Psychology and pedagogy - systemic understanding. Subject of educational psychology

Educational psychology as a science. Subject of educational psychology.

Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely related to such branches as developmental psychology and occupational psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to the common object of study, which is man in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of educational psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activities. This is what brings educational psychology closer to labor psychology, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of work activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.

The subject of educational psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person’s mastery of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this mastery. In particular, educational psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the peculiarities of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the influence of training and upbringing on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental new formations, the psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:

1. The connection between conscious, organized pedagogical influence on a child and his psychological development.

2. A combination of age patterns and individual developmental characteristics and optimal teaching and upbringing methods for age categories and specific children.

3. Finding and making the most effective use of sensitive periods of child mental development.

4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious education and training.

5. Pedagogical neglect.

6. Providing an individual approach to training.

The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, i.e., the sections included in this science. Traditionally, the structure of educational psychology is divided into three sections: 1) psychology of learning; 2) psychology of education; 3) the psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. In fact, the word “training” refers to the influence on the student by the teacher with the aim of the student acquiring knowledge and developing skills, i.e. the teacher is considered as an active party, a subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of “education” also means influencing the person being educated with the aim of developing in him certain psychological properties and qualities desirable for the educator, i.e. the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only as a separate issue in this topic self-education is considered.

Structure and tasks of educational psychology.

Tasks of educational psychology:

1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

2.- determination of the mechanisms and patterns of students’ mastery of sociocultural experience, its structuring, preservation in the individual consciousness of the student, its use in different situations;

3. – determination of the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.).

4. – study of the characteristics of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the influence of these processes on their intellectual and personal development;

5. – study of the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;

6. – determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for knowledge acquisition;

7. – determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of learning in accordance with educational standards.

Structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:

1. – psychology of learning;

2. – psychology of education;

3. – psychology of the teacher.

Or more broadly:

1. psychology of educational activities;

2. psychology of educational activity and its subject;

3. psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;

4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.

Experiment(from the Latin eexperimental - “test”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most labor-intensive, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Famous experimental psychologists P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of the mind’s approach, which has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.”

It is impossible to do without experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and labor intensity, since only in a carefully thought-out, properly organized and conducted experiment can the most conclusive results be obtained, especially regarding cause-and-effect relationships.

The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular connections, i.e. stable, significant connections between phenomena and processes. It is this goal that distinguishes experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.

Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and taken into account spontaneous ones.

Scheme of psychological and pedagogical experiment.

D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:

1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.

2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.

3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.

4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.

There are practically no ideal experiments.

General concept of learning.

Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization under Earth conditions).
In foreign psychology, the concept of “learning” is often used as an equivalent to “teaching”. In Russian psychology (at least during the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) have used this term in relation to humans.
The term “learning” is used primarily in behavioral psychology. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes in the formation of individual experience (habituation, imprinting, formation of the simplest conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.

All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of connections between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Types of associative learning:

1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.

· Sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

· Motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the very process of performing a movement.

· Sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.

2. Associative cognitive learning is divided into teaching knowledge, teaching skills and teaching actions.

· At learning Through knowledge, a person discovers new properties in objects that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.

· Learning skills consists in the formation of a program of actions that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.

Learning Action involves learning knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are the essential connections, structures and relationships of objective reality.
Types of intellectual learning:

More complex forms of learning relate to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflexive and cognitive.

1. Reflexive intellectual learning is divided into relational learning, transfer learning and sign learning.

· Essence relationship teaching consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.

· Transfer learning is “the successful use, in relation to a new situation, of those skills and innate forms of behavior that the animal already possesses.” This type of learning is based on the ability to identify relationships and actions.

· Sign learning is associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which “the animal reacts to an object as a sign, that is, it responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object signifies” (Ibid. p. 62).

In animals, intellectual learning is presented in its simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and occurs at the cognitive level.

2. Intelligent Cognitive Training is divided into teaching concepts, teaching thinking and teaching skills.

· Learning concepts is the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are enshrined in words and combinations of words. Through mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.

