Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia.
How, with the help of the syntactic structure of a sentence, the author reflects the feelings of the characters, expresses his attitude towards them - this is the goal of our work.
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Municipal educational institution "Secondary school in the village of Preobrazhenka
Pugachevsky district
Saratov region"
Research project
Syntactic structure of the sentence
As a means of expression
(based on the story “Poor Liza” by N.M. Karamzin)
Completed by 9th grade students
Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia.
Supervisor
teacher of Russian language and literature
Kurkutova E.A.
2011 – 2012 academic year
- Introduction. Page 2
- Main part. Pages 3 – 8
- Conclusion. Page 9
- Bibliography. Page 10
Introduction.
The goal of our research project was to get acquainted with the means of expressiveness of syntax, analyze these means, and search for examples in N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza.” We wanted to analyze the syntactic structure of this work and determine what syntactic means the writer used when creating it. The fundamental question was: does the syntactic structure of a sentence have expressive means? After studying the theoretical material and working on the story by N.M. Karamzin, we came to the conclusion: the syntactic structure of a sentence is a vivid means of expressiveness, with the help of which the writer describes events, conveys the heroine’s experiences, expresses his own attitude to what is happening, and evaluates the actions of the heroes.
Research results. We studied the theory about the means of expressiveness of syntax, analyzed N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza” and came to the conclusion thatsyntactic means of expressivenessinclude various stylistic figures, turns, techniques.
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Research project: Syntactic structure of a sentence as a means of expressiveness (based on N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza”) Completed by 9th grade students Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia Supervisor: Kurkutova E.A.
Goal: familiarization with the means of expressive syntax, analysis of these means, search for examples in N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza.”
Fundamental question: Does the syntactic structure of a sentence have expressive means?
We studied the theory about the means of expressiveness of syntax, analyzed N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza” and came to the conclusion that syntactic means of expressiveness include various stylistic figures, turns, and techniques.
Antithesis is a phrase in which opposing concepts are sharply contrasted. N.M. Karamzin uses it to depict the constancy of time when he remembers the main character. Inversion is a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate change in the order of words. This technique helps focus the reader’s attention on the main thing in the sentence.
Gradation is a figure that consists of stringing together syntactic units of the same type (for example, homogeneous members, phrases, parts of a sentence, subordinate clauses), in which their semantic or emotional significance increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation). Repetition is the general name for a number of techniques in which the repetition of an element serves as a means of enhancing expressiveness.
Anaphora (uniformity) is the repetition of elements (from sounds to sentences) at the beginning of each new phrase. Anaphora enhances the dynamics of sentences and the emotional impact of the phrase on the reader. Polyconjunction (polysyndeton) is a repetition of a conjunction, serving for intonation and logical emphasis. Coordinating conjunctions are usually repeated.
Blessing (asyndeton) gives the statement speed and creates the effect of increasing the tempo. Asyndeton occurs very often in the story, which is probably why it has very clearly defined dynamics. Syntactic parallelism is the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech. This technique is used by N.M. Karamzin when describing the feelings of the characters.
Conclusion. Having studied the theory, we came to the following conclusions: syntactic means of expressiveness include antithesis, inversion, gradation, repetition, anaphora, polyunion, non-union, syntactic parallelism.
Conclusion: We believe that knowledge of syntactic means of expression will help us not only in the study of literary works and their analysis, but also in final exams in both basic and secondary schools in the Russian language.
Municipal educational institution "Secondary school in the village of Preobrazhenka, Pugachevsky district
Saratov region"
Research project
Syntactic structure of the sentence
as a means of expression
(based on the story “Poor Liza” by N.M. Karamzin)
Completed by 9th grade students
Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia.
Supervisor
teacher of Russian language and literature
Kurkutova E.A.
2011 – 2012 academic year
Table of contents.
Introduction. Page 2
Main part. Pages 3 – 8
Conclusion. Page 9
Bibliography. Page 10
Introduction.
The goal of our research project was to get acquainted with the means of expressiveness of syntax, analyze these means, and search for examples in N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza.” We wanted to analyze the syntactic structure of this work and determine what syntactic means the writer used when creating it. The fundamental question was: does the syntactic structure of a sentence have expressive means? After studying the theoretical material and working on the story by N.M. Karamzin, we came to the conclusion: the syntactic structure of a sentence is a vivid means of expressiveness, with the help of which the writer describes events, conveys the heroine’s experiences, expresses his own attitude to what is happening, and evaluates the actions of the heroes.
Research results. We studied the theory about the means of expressiveness of syntax, analyzed N.M. Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza” and came to the conclusion that syntactic means of expressiveness include various stylistic figures, turns, and techniques.
Antithesis is a phrase in which opposing concepts are sharply contrasted. N.M. Karamzin uses it to depict the constancy of time when he remembers the main character.
I often come to this place and almost always see spring there; I come there and grieve with nature on the dark days of autumn. (p. 29)
Inversion is a stylistic figure consisting of a deliberate change in the order of words. This technique helps focus the reader’s attention on the main thing in the sentence.
But most often what attracts me to the walls of the Si...nova Monastery is the memory of the deplorable fate of Lisa, poor Lisa. (p.29)
Thus she ended her life, beautiful in body and soul. (p. 42)
Here I often sit in thought, leaning on the receptacle of Liza’s ashes; a pond flows in my eyes; The leaves are rustling above me. (p. 42)
Gradation is a figure that consists of stringing together syntactic units of the same type (for example, homogeneous members, phrases, parts of a sentence, subordinate clauses), in which their semantic or emotional significance increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation). This figure, used by N.M. Karamzin at the very beginning of the story, sets a sad mood, as if projecting the fate of the young monk onto the fate of Lisa.
