Concept and history of geoecology
Definition 1
Geoecology is one of the young interdisciplinary environmental sciences that studies the most global, territorially, patterns of functioning of ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole, of a natural and anthropogenic nature.
It was formed during the period of the so-called second expansion of the subject of ecology, i.e. around the beginning of the second half of the last century. The formation of geoecology was determined by the synthesis of classical ecology, geography and nature conservation; subsequently, the concept of the latter as an independent scientific discipline became less and less popular, and by the end of the last century it almost disappeared, merging with ecology. At the present stage, geography and ecology are acquiring an important applied ability to predict the transformation of nature on the surface of the Earth (mainly as a result of human activity), to propose solutions that mitigate the negative impact of humans on nature.
However, passion for applied aspects of ecology often comes to the detriment of theoretical research and leads to a change in the very subject of ecology towards its convergence with the Earth sciences. As a result, bioecology, which originally constituted all ecology as a whole, is now beginning to be perceived as only one, and far from the main, branch of environmental science.
Note 1
In the process of development of geoecology, its subject has undergone noticeable changes. In particular, if at the end of the 70s geoecology was considered mainly the study of the natural energy and material budget of the landscape, and the methodology of this direction was a detailed quantitative and qualitative study of substance cycles, then in the 80s the content of this science expanded significantly.
Among the central concepts of geoecology is the term “natural environment,” which is understood as a complex of geoenvelopes of the Earth that exists in a state of relative thermodynamic equilibrium. The structure of this complex includes near outer space, the earth's atmosphere, the World Ocean, the internal hydrosphere, the cryosphere and the active layer of the lithosphere.
Nowadays, geoecology is a complex science that studies predominantly irreversible processes and phenomena that occur under the influence of intense anthropogenic impact in the natural environment and biosphere, resulting, in addition, from near and distant consequences of the anthropogenic factor.
The main attention is paid to the spatiotemporal aspect of environmental research.
Main tasks of geoecology
The range of tasks of geoecological science includes:
- Studying the sources of anthropogenic influence on the natural environment and biosphere, the intensity of the anthropogenic factor and the spatiotemporal features of its manifestation;
- Creation and optimization of special geographic information systems to ensure continuous monitoring of the state of the natural environment (biosphere), based on an integrated monitoring system;
- Study of quantitative indicators of pollution and destruction of the main components of the global ecosystem and all geospheres of the Earth, constant and widespread monitoring of their dynamics;
- Assessing the anthropogenic load on natural landscapes, which determines the possibility of their functioning as ecosystems, developing and implementing standardization and regulation of loads on ecosystems at various hierarchical levels of organization, studying the response of the biosphere as an integral system to anthropogenic processes of various origins;
- Assessment, forecasting and modeling of the results of anthropogenic impacts, manifested in the transformation of the state of ecosystem components from regional to global levels, as well as in changes in the intensity and direction of the processes of heat, mass and energy balance of global ecosystems on various time scales;
- Study of the stability of the geological environment under conditions of anthropogenic impact;
- Development of recommendations for preserving the integrity of the natural environment and biosphere by optimizing anthropogenic activities and regulating the scale of resource consumption.
The science of geoecology is a discipline at the intersection of ecology and geography. Within its framework, the features, composition, structure and processes of the human environment are studied. Experts in this field are working to protect the biosphere from adverse changes caused by human economic activities.
Subject of study
The main task of specialists in the field of geoecology is to find a compromise between population, production and nature. To do this, they study the sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment, their spatiotemporal distribution and intensity. Research is being carried out on the destruction of natural environments and components, and their dynamics are being monitored.
Load on a geoecosystem is what geoecology studies. For this purpose, it analyzes the reaction of living organisms to technological processes affecting them. Scientists model, predict and evaluate. The result of their work, as a rule, is the preparation of recommendations that outline the most optimal ways to use the geoecosystem.
Place in science
From the point of view of scientific classification, geoecology is a subsection of ecology as a whole (sometimes called megaecology). Like every discipline, it has its own specific object of study. In the case of geoecology, these are ecosystems of a high hierarchical level (for example, continent, biosphere, biome, ocean).
There are other assessments of the discipline’s place in science. Among other things, geoecology is the fourth section of geography (along with economic, physical and social). But that's not all. Geoecology is closely intertwined with geology - it studies the geological environment and its connections with other environments, including the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. This science provides an assessment of human influence on all of them.