· Learning thinking consists in “forming in students mental actions and their systems, reflecting the basic operations with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Teaching thinking is a prerequisite for teaching concepts.

. Learning skills is to develop in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.

Learning theories.

T.n. strive to systematize existing facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain changes in behavior as a result of the organism acquiring individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. are caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to particular facts, most of the differences arising from disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of available facts. Theoret. an approach that calls itself experimental. analysis of behavior, tries to systematize facts at a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiologist. manifestations. However, many theorists do not agree with interpretations of learning that are limited only to the behavioral level. Three circumstances are often mentioned in this regard. Firstly, the time interval between behavior and its preconditions can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have suggested the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as habits or memory processes that mediate the observed background and subsequent actions. Secondly, we often behave differently in conditions that superficially look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often called motivations, are invoked as a hypothetical explanation for observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, complex evolutionary and individual developmental histories make it possible for highly organized reactions to occur in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. In such circumstances, the previous external conditions necessary for the emergence of the skill, and the events that occur between the occurrence of the problem and the emergence of the answer to it, are inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologist. and neural processes, unobservable cognitive processes are invoked to explain behavior. Due to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. assume the existence of unobservable processes - usually called intermediate variables - that interpose between observable events in the environment and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ with respect to the nature of these intervening variables. Although T.n. address a wide range of issues, the present discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In the experiment. Behavior analysis recognizes two procedures that can be used to induce changes in behavior: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts, classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction that may have a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although response conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially emotional responses, most learning involves operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcement depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to cause this reinforcement. Operant conditioning is believed to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since by gradually modifying the reaction, with which reinforcement is conditionally connected, it is possible to develop new and more complex operants. This process is called operant conditioning. In experimental In the analysis of behavior developed by B.F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply a stimulus that, when included in a system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of subsequent behavior being formed. Skinner studied the importance of reinforcement in humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid introducing k.-l. new processes that are not observable in laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior relied on the assumption that the often unobservable and subtle behavior of people follows the same principles as fully observable forms of behavior. Theories of intermediate variables Under the pressure of the three problems noted above - memory, motivation and cognition, most of the creators of the so-called. supplemented Skinner's experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intervening variables. Intermediate variables are theories. constructs, the meaning of which is determined through their connections with various environmental variables, whose general effects they are intended to summarize. Tolman's expectancy theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of continuity of evolution, biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson concluded it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically definable intermediate variables. As far as our subject is concerned, Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike viewed the consequences of a response as being of utmost importance in strengthening the associative connection between stimulus and response. He called this the law of effect, which was the forerunner of modern law. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that reaction consequences do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and execution arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable was changed several times, but the most appropriate name was probably expectancy. Expectancy depended solely on the temporal sequence—or contiguity—of events in the environment rather than on the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, a necessary and sufficient condition for learning was the contiguity of events. These events are physiologist. are represented by processes occurring in those areas of the cerebral cortex, which are activated by indifferent and unconditioned stimuli. The evolutionary consequences of a learned response were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested experimentally. conditions, so their role in learning remains unclear. Molecular theory of Ghazri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazri believed that contiguity was a sufficient condition for learning. However, the events that coincided in time were not determined by such broad environmental events as Tolman argued. Each molar environmental event, according to Ghazri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, which he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Ghazri called an “action,” in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or “movements.” If a signal is combined in time with movement, this movement becomes completely determined by this signal. Learning a behavioral action develops slowly only because most actions require learning of many component movements in the presence of many specific signals. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intervening variables in learning theory reached its greatest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull attempted to develop a general interpretation of behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both stimulus-response conjugation and drive reduction were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habit. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct that summarizes the overall effect of a number of situational variables on a number of behavioral variables. The relationships between situational variables and the intervening variable, and then between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use of some of his intermediate variables in the formulation of physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were concerned exclusively with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, a Hull collaborator who contributed significantly to the development of his theory, was particularly careful in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of the so-called. two of their key features were influential. All subsequent theories, as a rule, were based on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were “miniature” theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really swear words. T.n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and mathematics. statistics relied primarily on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of intervening variable theories, the most significant contribution to the development of the principle of reinforcement came from empirical research. Leon Karnina and related theories. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the classical conditioning procedure, an indifferent stimulus combined with a k.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not gain control over the reaction if the indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of that indifferent stimulus must be complemented by similarity if learning is to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely defined. In terms of experimentation. behavior analysis theory. the work has become more obscene. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to multiple ones. reinforced reactions and the interaction of reinforced reactions with other reactions. In the broadest sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the range of possible behavioral alternatives. The resulting redistribution minimizes the change in the current reaction until a new operant conjugation is established and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There is reason to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experimental. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is changed in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.