He languishes, withers, dries up - and the sad ringing of a bell announces to me his untimely death. (p. 29)
Erast stood under the branches of a tall oak tree, holding in his arms his poor, languid, sorrowful girlfriend, who, saying goodbye to him, said goodbye to her soul (p. 40)
Repetition is the general name for a number of techniques in which the repetition of an element serves as a means of enhancing expressiveness. Most often, N.M. Karamzin uses repetition in dialogues to show the strength of the characters’ feelings.
Erast could no longer be satisfied with just the innocent caresses of his Lisa - just her glances filled with love - just one touch of a hand, one kiss, just one pure embrace. (p. 38)
“God willing! God forbid! Every day, every hour I will pray for this” (p. 39)
“No, take care of yourself, Lisa, take care of your friend.” (p. 39)
Anaphora (uniformity) is the repetition of elements (from sounds to sentences) at the beginning of each new phrase. Anaphora enhances the dynamics of sentences and the emotional impact of the phrase on the reader.
Erast felt an extraordinary excitement in his blood... Erast feels awe in himself... (p. 37)
Where is your guardian angel? Where is your innocence? (p. 37)
“Before you were more cheerful, before we were calmer and happier, and before I was not so afraid of losing your love!” (p. 38)
“There is a dead man groaning there; Poor Liza is moaning there!” (p. 42)
Polyconjunction (polysyndeton) is a repetition of a conjunction, serving for intonation and logical emphasis. Coordinating conjunctions are usually repeated. N.M. Karamzin uses such repetition of conjunctions very rarely, only in the case of describing the regularity of events in the heroine’s life.
They said goodbye, kissed for the last time and promised to see each other every day in the evening, either on the river bank, or in the birch grove, or somewhere near Liza’s hut, just to be sure, to see each other without fail. (p. 35)
Non-union (asyndeton) gives the utterance speed and creates the effect of increasing tempo. Asyndeton appears very often in the story, which is probably why it has very clearly defined dynamics.
Helpful Lisa...ran to the cellar - brought a clean glass... - grabbed a glass, washed it, wiped it with a white towel, poured it and served it out the window... (p. 32)
Only Lisa, who remained after her father for fifteen years, - only Lisa, not sparing her tender youth, not sparing her rare beauty, worked day and night - weaving canvases, knitting stockings, picking flowers in the spring, and taking berries in the summer - and selling them in Moscow.(page 30)
Homogeneous members of a sentence are the most important means of a detailed description of objects, their properties, as well as various phenomena and processes. Like any writer, N.M. Karamzin uses homogeneous members of the sentence very often both when describing the nature, events, and internal movements of the souls of the characters. One sentence may contain several rows of homogeneous members.
Seventy yards from the monastery wall, near a birch grove, in the middle of a green meadow, there stands an empty hut, without doors, without curbs, without floors; the roof has long since rotted and collapsed. (p. 29)
On the left side you can see vast fields covered with grain, forests, three or four villages and in the distance the village of Kolomenskoye with its high palace. (p. 28)
He led an absent-minded life, thought only about his own pleasure, looked for it in secular amusements, but often did not find it: he was bored and complained about his fate. (p. 33)
A sensitive, kind old woman, seeing her daughter’s tirelessness, often pressed her to her weakly beating heart, called her divine mercy, nurse, the joy of her old age, and prayed to God to reward her for all that she does for her mother. (p. 30)
Silence is a figure that consists in the fact that the author deliberately understates, suddenly interrupts the thought, giving the listeners the right to guess what words are not spoken and creatively complete the thought. Using silence only once, N.M. Karamzin emphasizes Lisa’s love for Erast, the pain of his betrayal, and the desire to keep her secret from her fellow villagers.
“Take this money to mother - it is not stolen - tell her that Lisa is guilty against her, that she hid from her her love for one cruel person - for E... Why know his name?” (p. 43);
A rhetorical exclamation is an emotionally charged sentence that serves to express feelings and attract the attention of the addressee of the speech, and emotions in it are expressed not by lexical or syntactic means, but by intonation. In them, the writer expresses his feelings and experiences, attracting the attention of readers to them.
Oh! I love those objects that touch my heart and make me shed tears of tender sorrow! (p. 29)
A rhetorical question is a stylistic figure that contains an affirmation or denial, framed in the form of a question that does not require an answer. N.M. Karamzin several times addresses rhetorical questions both to the characters and to himself.
What happened to you? (p. 33)
Do you know your heart? Can you always be responsible for your movements? Is reason always the king of your feelings? (p. 36)
Oh! Why am I writing not a novel, but a sad story? (p. 41)
But can all this justify him? (p. 41)
Rhetorical appeal is an appeal to inanimate objects, absent, dead, abstract concepts. By repeating the appeal to Lisa several times, the writer does not allow the reader to be distracted from the main storyline - Lisa's fate.
Ah, Lisa, Lisa! (pp. 33,35,37)
Question-answer unity is a stylistic device in which the author asks a question and answers it himself.
So, Erast deceived Lisa by telling her that he was going to the army? No, he really was in the army, but instead of fighting the enemy, he played cards and lost almost all his property. (p. 41)
Syntactic parallelism is the same syntactic construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech. This technique is used by N.M. Karamzin when describing the feelings of the characters.
“Without your eyes the bright month is dark; without your voice the nightingale singing is boring; without your breath the breeze is unpleasant to me. (p. 36)
"What a wonderful morning! What fun it is in the field! Never have larks sung so well, never has the sun shone so brightly, never have flowers smelled so pleasant!” (p. 35)
Incomplete sentence - sentences that are replicas and answers at the time of conversation, are characteristic only of the syntax of oral speech. In the story they convey the fullness of the characters’ feelings, their love and mutual understanding.
"Will you always love me?" “Always, dear Lisa, always!” “And can you swear to me this?” “I can, dear Liza, I can!” (p. 34); “Nothing, mother,” Lisa answered in a timid voice, “I just saw him.” - "Whom?" - “The gentleman who bought flowers from me.” (p. 31)
. An address is a word or combination of words that names the addressee. Most often, proper names act as addresses, less often - animal names or names of inanimate objects. The appeal is not a member of the sentence, maintaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its characteristic vocative intonation.