Border discipline
What geoecology studies is systemic in nature (such as, for example, the interactions of the abiotic environment and living organisms). Scientists have introduced a new term specifically for this science. This is a geoecosystem, which is the result of the interaction of the hydrosphere, biosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere. It is also seen as a product of the clash between society and nature. The consequence of their interaction is the emergence of open and closed geoecological systems.
Like any other frontier discipline, this science uses research methods of a very different nature. Geoecology is a system that cannot be described by only one indicator, which means that in this case the integration of geology, geography, ecology and some other areas of human knowledge is required.
Global and universal problems
The study of geography and geoecology reveals two types of problems. They can be divided into global and universal. The first include problems affecting the entire ecosphere (for example, the greenhouse effect). The universal type includes negative trends that are repeated in different modifications. These include life on Earth and the destruction of the planet’s ozone layer.
The Faculty of Geography and Geoecology pays special attention to the problems of soil degradation. The deterioration of its quality leads to a decrease in fertility. As a rule, degradation is caused by human economic activities. However, it can also be caused by some natural factor (landslides, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, etc.).
Research principles
Geoecologists' research has several key principles. The first of them is regional. It takes into account local geo-ecological conditions. The historical principle is based on an analysis of the reasons for the formation of the system and the circumstances of its development. When studying, specialists also take into account its structure, dynamics and functioning processes. One of the foundations of such research is a landscape map.
Geoecology, ecology and sciences bordering them cannot but take into account the resource factor. Scientists pay considerable attention to the temporal and spatial patterns of development of the landscape and nature as a whole. The so-called basin principle plays an important role. According to him, it is important to analyze the state of hydrogeology, the flow of energy, substances and information.
Concepts and ideas
Geoecology is considered the concept of biocenosis, developed in the 19th century by the scientist Karl Moebius. This term refers to a set of living organisms living in the same natural conditions. Any institute of geoecology pays attention to such concepts as geographical envelope, ecosystem, landscape, noosphere, geosystem concept, geotechnical system concept.
The theoretical foundation of the discipline was formed thanks to two parent sciences and their progress in the last century and a half. Thanks to geography, geoecology has developed a comprehensive concept of natural relationships and the role of individual geocomponents, the concepts of differentiation and integration. The other side of this coin is also important. Ecology introduced into geoecology the terms noosphere and biosphere, a system of views on the cycle of substances and the quality of the environment.
Prerequisites for the emergence of science
Certain views characteristic of geoecology were expressed even before its appearance. Thus, the great English economist of the 18th century Adam Smith studied in detail natural resources as a source of national wealth. In 1798, his compatriot almost for the first time tried to theoretically comprehend the danger of an environmental crisis, the cause of which could be a food shortage. As noted above, the phenomenon of the circulation of substances is very important for the science under consideration. It was first studied by Justach Liebig, who lived in the 19th century, thus substantiating the theory of mineral nutrition of plants.
The formation of geoecology was influenced by the fundamental work of Charles Darwin “The Origin of Species” (1859), as well as the book of the American geographer George Perkins Marsh “Man and Nature” (1864). It was this researcher who was one of the first to declare the need to limit economic activities that harmed the environment.
Russian scientist Alexander Voeikov in 1891 described ways to combat unfavorable natural phenomena (dry winds, frosts, droughts, etc.). He proposed water reclamation and afforestation as countermeasures. A professor at St. Petersburg University in 1903 completed the development of the doctrine of soil, in which it was considered as a natural historical body. All these works later played a role in the development of geoecology.
The Birth of Geoecology
The history of the study of geography, geoecology, tourism and other related disciplines has common roots. They can be traced if you look closely at the evolution of science in the 20th century. The emergence of geoecology is associated with the emergence of landscape ecology, which occurred in 1939. The founder of this discipline was Karl Troll. He studied climate, relief, vegetation and the relationships of various natural factors. It was Troll who introduced the concept of landscape ecology, which, when translated from German into English, was transformed into geological ecology or geoecology.