Types of learning in humans

1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the body to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior that are practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites humans with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately exhibits an innate sucking reflex. As soon as a mother duck appears in the field of view of a newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, the chick, standing on its own paws, automatically begins to follow her everywhere. This - instinctive(i.e. unconditional-reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (the “critical” period), and subsequently are difficult to change.

2. Conditioned reflex learning – a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signaling or orienting role. For example, a word as a certain combination of sounds. Associated with highlighting an object in the field of vision or holding an object in one’s hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically evoke in a person’s mind an image of this object or a movement aimed at searching for it.

3. Operant conditioning – knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired using the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions (“operations”) of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful in achieving a goal, it is reinforced by the result achieved. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the programmed training system and in the token system of psychotherapy.

4. Vicarious learning – learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.

5. Verbal learning – a person’s acquisition of new experience through language. In this case, we mean learning carried out in symbolic form through diverse sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, music literacy.

The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, while the fourth and fifth are only for humans.

If the learning conditions are specifically organized, are created, then such an organization of learning is called training. Training is broadcast a person with certain knowledge, skills, and abilities. Knowledge, abilities and skills are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Consequently, they can arise in a person’s head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the student’s mental activity.

Thus, education – the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.

Knowledge, abilities and skills will be formed only if the teacher’s influences cause certain physical and mental activity.

Teaching (learning activities)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed with the aim of acquiring a certain composition of knowledge, skills, and intellectual skills.

Structure of educational activities.

Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the child’s personality, i.e. mastering scientific knowledge and relevant skills.

Motives- this is what encourages you to learn and overcome difficulties in the process of acquiring knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, and activities.

Classification of teaching motives:

Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, avoidance of punishment.

Cognitive : orientation towards mastering new knowledge, orientation towards the learning process (the child finds pleasure in being active in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), orientation towards results (the child tries in class to get a “10”, although the subject itself he is not interested).

Emotional: interest on an emotional level.

What are the main motives educational activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominant meaning children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs as a schoolchild. recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with knowledge and learning itself have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of the teacher, educator). However, researchers warn that it is too early to become complacent. Cognitive motives Six-year-olds are still extremely unstable and situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.

It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase children's interest in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage, in order to build his education with this in mind. Let us remember: an educational goal that is not connected with the motives that are relevant to the child, that does not affect his soul, is not retained in his consciousness, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more in tune with the child’s usual motives.

Since at the age of six the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its multi-motivated) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated in a variety of ways.- game, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done when teaching six-year-olds.

Learning task- this is what the child must master.

Learning action- these are changes in educational material necessary for a child to master it; this is what the child must do to discover the properties of the subject he is studying.

Learning action is formed on the basis of mastery ways of teaching (operational side of the exercise) – These are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.

Practical actions - (actions with objects) – with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts

Mental Actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creation of something new (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new combination of means), verbal - reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing actions in speech form, imagery (aimed at creating imaginary images).

To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways of performing actions) and abilities (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensures the successful completion of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities required in certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme identification, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson or activity. These skills will fully develop later, but the rudiments of them appear already in preschool age.

Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs the action corresponding to the model. This action should not only be performed by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions not only in terms of their final result, but also in the process of achieving it.

Action of assessment (self-assessment)- determining whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from studying or reluctance to study, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, failure to attend classes, leaving the educational institution.

Learning ability and its main components. Learning ability – This is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of a child’s cognitive activity that determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of teaching methods.