“Dear Anyuta, dear friend!” (p. 42)
“Erast, Erast! - he said. - I'm scared! (p.38)"
“Lisa, Lisa! What happened to you? - “Oh, Erast! I cried!” (p. 37)
Various ways of breaking the closedness of a sentence are a striking example of expressive syntax. First of all, this is a shift in syntactic construction: the end of the sentence is given in a different syntactic plan than the beginning. N.M. Karamzin uses this technique only once, depicting Lisa’s dreams of happiness.
“He would look at me with an affectionate look - maybe he would take my hand... A dream!” (p. 34)
Author's punctuation marks - a dash in place of other punctuation marks, expressing the swiftness of the action. N.M. Karamzin was one of the first to introduce dashes into Russian speech. He uses it in a passage depicting Lisa's fall, when the speed of action is determined by the feelings of the characters. Here we can see the author’s position: the writer condemns Erast, who succumbed to a moment of weakness and destroyed Lisa. But Lisa doesn’t make excuses for them either.
Erast felt an extraordinary excitement in his blood - Liza had never seemed so charming to him - never had her caresses touched him so much - never had her kisses been so fiery - she knew nothing, suspected nothing, was afraid of nothing - the darkness of the evening fed desires - not a single star shone in the sky - no ray could illuminate the errors. – Erast feels awe in himself – Liza also, not knowing why, not knowing what is happening to her... (p. 37)
Lisa sobbed - Erast cried - left her - she fell - knelt down, raised her hands to the sky and looked at Erast, who moved away - further - further - and finally disappeared - the sun rose, and Lisa, abandoned, poor, fainted and memory.(p.40)
Conclusion.
Having studied the theory, we came to the following conclusions: syntactic means of expressiveness include antithesis, inversion, gradation, repetition, anaphora, polyunion, non-union, silence, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, question-answer unity, syntactic parallelism, Use of syntactic means expressiveness allows N.M. Karamzin to have an emotional, aesthetic impact on the reader, to describe the inner world and state of the human soul. They help reveal the author's attitude towards his characters. In his story, the writer, of course, did not use all the syntactic means of expression, but these also created a special mood for the work, when the reader sadly gets acquainted with the story of poor Liza, sympathizing with her, condemning Erast.
We believe that knowledge of syntactic means of expression will help us not only in the study of literary works and their analysis, but also in final exams in both basic and secondary schools in the Russian language.
Resources used.
Valgina N.S., Svetlysheva V.N. Russian language. Spelling and punctuation. Rules and exercises. Textbook M.: Neolit, 2000, 436 pp.
Gorshkov A.I. Russian literature. From words to literature. 10-11 grades. Moscow. Education. 1996, 357pp.
Karamzin N.M. Poor Lisa. Soviet Russia. Moscow.1976, 156 pp.
znaki-pr.spb.ru›texts/history_of_punctuation_…ru.wikipedia.org›wiki/
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of work on the development of the syntactic structure of students' speech. Firstly, children’s comprehension of the syntactic system of their native language, mastery of the richness of the syntactic structure of Russian speech is significant for the development of all types of speech activity (listening, speaking, reading, writing), nurturing a culture of communication, and therefore has social significance. Secondly, practical mastery of syntax is the basis for mastering other sections of the program: vocabulary, morphology, and spelling. The sentence is the basic unit of speech on the basis of which schoolchildren understand the role of each part of speech in the language. Thus, the lexical meaning of a word and the features of its use in speech are revealed in context, since outside a sentence a word can have several meanings. Thus, it is obvious educational value work on the development of the syntactic structure of students' speech.
Symptoms of mastering syntax were highlighted by E. D. Bozhovich, E. I. Isenina. The first signs are early (at nine months) reactions to the intonation-melodic side of speech. The appearance of modulated babble in a child (repetition of syllables with various intonations) marks the acquisition of a special method of emotional communication. This ability prepares the next stage of mastering syntax: by the end of the first year of life, the child can recognize a question, a greeting, an incentive by its rhythmic and melodic design.
At the turn of the first and second years of life, another important symptom of mastering syntax reveals itself - protolanguage (primary language). This is a system of means of pre-verbal communication (facial expressions, vocalization, movements, actions with objects, etc.), allowing a small person who has not yet spoken to construct detailed “statements” and achieve mutual understanding with others.
The periods of a child’s acquisition of the syntactic structure of a language before schooling are described by N. A. Gvozdev. First period refers to early childhood (one to two years), when the child begins to produce the first one-word sentences (Mother! - nominative, vocative, imperative). This is the starting point for the development of the proposal. Such a word-sentence is semantically equal to an expanded sentence. Around the age of one and a half, the first attempts to connect two words take place; a two-word sentence is learned: Dasha - bang! Mom, doll! Mom, doll! With the development of specific types of activity (drawing, modeling), egocentric speech is formed, which performs a number of functions: planning, control, stating the result, managing one’s own behavior. Second period(from two to four years) is characterized by the assimilation of the grammatical structure of a sentence, intensive mastery of different types of simple and complex (non-conjunct) sentences, in which the members of the sentence are expressed in the syntactic means of the language. At the same time, the lengthening of sentences in speech is an indicator of the formation of abstract thinking. Third period(from four to six years) is characterized by the fact that “the child masters a complex system of grammar... the acquired Russian language becomes truly native to him.” Children generally agree words correctly, put the controlled word in the correct case, construct sentences, and express their thoughts clearly, using constructions characteristic of spoken language. Full-fledged coherent speech becomes the property of a preschool child.
M.R. Lvov points out the following children’s peculiarity of mastering syntax: a child of preschool age uses in his speech sentences of a larger volume than the volume of anticipatory synthesis characteristic of his age. This feature is explained not only by the child’s need to express increasingly complex content, but also by the influence of the speech environment, which contains very complex syntactic structures.