The double term clearly demonstrated its essence. In the new discipline, Karl Troll combined two research approaches. One (horizontal) was the study of natural phenomena and their interactions, and the other (vertical) was based on the study of their relationships within the ecosystem. The new science became a counterweight to the then existing disciplines. For example, geoecology was very different from biological ecology, which had a separate structure (ecology of animals, plants, microorganisms, etc.). The brainchild of Karl Troll gradually expanded its competence in the 1960s. Geoecology has focused on human economic activity and its impact on the landscape and the environment.
The origin of geoecology is associated with the name of the German geographer K. Troll, who back in the 30s of the last century understood it as one of the branches of natural science, combining environmental and geographical research in the study of ecosystems. In his opinion, the terms “geoecology” and “landscape ecology” are synonymous. In Russia, the widespread use of the term “geoecology” began in the 1970s, after it was mentioned by the famous Soviet geographer V.B. Sochavoy. As a separate science, it finally took shape in the early 1990s of the twentieth century.
However, this term has not yet received a clear and generally accepted definition; the subject and tasks of geoecology are also formulated in different ways, often very heterogeneously. In the most general case, they come down mainly to the study of negative anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment.
Within the broad concept of “geoecology” there are many very diverse scientific areas and practical problems. Due to the fact that geoecology covers diverse aspects of the interaction between society and nature, there are different interpretations of its subject, object and content, the range of issues of geoecological research has not been defined, and there is no generally accepted methodology and terminological base.
We can distinguish at least two major directions in the understanding of the term “geoecology”, in the vision of the subject, goals and objectives of this science:
- Geoecology is considered as the ecology of the geological environment, while the terms “geoecology” and “ecological geology” are considered synonyms. With this approach, geoecology studies the natural connections (direct and reverse) of the geological environment with other components of the natural environment - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, evaluates the impact of human economic activity in all its diverse manifestations and is considered as a science at the intersection of geology, geochemistry, and ecology. At the same time, the ecological functions of the lithosphere (the concept was introduced by V.T. Trofimov and D.G. Ziling in 1994) mean the whole variety of functions that determine and reflect the role and significance of the lithosphere, including groundwater, oil, gases, geophysical fields and flowing in it are geological processes, in the life support of the biota and, mainly, the human community.
- Geoecology is interpreted as a science that studies the interaction of geographical, biological (ecological) and social-production systems. In this case, geoecology studies the ecological aspects of environmental management, issues of the relationship between man and nature, and is characterized by the active use of systemic and synergetic paradigms and an evolutionary approach. Here geoecology is considered as a science at the intersection of geography and ecology.
There are a number of other views on geoecology. Thus, different interpretations can be distinguished depending on what science (geography, geology, geochemistry or ecology) the author takes as the basis of geoecology. A number of authors consider geoecology as an ecologized geography that studies the adaptation of an economy to the surrounding landscape. Others are part of geochemistry, which studies the effects of interactions between biotic and abiotic components.
Many scientists consider geoecology to be the result of modern development and synthesis of a number of sciences: geographical, geological, soil and others. These authors advocate a broad understanding of geoecology as an integral science of ecological orientation that studies the patterns of functioning of anthropogenically modified ecosystems at a high level of organization.
The extensive development of industry in the second half of the twentieth century led to intensive accumulation of chemical elements in the near-surface part of the lithosphere in concentrations not typical for the environment of living organisms. The problem of their diagnosis and identification was successfully solved in the collective work of the Institute of Mineralogy, Geochemistry and Crystal Chemistry of Rare Elements (IMGRE). Simultaneously with this school, approaches to diagnosing and ranking anomalies in the deficiency of vital elements in the soil-plant system were developed in Russia. The leading role in the development of this direction belongs to the team of the GEOKHI RAS. V.I. Vernadsky and employees of his regional centers. In the works of V.V. Kovalsky, V.V. Ermakov, M.A. Risha, B.A. Aidarkhanova, A.M. Khakimova. and others, much attention is paid to the study and mapping of biogeochemical provinces of biophilic deficiency and imbalance, i.e. vital elements. The leading parameters for diagnosing the quality of lithogeochemical anomalies are biogeochemical indicators, including biosubstrates of plants and animals. School of Ecological and Geochemical Research, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov is represented by the works of creative teams led by N.S. Kasimov, (urban areas), I.A. Avsalomova (mining regions), N.P. Solntseva (oil-producing regions), etc., the main basis for constructing ecological-geochemical maps is the doctrine of landscape geochemistry. A series of calculated indicators reflecting the intensity of migration in the soil-plant system are widely used. The variety of approaches to ecological and geochemical assessments of territories, on the one hand, made it possible to develop a basis for complex research, and on the other hand, at the present stage, it began to introduce a certain dissonance in the joining and comparison of the results obtained by various creative teams. An analysis of the modern criteria base indicates the need for active implementation of the methodology of various natural science schools into the practice of ecological and geochemical research. Only their integrated use makes it possible to objectively identify the entire range of geochemical environmental risk factors that reduce the comfort of an area for the existence of an ecosystem and human habitation.