Methods of influence in education

Method of formation of consciousness: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, instruction, debate, report, example. Method of organizing activities and forming behavioral experience: exercise, training, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Stimulation method: competition, encouragement, punishment.

Pedagogical impact- a special type of activity of a teacher, the goal of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the student (needs, attitudes, relationships, states, behavior patterns).

The goal of any psychological impact is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three corresponding influence strategies.

The first strategy is imperative influence strategy; its main functions: the function of controlling human behavior and attitudes, reinforcing them and directing them in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. Second strategy - manipulative – is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge for the purpose of influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,

Traditionally, psychological science distinguishes two main types of pedagogical influence: persuasion and suggestion.

Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness and will of the child. This is a logically reasoned influence of one person or group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.

Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.

38. Methods of self-education and self-education

Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through independent studies outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person.

Stages of the formation of educational psychology as an independent science.

General didactic stage (mid-18th - late 19th centuries). Experimental stage (late 19th century – mid 20th century). Formalization of educational psychology into an independent science. Pedagogical psychology(mid-20th century, at the present stage). Development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology. Computerization of the educational process and the development of educational psychology.

Object, subject and tasks of modern educational psychology. The structure of modern educational psychology. The connection between developmental and educational psychology: integration and differentiation. Pedagogy and psychology in the structure of the discipline. Connection of educational psychology with other sciences.

Subject. Methods of educational psychology

Methodological foundations and methods of educational psychology. General and special, theoretical and empirical methods. Classification of methods of psychological and pedagogical research Basic methods in educational psychology Formative experiment as one of the main methods of psychological and pedagogical research and features of its application.

Topic 1. Educational psychology as a science

Topic 1. Educational psychology as a science.

Subject of educational psychology

1. Subject and structure of educational psychology

The term "educational psychology" refers to two different sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education.

Under the same term, “educational psychology,” applied science is also being developed, the goal of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice. Abroad, this applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

The term "educational psychology" was proposed by P.F. Kapterev in 1874 (Kapterev P.F., 1999; abstract). Initially, it existed along with other terms adopted to designate disciplines occupying a borderline position between pedagogy and psychology: “pedology” (O. Chrisman, 1892), “experimental pedagogy” (E. Meiman, 1907). Experimental pedagogy and educational psychology were initially interpreted as different names for the same field of knowledge (L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky) (see Media Library). During the first third of the 20th century. their meanings were differentiated. Experimental pedagogy began to be understood as a field of research aimed at applying the data of experimental psychology to pedagogical reality; educational psychology - as a field of knowledge and the psychological basis of theoretical and practical pedagogy. (see Khrest. 1.1)

Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of human development in conditions of training and education. It is closely related to pedagogy, child and differential psychology, and psychophysiology.

When considering educational psychology, like any other branch of science, it is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between the concepts of its object and subject.

In the general scientific interpretation, the object of science is understood as the area of ​​reality that this science is aimed at studying. Often the object of study is fixed in the very name of the science.

The subject of science is the side or sides of the object of science by which it is represented in it. If an object exists independently of science, then the subject is formed together with it and is fixed in its conceptual system. An object does not capture all sides of an object, although it may include what is missing in the object. In a certain sense, the development of science is the development of its subject.

Each object can be studied by many sciences. Thus, man is studied by physiology, sociology, biology, anthropology, etc. But each science is based on its own subject, i.e. what exactly she studies in the object.

As an analysis of the points of view of various authors shows, many scientists define the status of educational psychology differently, which may indicate an ambiguity in resolving the issue of the subject of educational psychology (see animation).

For example, V.A. Krutetsky believes that educational psychology “studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, explores individual differences in these processes... patterns of formation of creative active thinking in schoolchildren... changes in the psyche, i.e. the formation of mental new formations” (Krutetsky V.A., 1972. P. 7).

A completely different point of view is shared by V.V. Davydov. He proposes that educational psychology be considered a part of developmental psychology. The scientist argues that the specifics of each age determine the nature of the manifestation of the laws of knowledge acquisition by students, therefore the teaching of a particular discipline should be structured differently. Moreover, some disciplines at certain ages are generally inaccessible to students. This is the position of V.V. Davydov is due to his emphasis on the role of development, its influence on the course of learning. He views learning as a form, and development as the content that is realized in it.