The indicators of the development of the syntactic structure of first-graders’ speech are as follows: simple uncommon sentences in their speech - 15%; simple common - 60; complex sentences - 17; sentences with direct speech - 8%.
However, at this stage of development of the grammatical structure of speech, the child’s mastery of formal syntax is somewhat ahead of the mastery of its semantics: I’ll run to play in another room so that the sun doesn’t go away. There is light on the floor.
A person’s speech undergoes changes throughout life, but the most important age periods for the formation and development of speech are preschool and school; At the same time, the primary school occupies a borderline position. Knowledge of the peculiarities of the syntactic structure of speech of younger schoolchildren helps the teacher determine tasks, areas of work, and build individual educational trajectories for children.
The factors in the development of the syntactic structure of speech are diverse; they represent the driving force that largely determines the effectiveness of the process of speech formation. Among the important factors in the development of schoolchildren’s speech, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya and G. A. Fomicheva name the educational process, since when mastering elementary subject knowledge and general educational communicative skills, the child’s speech is enriched due to book syntactic structures. In all lessons, primary schoolchildren hear an educational and scientific variety of speech and, answering the teacher’s questions, build complex syntactic structures, expressing attributive, cause-and-effect and other relationships. Thus, the significant impact of school education on the development of students’ speech is explained by the fact that speech develops in connection with educational (leading) activities; speech development is supported by the study of grammatical theory.
The shortcomings of the syntactic structure of the speech of younger schoolchildren are explained by the following contradiction: the child actively learns the world around him and strives to express increasingly deeper content in speech. However, attempts to use new complex syntactic structures give rise to errors and shortcomings in the syntactic structure of speech at the level of phrases and sentences. These shortcomings are described by E. D. Bozhovich, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, M. R. Lvov, M. S. Soloveichik, G. A. Fomicheva, S. N. Tseitlin.
The most common shortcoming of children's speech is the unjustified monotony of syntactic structures used in creative works and the poverty of the syntactic structure of speech. For example: The puppy saw a beetle. The puppy extended his paw. The beetle flew off. The puppy jumped. The beetle flew up onto a branch. The puppy is bored. This text contains six sentences ranging from two to three words; All sentences are simple, fairly similar.
In the speech of children, mistakes are often made in connection with the use of homogeneous terms, for example: The room has poufs and furniture; I love cartoons and cutlets with mashed potatoes. The example illustrates a typical situation: children use a coordinating connection to combine words that name logically incomparable concepts, as well as generic and specific concepts.
Among the frequent shortcomings of the syntactic structure of speech of younger schoolchildren is a violation of word order, which makes it difficult to perceive a statement and changes its meaning: There was a lynx sitting in a cage. It is made of steel. She looks like a cat.
When constructing a sentence, schoolchildren violate its boundaries, for example: 1) When the trees shook their branches. They creaked; 2) It's hot, we're running; 3) The plane is flying. From South.
Children have difficulty understanding the verbal composition of a sentence. For example: "In a sentence boy running one word, because he is running alone."
Compositional defects are common: There are girls walking in the yard, I am friends with her.
The complication of the subject pronoun is frequent: Marusya, she's good.
Errors occur when constructing phrases: in verb control (Happy with the thunderstorm. Happy with the sun); in agreement between the predicate and the subject (The children played hide and seek). Also among the frequent speech deficiencies of schoolchildren is the choice of a non-normative option from among the norms offered by the system. For example, the system offers two ways to designate a place: in + Pl.; on + P.p.; the choice is determined by tradition (was in the Caucasus, But was in Crimea; was at the concert But was at the theater). The incorrect choice of preposition is explained by the influence of the speech environment, the pressure of the language system.
It is necessary to work to prevent and correct these errors.
The purpose and objectives of the work on the development of the syntactic structure of speech of primary schoolchildren are determined from the standpoint of the communicative approach. Target - formation of skills in constructing one’s own statements based on awareness of the content, tasks and conditions of speech, as well as the skills of adequately perceiving the interlocutor’s statements. Tasks speech work - improving the grammatical correctness of the construction of syntactic units; enrichment of the stock of syntactic models; activation of the stock of syntactic models used in speech; developing skills in the accurate and appropriate use of syntactic means of language in practice; mastering the correct intonation of sentences
§ 1. Subject of syntax. The term “syntax” is used to designate both the object of study and the branch of the science of language. The syntax of a language is its syntactic structure, a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units. Syntax as a science is a section of grammar that covers the syntactic structure of a language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units. “Syntax” is a Greek word (syntax) that literally means “composition”, “construction”, “structure”. Indeed, syntax as the science of the syntactic structure of a language makes it possible to show the system of syntactic units, the connections and relationships between them, what and how they are composed of, how, and by what means components (elements) are connected into syntactic units.
The fundamental concepts of syntax are concepts about the system of syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic connections (and means of communication) and grammatical (syntactic) semantics.
§ 2. System of syntactic units. Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic connections and relationships. As part of syntactic units, inflected words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word. Yes, in a sentence By morning frost will stick to_ pine branches_(Kedrin) 7 words, but 5 word forms, since the preposition is an element of the word form and is part of the members of the sentence. In this sentence, the number of word forms and sentence members coincides, but such a relationship is not always observed. In a sentence Heavy evening dew must have settled on the grass(L. Tolstoy) 7 word forms, but 5 sentence parts.
Word forms are studied both in morphology and syntax. In syntax, word forms are considered as building elements of syntactic units.
Word combinations are built from word forms: warm rain, half of the night, starting to drizzle and so on.
Simple sentences are built from word forms and phrases: Warm rain began to drizzle from mid-night(Paustovsky).