Until the 1980s, environmental problems of the lithosphere were not mentioned. However, soon the global environmental crisis increasingly began to manifest itself in the upper layers of the earth's crust. For this reason, geology gradually began to focus on environmental problems. Geoecology originated in the depths of engineering geology, which studies the properties and dynamics of the upper horizons of the earth's crust in connection with human engineering and economic activities (as defined by I.V. Popov). The tasks of engineering geology initially covered a fairly narrow range of issues, for example, in the field of construction, incl. geological substantiation of projects for buildings, roads, quarries, dams, hydroelectric power stations, etc. Therefore, engineering geology was overly anthropocentric, taking into account only the economic profitability of a particular economic project, leaving the environmental component of the issue without attention.
Over time, this situation began to change, because The connection between the geological environment and human society was increasingly recognized. Thanks to this factor, a direction was subsequently developed in engineering geology that eliminated the negative consequences of human engineering activity in the lithosphere.
Engineering geology was tasked with protecting the geological environment and issues of rational use of lithosphere resources. At this time, a new direction in engineering geology arose - engineering geoecology, a science dealing with practical and theoretical issues of the ecology of the upper horizons of the lithosphere. Thus, engineering geoecology passed the baton to a more universal science - ecological geology, which studies the issues of ecology of the lithosphere and various geospheres of the Earth in their interrelation.
A great contribution to the formation of environmental geology was made by the works of V.I. Vernadsky on geochemistry of the biosphere. Vernadsky's doctrine of the Earth's geospheres provided a serious incentive for further research in the development of a new science.
And finally, only towards the end of the 20th century there was an awareness that the methods of engineering geology cannot solve the global environmental problems of the lithosphere. There is a need to develop the following sciences:
· environmental geochemistry: to study issues of lithosphere pollution and migration of elements in it from the point of view of their impact on ecosystems;
· environmental geophysics: to study the physical fields of the Earth's lithosphere from the point of view of their influence on ecosystems;
· environmental hydrogeology: to study issues of groundwater pollution.
All of the above sciences have united today into one big science - geoecology.
Definition, object, subject, research objectives
Environmental geology is considered as a new direction that studies the relationships between the lithosphere, biota, population and economy (Garetsky, Karataev, 1995; Theory..., 1997; Bgatov, 1993).
The object of study of environmental geology is the near-surface part of the earth's crust - the lithosphere, located primarily in the zone of anthropogenic influence. The lithospheric block includes rocks, relief and geodynamic processes. In the structure of environmental geology, two areas are distinguished - subject and information-methodological.
The subject of environmental geology is the ecological functions of the lithosphere.
Like most geological sciences, environmental geology studies, according to V.T. Trofimov and D.G. Ziling (2000,2002), problems of three types: morphological, retrospective and forecast.
Morphological tasks are tasks related to the study of the composition, state, structure and properties of the analyzed system, its ecological and geological conditions as a whole. Solving problems of this type makes it possible to answer the question: “What kind of system is this, and what qualities are inherent in it?”, as well as to obtain qualitative and quantitative indicators characterizing the modern ecological and geological conditions (settings) of the object being studied.
Retrospective tasks are tasks directed to the past and related to the study (more precisely, restoration) of the history of the formation of the object of study, the formation of its modern quality. Solving problems of this type allows us to answer the questions: “Why is the object like this? How was it formed?
Forecasting tasks are tasks related to the study of behavior and development trends of the system under study in the future under the influence of various causes of natural and man-made origin. Solving problems of this type allows us to answer the question: “How will the object behave in the future under certain influences?”
As in engineering geology, environmental geology has to solve the problems of spatial, temporal and spatiotemporal forecast of changes in the ecological-geological system under the influence of natural, man-made causes or their combined action. The methodology for solving forecast problems is much less developed than morphological and retrospective ones.