There are a number of other points of view. In the future, we will adhere to the generally accepted interpretation, according to which the subject of educational psychology is the facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process (Zimnyaya I.A. , 1997; abstract).

Structure of educational psychology

The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections (see Fig. 2):

1. psychology of learning;

2. psychology of education;

3. teacher psychology.

1. The subject of educational psychology is the development of cognitive activity in conditions of systematic learning. Thus, the psychological essence of the educational process is revealed. Research in this area is aimed at identifying:

1. interrelations of external and internal factors that determine differences in cognitive activity in the conditions of various didactic systems;

2. the relationship between the motivational and intellectual plans of learning;

3. opportunities to manage the processes of learning and development of the child;

4. psychological and pedagogical criteria for the effectiveness of training, etc. (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-uchen.html; see the laboratory of the psychology of teaching PI RAO).

Psychology of learning explores, first of all, the process of assimilation of knowledge and skills and abilities adequate to them. Its task is to identify the nature of this process, its characteristics and qualitatively unique stages, conditions and criteria for successful occurrence. A special task of educational psychology is the development of methods that make it possible to diagnose the level and quality of learning.

Studies of the learning process itself, carried out from the standpoint of the principles of Russian psychology, have shown that the process of assimilation is the performance by a person of certain actions or activities. Knowledge is always acquired as elements of these actions, and skills and abilities take place when the acquired actions are brought to certain indicators for some of their characteristics.

Teaching is a system of special actions necessary for students to go through the main stages of the learning process. The actions that make up the activity of teaching are assimilated according to the same laws as any others (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract).

Most studies on the psychology of learning are aimed at identifying the patterns of formation and functioning of cognitive activity in the conditions of the existing educational system. In particular, a wealth of experimental material has been accumulated, revealing typical shortcomings in the acquisition of various scientific concepts by secondary school students. The role of students’ life experience and the nature of the educational material presented in the acquisition of knowledge has also been studied.

In the 70s XX century in educational psychology, they increasingly began to use another path: the study of the patterns of development of knowledge and cognitive activity in general in the conditions of specially organized training. Research has shown that managing the learning process significantly changes the course of acquiring knowledge and skills. The conducted research is important for finding the most optimal ways of learning and identifying conditions for effective mental development of students.

Pedagogical psychology also studies the dependence of the acquisition of knowledge, abilities, skills, the formation of various personality traits on the individual characteristics of students (Nurminsky I.I. et al., 1991; abstract).

In domestic educational psychology, such theories of learning as the associative-reflex theory, the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, etc. have been created. Among Western theories of learning, the behaviorist theory is most widespread (1. http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l -podjun.html; see laboratory for the study of mental development in adolescence and youth; 2. http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-ps-not.html; see laboratory of psychological foundations of new educational technologies) .

2. The subject of educational psychology is the development of personality in the context of the purposeful organization of the activities of a child and a children's team. Educational psychology studies the patterns of the process of assimilation of moral norms and principles, the formation of worldviews, beliefs, etc. in the conditions of educational and educational activities at school.

Research in this area is aimed at studying:

b. differences in the self-awareness of students brought up in different conditions;

c. the structure of children's and youth groups and their role in the formation of personality;

d. conditions and consequences of mental deprivation, etc. (Lishin O.V., 1997; abstract, cover).

3. The subject of teacher psychology is the psychological aspects of the formation of professional pedagogical activity, as well as those personality traits that contribute to or hinder the success of this activity. The most important tasks of this section of educational psychology are:

a. determining the creative potential of the teacher and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes;

b. studying the emotional stability of a teacher;

c. identifying positive features of the individual communication style of teacher and student and a number of others (Mitina L.M., 1998; abstract).

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-prof.html; see laboratory of professional development of personality PI RAO), (http://elite.far.ru/ - department of acmeology and psychology of professional activity of the Russian Academy of Civil Art under the President of the Russian Federation).

The results of psychological and pedagogical research are used in the design of teaching content and methods, the creation of teaching aids, and the development of diagnostic tools and correction of mental development.