Complex sentences are constructed from simple sentences, differing in the degree of semantic and grammatical cohesion. Yes, from the proposals The wind blew from land And The water was calm near the shore You can form complex non-conjunctive, complex and complex sentences: The wind blew from land - the water was calm near the shore; The wind blew from the land, and the water was calm near the shore; If the wind blew from land, the water near the shore was calm.(Other variants of complex sentences are possible.)
A complex syntactic whole is built from simple and complex sentences." For example: Our people have always loved, known and appreciated the forest. It’s not for nothing that so many fairy tales and songs have been written about our dense forests. In the forests lies our future, the fate of our harvests, our deep rivers, our health and, to a certain extent, our culture. Therefore, the forest must be protected, just as we protect human life, as we protect our culture and all the achievements of our extraordinary era.(Paustovsky). In this complex syntactic whole, simple and complex sentences are united by a common microtheme. The means of expressing interphrase connections and relationships are intonation (in oral speech), word order, pronominal adverb, and therefore the repetition of the word forms forest and our. So, the main syntactic units are a phrase, a sentence (simple and complex), and a complex syntactic whole. This hierarchy of syntactic units reflects a view of them “from below.” Syntactic units can also be considered in a different sequence (“from above”): a complex syntactic whole can be divided into simple and complex sentences, complex sentences into simple (predicative parts), predicative parts into combinations of words (including phrases), and in combinations of words and sentences, highlight word forms (members of the sentence).
These two approaches to the identification of syntactic units reflect different levels of the syntax system, in which lower-level units are included in higher-level units and, conversely, higher-level units are divided into lower-level units. Syntactic units of a lower level in constructions of a higher level act as elements (components!) that enter into syntactic connections and relationships with each other. For linguistic and methodological purposes, the first approach is more legitimate (from less complex constructions to more complex ones), although the second approach is more “syntactic”, since it allows you to show how syntactic units function in speech, how they change, combining with each other, entering into those or other connections and relationships. Thus, simple sentences within complex ones lose their semantic and intonation independence, the order of components in speech may change, combinations of words may appear that cannot be constructed outside the sentence, etc. These include predicative combinations (combinations of subject and predicate) , rows of homogeneous members of a sentence, etc. For example, in the sentence And the trees, air and meadows sounded, rang (Yashin) there is not a single phrase in a strict terminological meaning, but there is only a predicative combination and composed series of word forms in the position of subject and predicate.
The difference between the approaches “from below” and “from above” is especially clear when comparing word forms and sentence members. Word forms are the minimal elements of syntactic units, from which phrases and sentences are formed. Members of a sentence are structural and semantic components of a sentence. They exist only as part of a sentence and are isolated from it. As part of a sentence, word forms act as members of a sentence or are part of them.
A look “from below” and “from above” at the same syntactic phenomenon makes it possible to see its different sides, therefore, when describing individual syntactic units, both approaches will be taken into account or the one that will show more significant features of syntactic units.
Methodological note. At school, students practically become familiar with all of the specified syntactic units, only, instead of a complex syntactic whole, “text” is introduced, which is defined as “several sentences related in meaning and grammatically”"
§ 3. Syntactic connections and relationships. Syntactic connections and relationships between elements (components) of syntactic units are the main feature of syntactic constructions. 2 A syntactic connection is an expression of the relationship of elements in syntactic units.
The main types of syntactic connection are composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, while subordinating them - syntactically unequal ones: one acts as the main one, the other as the dependent one. A coordinating connection connects homogeneous members and parts of complex sentences, a subordinating connection connects word forms within phrases and sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.
Syntactic connections of elements of syntactic units express syntactic (semantic) relationships, which reflect the relationships between objects and phenomena of reality. Reality is reflected in language through generalization in logical and psychological categories: judgments, concepts and ideas. Language performs the function of communication only because thought is formed and expressed in it.
Syntax in a language system begins where there are syntactic relationships between elements.
Syntactic relations are divided into predicative and non-predicative. Predicative relations are characteristic of the grammatical basis of a sentence: subject and predicate. Non-predicative relations, in turn, are divided into coordinating and subordinating (attributive (definitive), objective and adverbial). They can occur between components of all syntactic units.
Under the influence of syntactic relations, elements can change some of their properties. Thus, a word form in space has the lexical and grammatical meaning of place. In the phrase flights in space (cf.: space flights) between word forms flights and in space attributive relations arise that complicate the lexical-grammatical meaning of the word form in space.
§ 4. Means of syntactic communication and construction of syntactic units. To construct syntactic units, word forms, function words, typified lexical elements, intonation, word order, etc. are used. They also serve to formalize syntactic connections and relationships.
Word forms, as minimal elements of syntactic constructions, serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions with their lexico-grammatical properties, and the elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning are endings and prepositions.
The main function of the ending is to express syntactic connections and relationships between word forms in phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called a service morpheme. The role of endings is especially important in the design of subordinating connections: in coordination and control.
Note. Of the other morphemes, prefixes (prefixes) are important for syntax in some cases, especially those that are part of verb forms. They often determine the associative (valence) properties of verb forms and correlate in their role with prepositions: enter a room, walk to the forest, take a break from work, drive down a mountain, etc. The word forms include prepositions that complement and enhance the auxiliary role of endings. In a sentence Yellow leaves lie on cold gray marble(Kedrin) 6 word forms (the preposition na is part of the word form on marble, despite the fact that it is separated from the noun by adjectives). Connections and relationships between word forms in this sentence (and the phrases that are in this sentence) are formalized using endings and the preposition na.
The role of derived prepositions in the expression of syntactic connections and relationships is especially pronounced, since they, while maintaining living word-formation connections with significant words, concretize and clarify the semantics of the word forms in which they are included. Wed: at the house - near the house, opposite the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the house, etc.
Other function words - conjunctions and particles - are also important means of constructing syntactic units. Conjunctions, connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after, etc. express the meaning of time, because, since, for etc. - the meaning of the reason, So- the meaning of the consequence.
