late in the evening,| hungry and tired. (B. Vasiliev “And the dawns here are quiet”)
G). before the circumstances:
Grandmother | lay on the pillows, | in that house. (O. Bergoltz "Day Stars")
Before each of the connecting pauses, there is a slight increase in the voice on the word that carries the stress.
Logical pauses between sentences perform the same functions as within a sentence - they separate and at the same time connect groups of sentences with each other:
Pushed out of school by mother's illness; | waited first to return to class, | then - dates with girlfriends, | then - rare free evenings on the patch near the club, |then. (B. Vasiliev “And the dawns here are quiet”)
If the subsequent sentence (or group of sentences) does not directly develop the thought of the previous one, then a dividing pause appears between such sentences. Such a pause marks the boundaries of plot compositional pieces in a literary work. Before dividing pauses, a lowering of the voice is characteristic. In fact, a dividing pause is often connecting and dividing, since even after such a pause the narration continues:
And he yawned. Long, indifferent, with a howl. Lisa, biting her lips, rushed down, hit her knee painfully and flew out into the yard, slamming the door forcefully. ||| (B. Vasiliev “And the dawns here are quiet”)
An additional pause before a word that we want to highlight for some reason is a backlash pause. Helps clarify and depends entirely on the intentions and objectives of the performer.
My house was intact,| but how small he became! (O. Bergoltz "Day Stars")