2. Goals and objectives of educational psychology

There are a number of problems in educational psychology, the theoretical and practical significance of which justifies the identification and existence of this field of knowledge (see Fig. 3). Let's consider and discuss some of them.

1. The problem of the relationship between training and development. One of the most important problems of educational psychology is the problem of the relationship between learning and mental development.

The problem under consideration is a derivative of a general scientific problem - the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in a person or as a problem of genotypic and environmental conditioning of the human psyche and behavior (see Khrest. 1.2). The problem of genetic sources of psychology and human behavior is one of the most important in psychological and pedagogical sciences. After all, the fundamental solution to the question of the possibilities of teaching and raising children, and humans in general, depends on its correct solution (Biological..., 1977; abstract) (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-teor-exp.html; see laboratory of theoretical and experimental problems of developmental psychology).

According to modern science, it is almost impossible to directly influence the genetic apparatus through training and education and, therefore, what is given genetically cannot be re-educated. On the other hand, training and education in themselves have enormous potential in terms of the mental development of the individual, even if they do not affect the genotype itself and do not affect organic processes.

In Russian psychology, this problem was first formulated by L.S. Vygotsky in the early 30s. XX century (Vygotsky L.S., 1996; abstract). (http://www.vygotsky.ru/russian/vygot/vygotsky.htm; see server dedicated to Vygotsky).

He substantiated the leading role of training in development, noting that training should go ahead of development and be a source of new development.

However, this raises a number of questions:

a. How do training and education lead to development?

b. Does all learning contribute to development or only problematic and so-called developmental ones?

c. How are the biological maturation of the body, learning and development related to each other?

d. Does learning influence maturation, and if so, to what extent? Does this influence affect the fundamental solution to the question of the relationship between learning and development?

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-ob-raz.html; see group of psychology of education and development of junior schoolchildren PI RAO).

2. The problem of the relationship between training and education. Another problem, which is closely related to the previous one, is the problem of the relationship between training and education. The processes of teaching and upbringing in their unity represent a pedagogical process, the purpose of which is education, development and formation of personality. In essence, both occur through the interaction of teacher and student, educator and pupil, adult and child, located in certain living conditions, in a certain environment.

The problem under consideration includes a number of issues:

a. How do these processes interdetermine and interpenetrate each other?

b. How do different types of activities influence learning and education?

c. What are the psychological mechanisms of assimilation of knowledge, formation of abilities, skills and assimilation of social norms and norms of behavior?

d. What are the differences between pedagogical influence in teaching and upbringing?

e. How does the learning process itself and the process of upbringing proceed? These and many other questions form the essence of the problem under consideration (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/g-fak.html; see group for the study of factors in the formation of individuality PI RAO).

3. The problem of taking into account sensitive periods of development in education. One of the most important problems in the study of child development is the problem of finding and maximizing the use of the sensitive period in his life for the development of each child. Sensitive periods in psychology are understood as periods of ontogenetic development, when a developing organism is especially sensitive to certain types of influences from the surrounding reality. For example, at the age of about five years, children are especially sensitive to the development of phenomenal hearing, and after this period this sensitivity decreases somewhat. Sensitive periods are periods of optimal development of certain aspects of the psyche: processes and properties. An excessively early start in learning something can have an adverse effect on mental development, just as a very late start in learning can be ineffective (Obukhova L.F., 1996, abstract).

The difficulty of the problem under consideration is that all sensitive periods of development of the child’s intellect and personality, their beginning, duration and completion are not known. Approaching the study of children individually, it is necessary to learn to predict the onset of various sensitive periods of development for each child.

4. The problem of children's giftedness. The problem of giftedness in Russian psychology began to be studied more closely only in the last decade. General talent refers to the development of general abilities that determine the range of activities in which a person can achieve great success. Gifted children are “children who display one or another special or general giftedness” (Russian…, 1993-1999, T. 2. P. 77; abstract).