Less clear indicators of grammatical meanings are coordinating conjunctions, but they also express semantic relationships between the components being composed. These shades are recognized with varying degrees of clarity by speakers for whom Russian is their native language.
The range of unions is constantly being replenished. Their functions are assumed by some significant parts of speech, modal words, and particles. Conjunctions are often accompanied by semantic specifiers that clarify and differentiate the expressed meanings: and yet, and yet, and therefore, etc. Wed: Not only people, but also ideas can cause surges of hatred(Paustovsky) - Both people and ideas can cause... The increase in the range of allied means is due to the desire to clarify the shades of semantics of statements. Particles and their combinations can form indivisible sentences (Yes. No. But of course! Well, so what! Of course! Etc.), formulate the syntactic meanings of sentences, sentence members, act as semantic specifiers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.
Particles are not included in the members of a sentence if they formulate the grammatical meaning of the entire sentence. For example: Is it really possible that room conditions will remain in the cabin at thousand-degree temperatures?(Stepanov). In other cases, particles, like prepositions, are part of the sentences: Curly lilac bushes here and there seemed to be sprinkled on top with something white and purple(L. Tolstoy). An important role in the construction of syntactic structures is played by the lexical means of the language, which are called typified. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative (who, what, which, where, where, etc.), demonstrative (this, that, such, etc. in different forms; there, there, therefore and under); lexical-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections, etc.).
Typical lexical means also take part in the formation (construction) of simple sentences. Thus, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, a lexico-grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( it's getting light, it's freezing etc.) forms the structural center of one-part impersonal sentences; thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech ( talk, say and so on) - component of sentences with direct speech, etc.
For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. In Russian, the order of the components of syntactic units has two types: direct (fixed) and inverted (free). With direct order, each component of syntactic constructions occupies a certain place, with free order, the components can change their place.
One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and the emotional and expressive coloring of syntactic units is tone, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress, highlighting the information center in a sentence.
Intonation is included among the essential features of a sentence, since it is one of the indicators of completeness and integrity of a sentence in oral speech; intonation formalizes the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relationships between members of the sentence, etc. Intonation is also very important when expressing the verbal meaning of a sentence: it can turn a positive assessment into a negative one, etc. Intonation characteristics of syntactic units in written speech (in the language of fiction) are often given with the help of lexical-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of circumstances of the manner of action, with verbs of speech: with reproach, with reproach... angrily, joyfully... quickly, slowly...; quietly, loudly... with emphasis on... and so on.
Several means are usually involved in the construction of syntactic structures.
§ 5. Grammatical meanings of syntactic units. In the morphology of parts of speech, lexical and grammatical (categorical, general grammatical) meanings are distinguished. The same is true in syntax. All syntactic units and their components have lexical (speech, individual) and grammatical (linguistic, syntactic, categorical, etc.) meanings.
Let us consider in the most general form the difference between lexical and grammatical semantics using the example of some phrases and sentences.
Let's take two series of phrases: warm day, magnificent palace, ironic smile; sing songs, shed tears, take tests. Each of these phrases has its own lexical meaning, determined by the lexical meanings of the words included in these phrases. In addition, the first group of phrases differs from the second in grammatical meaning, due to the different structure of these phrases. Thus, the first row has a general grammatical meaning - “an object and its attribute” (definitive relations), the general grammatical meaning of the second row is “the action and the object to which the action is transferred” (object relations). These general meanings are called the grammatical meanings of phrases. The question of the semantics of sentences is currently the subject of heated debate, however, some provisions have already entered into the practice of university and school teaching, since without attention to semantics it is impossible to study syntactic units.
In sentences Students listen to lectures; Pupils learn lessons; Collective farmers harvest crops- grammatical meaning - a message about an object and its action (predicative feature)
In sentences Do students listen to lectures? Are students learning lessons? Do collective farmers harvest crops?- grammatical meaning - a question about the subject and its action.
In sentences Students, listen to the lectures! Students, learn your lessons! Collective farmers, harvest the crops!- grammatical meaning - encouragement to action.
These general meanings of sentences can be supplemented with the grammatical meaning of phrases: listen to lectures, learn lessons, harvest crops(“action passing on to an object”)
Let's compare the following series of proposals: Students listen to lectures; Students work with a book; Our best students work hard; Students work in the evenings; Students working in the library etc. All these sentences have a common grammatical meaning - “a message about an object and its action.” The difference is determined not only by different speech, but also by different typical meanings of phrases: objective, attributive, adverbial.
Thus, grammatical (linguistic, syntactic) semantics is the general meaning of syntactic units of the same structure. Lexical semantics is the speech, specific, individual meaning of a particular syntactic unit associated with the lexical meanings of words and word forms.
Note. In school and university practice of teaching the Russian language, the concepts of “language” and “speech” are not clearly opposed, but they are not identified either. They are considered as two sides of one phenomenon, interconnected and complementary. In accordance with this, the term “linguistic semantics” is often used as a generic name for the meanings of all language units, and specific designations are used for different levels of the language system. For units of morphology and syntax (sections of grammar), the general term is the term “grammatical semantics,” which can be differentiated: “morphological semantics” for parts of speech (categorical meaning), “syntactic semantics” for units of syntax.
The term “lexical meaning” (“lexical semantics”) is used as a generic name for the individual meanings of speech units in syntax, although it is not entirely accurate, since the “speech meaning” (“speech semantics”) of syntactic units does not arise from a simple sum of lexical meanings combining components, but is complicated by additional semantic shades that are introduced into the semantics of syntactic units by connections and relationships between the components, the entire text as a whole, etc.