It has previously been shown that environmental geology studies ecological-geological systems. There are four types of these systems (Trofimov, Ziling, 2002):
* the natural ecological-geological system is real;
* natural ecological-geological system is ideal;
* natural-technical ecological-geological system is ideal;
* natural-technical ecological-geological system is real.
The relationship between environmental geology and the natural sciences
Environmental geology is at the intersection of environmental and geological disciplines
Fig.1
Environmental geology is a synthesis of two interrelated sciences: geological and environmental, which also includes natural, exact, medical and socio-economic disciplines. The central part in it is occupied by geoecology - an interdisciplinary scientific field that studies the environmental aspects of the interaction between nature and society (Yasamanov, 2003)
Structure of geoecology
Environmental geology develops according to the principle of “greening” the main branches of geology and includes disciplines that study from an environmental perspective:
· composition and properties of the Earth (ecological petrology, geochemistry, hydrogeology, geophysics);
· geological processes (ecological geodynamics);
· the role of organic life in the formation of the lithosphere and mineral deposits (ecology of lithogenesis and ecology of minerals);
· geological environment (engineering environmental geology);
· disciplines of methodological content (ecological cartography and geoinformatics).
The main branches of environmental geology are:
· ecological petrology;
· ecological geodynamics;
· ecological geomorphology;
· environmental geochemistry;
· environmental geophysics;
· ecological hydrogeology;
special environmental geology, including ecological and geological aspects of design and construction. Recreational ecological geology can be included in its composition.
We can distinguish at least two major directions in understanding the term “geoecology”, the subject, goals and objectives of this science: 1. Geoecology is considered as the ecology of the geological environment. With this approach, geoecology studies the natural connections (direct and reverse) of the geological environment with other components of the natural environment - the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, evaluates the impact of human economic activity in all its diverse manifestations and is considered as a science at the intersection of geology, geochemistry, biology and ecology . 2. Geoecology is interpreted as a science that studies the interaction of geographical, biological (ecological) and social-production systems. In this case, geoecology studies the ecological aspects of environmental management, issues of the relationship between man and nature, and is characterized by the active use of systemic and synergetic paradigms and an evolutionary approach. Here geoecology is considered as a science at the intersection of geography and ecology. There are a number of other views on geoecology. Thus, different interpretations can be distinguished depending on what science (geography or ecology) the author takes as the basis of geoecology. A number of authors consider geoecology as ecologized geography, studying the adaptation of the economy to the surrounding landscape . Others are part of ecology, which examines the consequences of interactions between biotic and abiotic components. Many scientists consider geoecology to be the result of modern development and synthesis of a number of sciences: geographical, geological, soil and others. These authors advocate a broad understanding of geoecology as an integral science of ecological orientation that studies the patterns of functioning of anthropogenically modified ecosystems at a high level of organization.
5* Understanding of geoecology in geographical and geological approaches
Geological approach is key, but not the main one. The problems were developed within the framework of geoecology. Result-ecological geology, the object is a set of geospheres. The composition of the main environmental object includes: - geosphere, lithobiosphere, lithosphere, underground part of the technosphere. The geological environment is an object of geological ecology, as it is in relationship with the technosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Tasks of the geological stage: 1.study of the geological environment, 2. Identification of dangerous processes of a natural and man-made nature that may threaten society and structures. Item: ecological functions and properties of the ecological environment. Geology is the field of study of the laws of the lithosphere and geosphere, revealing the role of the earth's external geospheres and predominant human activities. Geological ecology: ecogeochemistry, ecogeomorphology, ecogeodynamics. Geographical approach. Geographers have the first information about geoecology. Karl Troll coined the term “geoecology” in 1939. Geographers were the first to include natural landscapes as objects of study. Geographical science has formed the prerequisites for geoecology: 1. Geography of natural ecosystems and biogeography study the patterns of functioning of systems at various levels. The result is the identification of environmental patterns of geographical zones. 2. Geographers often use environmental assessments and approaches when expanding the links between socio-economic development and environmental issues. 3. study of medicine, geography of diseases caused by changes in the state of wasps and geochemical characteristics of natural and man-made systems 4. geoecology studies modern landscapes, has a connection with landscape ecology, but the ultimate goal is the task of optimizing natural resources. 5. Geoecology is a continuation of the concept of constructive geography.