In this regard, a number of questions arise related to the identification and training of gifted children:

a. What is characteristic of the age sequence of manifestation of giftedness?

b. By what criteria and signs can one judge the giftedness of students?

c. How to establish and study the giftedness of children in the process of training and education, in the course of students performing one or another meaningful activity?

d. How to promote the development of giftedness in students in the educational process?

e. How to combine the development of special abilities with broad general education training and the comprehensive development of the student’s personality? (Leites N.S., 2000; abstract); (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l-odar.html; see laboratory of psychology of giftedness PI RAO), (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/lab-tvor.html ; see creativity diagnostic group).

5. The problem of children's readiness for school. The readiness of children to study at school is “the set of morphological and psychological characteristics of a child of senior preschool age, ensuring a successful transition to systematic organized schooling” (Rossiyskaya..., T.1. P. 223-224).

In the pedagogical and psychological literature, along with the term “readiness for schooling,” the term “school maturity” is used. These terms are almost synonymous, although the second one more reflects the psychophysiological aspect of organic maturation.

The problem of children's readiness for schooling is revealed through the search for answers to a number of questions:

a. How do the living conditions of a child and his assimilation of social experience in the course of communication with peers and adults influence the formation of school readiness?

b. What system of requirements imposed on a child by the school determines psychological readiness for schooling?

c. What is meant by psychological readiness for schooling?

d. What criteria and indicators can be used to judge psychological readiness for school?

e. How to build correctional and developmental programs to achieve school readiness? (http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html; see laboratory of scientific foundations of children's practical psychology PI RAO).

The solution to the listed and other psychological and pedagogical problems requires a teacher or educator to have high professional qualifications, a significant part of which consists of psychological knowledge, skills and abilities (http://www.voppy.ru/; see the website of the journal “Questions of Psychology”).

Tasks of educational psychology

The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process. Accordingly, the tasks of educational psychology are (see animation):

a. disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educational influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

b. determination of the mechanisms and patterns of student mastering sociocultural experience (socialization), its structuring, preservation (strengthening) in the individual consciousness of the student and use in various situations;

c. determining the connection between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educational influence (collaboration, active forms of learning, etc.);

d. determining the characteristics of the organization and management of students’ educational activities and the impact of these processes on intellectual, personal development and educational and cognitive activity;

e. studying the psychological foundations of a teacher’s activity;

f. determination of factors, mechanisms, patterns of developmental education, in particular the development of scientific and theoretical thinking;

g. determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge, formation on their basis of the operational composition of activities in the process of solving various problems;

h. development of psychological foundations for further improvement of the educational process at all levels of the educational system, etc.

3. The relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

The relationship between educational psychology and other sciences

Clarifying the subject of educational psychology also requires determining its place among other sciences, first of all, establishing its relationship to pedagogical disciplines, to general and developmental psychology.

According to B.G. Ananyev, educational psychology is a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which “has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become a sphere of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations” (Ananyev B.G., 2001; abstract).

In connection with this “borderline” nature of pedagogy and psychology, we consider it necessary, first of all, to clarify the relationship between these two sciences.

Psychology is organically connected with pedagogy (see Fig. 5).

There are several communication “nodes” between them (see Fig. 6).

The main communication center is the subject of these sciences. Psychology studies the laws of development of the human psyche. Pedagogy develops laws for managing personal development. The upbringing and education of children and adults is nothing more than a purposeful change in this psyche (for example, thinking, activity). Consequently, they cannot be carried out by specialists who do not have psychological knowledge.

The second connection point between the two sciences is the indicators and criteria of a person’s training and education. The degree of advanced knowledge of schoolchildren is recorded by changes in memory, knowledge reserves, abilities to use knowledge for practical purposes, mastery of cognitive activity techniques, speed of knowledge reproduction, mastery of terminology, skills of transferring knowledge to non-standard situations, etc. Good breeding is fixed in motivated actions, a system of conscious and impulsive behavior, stereotypes, activity skills and judgments. All this means that the symptoms of achievements in the educational work of adults with children are shifts in the psyche, in the thinking and behavior of students. In other words, the results of pedagogical activity are diagnosed by changes in the psychological characteristics of those being educated.