Syntactic and lexical semantics of syntactic units and their components differ from each other by different degrees of abstraction: syntactic semantics is the highest level of generalization of lexical semantics. Syntactic and lexical semantics can be represented as different poles, between which lies a zone of transitional phenomena reflecting different stages of abstraction. In this zone of interaction between the grammatical and lexical, structural-semantic types of sentences, phrases, etc. are formed. The syntactic semantics of the varieties of these sentences, phrases, etc. is called typical semantics. Thus, the general grammatical meaning of an impersonal sentence It's cold in the room is a message, and its typical value is the state of the environment; the general grammatical meaning of the subject is the meaning of the subject of speech (thought), and its typical meanings are the doer (producer of the action) and the bearer of the attribute. Wed: The wind howls and the wind is strong. The general meaning of the circumstances is specified by the typical meanings of the circumstances of place, time, reason, purpose, etc. Methodological note. The school textbook discusses the grammatical meanings of both phrases (p. 22-23) and sentences (p. 31) (2 Hereinafter, for references to the school textbook, see: Barkhudarov S. G., Kryuchkov S. E. Maksimov L Yu., Cheshko L.A. Russian language: Textbook for grades 7-8. - 12th ed., revised - M., 1985.) The grammatical meanings of phrases are related to their structure, and sentences - with the meanings of the moods of the predicate verb.
§ 6. Syntax in the language system. In modern research, language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. The lowest tier (level) is phonology, the highest is syntax. The multi-level structure of the “language building” can be called multi-story: syntactic units are located on the top floor, sounds (phonemes) are located on the bottom floor, and the middle floors are occupied by the remaining units in accordance with their functions in language and speech.
Completing the “building of language,” syntactic units cannot exist without support from other floors: without the lower floors, the building will crumble. From above, from the syntactic level, the relationship and interdependence of individual tiers is better visible, so syntax allows you to show organic connections between vocabulary, morphology, syntax, etc.
See for more details: Babaytseva V.V. Semantics of a simple sentence: Sentence as a multi-aspect unit of language. - M. 1983.
Plan
SYNTAX. GENERAL ISSUES
INTRODUCTORY LECTURE No. 3-4
1. A variety of scientific approaches to syntax. The ambiguity of the term syntax. Syntactic structure of the language. A brief history of syntactic science.
2. System of syntactic units.
3. Syntactic connections and relationships.
4. Means of syntactic communication and construction of syntactic units.
5. Grammatical meaning of syntactic units.
Modern theoretical linguistics is characterized by lack of a unified conceptual syntax(hereinafter - C): scientists describe its subject, object of study, problems, aspects in different ways. Science analysts (http://www.univer.omsk.su/trudy/fil_ezh/n2/odincova.html/) · reduce this set to two fundamentally different C . - narrow and wide.
Narrow, chronologically first, - classic S., from antiquity to the present day, is defined as part of grammar (plus or minus morphology). Subject of narrow S.– grammatical structure of connected speech . Central unit– a sentence (construction) – with its grammatical meaning, components (members of the sentence). Within the framework of this S. how special objects minimal structural schemes of phrases and simple sentences are considered. The history of the formation of the ideas of traditional grammatical grammar in Russian studies is described in detail in the following fundamental works: V.V. Vinogradov. From the history of the study of Russian syntax (From Lomonosov to Potebnya and Fortunatov). 1958, Questions of the syntax of the modern Russian language / Ed. V.V. Vinogradova. 1950, Grammatical concepts in 19th century linguistics. 1985). The main ideas of grammatical grammar are reflected in academic grammars (hereinafter: ARG-54 (responsible editor: V.V. Vinogradov), ARG-70, ARG-80 (responsible editor: N.Yu. Shvedova), as well as in monographs I. P. Raspopov (Structure of a simple sentence in the modern Russian language. 1970), N. N. Prokopovich (Word combinations in the modern Russian literary language. 1966), L. D. Chesnokova (Word connections in the modern Russian language. 1980), E. S. Skoblikova (Coordination and control in the Russian language. 1971), P. A. Lekanta (Syntax of a simple sentence in modern Russian. 1974).
In the depths of traditional S., with its dominant attention to linguistic forms that were studied outside of their connections with various aspects of the existence of language, the newest S. was born, focused on the study of language in direct connection with the person speaking. Language research began to be carried out taking into account the anthropological principle. Its essence is that “scientific objects are studied primarily according to their role for a person, according to their purpose in his life, according to their functions for the development of the human personality and its improvement. A person becomes a starting point in the analysis of certain phenomena, he is involved in this analysis, determining its perspective and ultimate goals” [Kubryakova E.S. The evolution of linguistic ideas in the second half of the 20th century (experience of paradigmatic analysis) // Language and science of the late 20th century. M., 1995. P. 212].
This is how the second one appeared - wide, non-classical S. It began to take shape in the 60-70s. The 20th century, this time in linguistics is called the “assault on sentence semantics.” The approximate age of wide S. is 40 years; it is not limited to the grammar and linguistic characteristics of coherent speech. His item – fundamental linguistic and extralinguistic laws, rules of coherent speech in their functional unity . They realize the main purpose of speech - its ability to provide communication: to form, express, transmit a message as a variety of information (thoughts, feelings, states). The subject of the broad S. consists of three blocks. 1. W laws of logical thinking. 2. Laws of communicative behavior. 3. Laws of language, providing the formation, expression and communication of information. Central unit wide C . – minimal fragment of coherent speech – statement ( act of communicative behavior). Main characteristics of the statement: 1. C Elasticity content; 2. Holistic – intonation-sound (or graphic), lexical, grammatical form. 3. Paralinguistic means: elements of body language (facial expressions, gestures, voice).
Let us turn to a pseudo-sentence (i.e. a sentence outside the situation) (term by V.A. Zvegintsev). He swam a hundred meters freestyle in 45 seconds(example of Yu.D. Apresyan). Any native speaker of the Russian language, only thanks to his linguistic knowledge (LZ words, syntactic structures, intonation) will understand that “swimming crawl, but covered a distance of 100 meters and spent 45 seconds on it.”
If this PDLZ is considered as a statement, i.e. as part of any situation, then, against the background of the table of world achievements in swimming, it can be interpreted as a message about a world record. In another context: when discussing candidates for inclusion in the national team, for a swimmer whose personal results are worse than those announced, it may mean that he has no place in the national team, etc.
The main ideas of broad S. are reflected in the works of N.D. Arutyunova (Sentence and its meaning. 1976; Types of linguistic meanings. Assessment. Event. Fact. 1988), I.I. Kovtunova (Modern Russian language. Word order and actual division of sentences. 1976); E.V. Paducheva. (The statement and its correlation with reality. 1985; Semantic Research. 1996), V.G. Gaka (Statement and situation // Problems of structural linguistics. 1973), Yu.S. Stepanova (Names. Predicates. Sentences. 1981), etc.
Wide C. in its problematics and aspects, it is figuratively associated with the expanding Universe, because speech communication, even individual communicative acts, is difficult to comprehend and describe exhaustively. For more information about this, see: Zhinkin N.I. Speech as a conductor of information. (M., 1982). Perhaps the subject of this S. will be under the jurisdiction of another science called, for example, speech science (the term was proposed by A.P. Skovorodnikov, T.V. Shmeleva, etc.).
Today it has been established that, from a linguo-creative point of view, the roles of participants in communication are different. The speaker is an active participant, the listener is a passive one. When choosing a field of study, a modern syntaxist accepts the provisions of either narrow or wide C. In the first case, he starts from from the form of speech, engages S. listener - passive C. The listener is a recipient of information, an interpreter, who perceives and analyzes the linguistic form of the message addressed to him. This is how he extracts content from it. Taking the position of wide S., the syntaxist proceeds from content (meanings), is engaged active C., that is, the product and goal of the initiative communicative influence of the speaker, the creator of the utterance.
Passive S. is also called structural-semantic, active – functional, onomasiological. These Cs are, in principle, mutually reversible, just as the rules of encoding and decoding are reversible in any information systems. True, no one has yet been able to confirm this position, convincingly illustrating it with observations of natural languages. Modern linguistics strives (drifts) into speech infinity, because language– according to its basic functions are nothing more than a means of expressing thoughts (will, feelings) and, most importantly, the reality of human communication. For more information about this, see: G.V. Kolshansky. (Communicative function and structure of language. 1984); Kamenskaya O.L. (Text and communication. M., 1990).
The relationship between the briefly described narrow(grammatical, structural-semantic, passive) S. and wide(communicative-logical, functional, active) S. in the linguistics of our days is understood in different ways.
1. How integrative: the first is included in the second as one of its mechanisms - in terms of form. See monograph by T.P. Lomteva (Sentence structure in modern Russian. 1979), O.I. Moskalskaya (Problems of system description of syntax. 1974), etc.
2. How consciously oppositional, critical, mainly from representatives of traditional S. See the works of I.P. Raspopov (Controversial issues of syntax. 1981), Yu.V. Fomenko (Difficult and controversial issues of the syntax of the modern Russian language. 1997).
3. How neutral: supporters of one or another version of S. do not seem to notice each other, do not attach importance to the absence of a conceptually unified S. in modern linguistics. See: Syntax // Brief reference book on the modern Russian language / Ed. P.A. Lekanta. 1995.
In other words, objectively in today’s linguistics there is an atmosphere syntactic pluralism(this is the norm for science). We set our educational task to cover, to the best of our ability, the main provisions of each approach.
Syntactic pluralism is manifested in reference linguistic publications, in monographic studies, in university textbooks (in Russian, etc.). Let's illustrate this by looking at two definitions of the same term.
1) Syntax is called a) all that area of the grammatical structure of a language that covers a variety of constructions formed according to certain rules for combining words; b) the entire area of grammatical science that studies the constructions mentioned in paragraph a [ARG-80. P.5].
2) The subject of syntax is the word in its relation and connection with other words in speech, rules for the formation of larger units from words that ensure speech communication [Modern Russian literary language. Textbook ed. P.A. Lekanta. 1982. P. 246. Further – Lekant].
Let's compare both definitions. In the first of them, the emphasis is on result action of syntactic rules, in the second - on process their actions. In addition, ARG-80 does not mention that syntactic constructions do not exist outside of coherent speech, they are the arsenal of Language, and in the textbook syntax turns out to be immersed in Speech: syntax studies how language units are obtained from words that can be used in coherent speech .
Both of these approaches do not contradict each other at all: they only consider the same area of scientific knowledge from different points of view. The first approach is narrow, structural. The second is broad and communicative.
The term S. is used to designate both the object of study and the branch of the science of language.
Language syntax- this is its syntactic structure (object of study), a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units. In the general language system, the syntactic level is a phenomenon of the highest order, because for successful communication, for expressing thoughts, only the selection of lexemes is not enough; a grammatically correct establishment of connections between words is necessary. No matter how rich the vocabulary of a language is, it is still amenable to inventory, but “the language is inexhaustible in combining words” (A.S. Pushkin). These word combinations are countless! However, it is in grammar (and primarily in syntax) that the national, mental specificity of each language lies. All words of a language must obey the rules of word compatibility. The syntactic structure of the Russian language is very diverse, it is constantly developing and improving.
Syntax as a science- this is a section of grammar that covers the syntactic structure of a language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units, which has a glorious history.
To study syntax as the science of the syntactic structure of a language means to master its two main parts: the syntax of phrases and the syntax of sentences, that is, the system of syntactic units in their connections and relationships.
University syntax course- a way to develop this object. No syntactic theory can be perfect and complete, but it should not be frozen and monolithic. The path of knowledge is long and endless, every researcher finds something new and misses something. Our educational goal is to teach students to understand different approaches to an object, to understand how these approaches complement and enrich each other, where they conflict with each other, and sometimes within themselves, and what issues remain unresolved. Syntax shapes thoughts, and teaching it is aimed at developing students’ thinking, their ability to independently evaluate and successfully apply the acquired knowledge in professional activities.
Basic syntax concepts- syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic connections and syntactic semantics.