The third connection point is research methods. Interscientific communications between two branches of knowledge also take place in the research methods of pedagogy and psychology. Many psychological research tools successfully serve to solve pedagogical research problems (for example, psychometrics, paired comparison, rating, psychological tests, etc.).

The relationship between educational psychology and branches of psychology

The connection between educational psychology and related sciences, including developmental psychology, is two-way (see Fig. 7). It is guided by a research methodology that represents a “projection” of general psychological science; uses data supplied by developmental psychology and other sciences. At the same time, educational psychology itself supplies data not only for pedagogical science, but also for general and developmental psychology, occupational psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, etc.

Recently, developmental psychology has become increasingly important as a foundation for educational psychology. Developmental psychology is a theory of mental development in ontogenesis. She studies the patterns of transition from one period to another based on changes in the types of leading activities, changes in the social situation of development, the nature of a person’s interaction with other people (Obukhova L.F., 1996; abstract). (http://flogiston.ru/arch/obukhova_1.shtml; see the electronic version of the book by L.F. Obukhova).

Age is characterized not by the relationship of individual mental functions, but by those specific tasks of mastering aspects of reality that are accepted and solved by a person, as well as age-related neoplasms.

Based on this, V.V. Davydov formulated a number of principles of developmental psychology (see Fig. 8):

Each age period should not be studied in isolation, but from the point of view of general development trends, taking into account the previous and subsequent ages.

Each age has its own development reserves, which can be mobilized during the development of a child’s specially organized activity in relation to the surrounding reality and to his activities.

The characteristics of age are not static, but are determined by socio-historical factors, the so-called social order of society, etc. (Psychology..., 1978).

All these and other principles of developmental psychology are of great importance when creating a psychological theory of assimilation of sociocultural experience within the framework of educational psychology. For example, based on them, the following principles of educational psychology can be identified (using the example of its section - the psychology of learning):

a. Education is based on data from developmental psychology about age reserves, focusing on the “tomorrow” of development.

b. Education is organized taking into account the existing individual characteristics of students, but not on the basis of adaptation to them, but as the design of new types of activities, new levels of development of students.

c. Learning cannot be reduced only to the transfer of knowledge, to the practice of certain actions and operations, but is mainly the formation of the student’s personality, the development of the sphere of determination of his behavior (values, motives, goals), etc.

4. History of the formation of educational psychology

Historical aspects of educational psychology

1.4.1. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century.

1.4.2. The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s. XX century

1.4.3. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now

The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century.

I.A. Zimnyaya identifies three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A., 1997; abstract).

a. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. can be called general didactic.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. and until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology. Let us consider in more detail each of the named stages of development of educational psychology.

I.A. Zimnyaya called the first stage general didactic with a clearly felt need to “psychologize pedagogy” (according to Pestalozzi).

The role of psychology in the practice of teaching and upbringing was realized long before educational psychology became an independent scientific branch. Ya.A. Comenius, J. Locke, J.J. Russo, I.G. Pestalozzi, F.A. Disterweg et al. emphasized the need to build the pedagogical process on the basis of psychological knowledge about the child.

Analyzing the contribution of G. Pestalozzi, P.F. Kapterev notes that “Pestalozzi understood all learning as a matter of creativity of the student himself, all knowledge as the development of activity from within, as acts of initiative, self-development” (Kapterev P.F., 1982. P. 293). Pointing out the differences in the development of a child’s mental, physical and moral abilities, Pestalozzi emphasized the importance of their connection and close interaction in learning, which moves from simple to more complex, in order to ultimately ensure the harmonious development of a person.

The idea of ​​developmental education by K.D. Ushinsky called it “the great discovery of Pestalozzi” (Ushinsky K.D., 1948. P. 95). Pestalozzi considered the main goal of education to be to excite children's minds to active activity, to develop their cognitive abilities, to develop in them the ability to think logically and briefly express in words the essence of learned concepts. He developed a system of exercises arranged in a certain sequence and aimed at setting in motion the inherent natural forces of man's desire for activity. However, Pestalozzi to some extent subordinated to the task of student development another, no less important task of teaching - equipping students with knowledge. Criticizing the school of his day for verbalism and rote learning, which dulled the spiritual powers of children, the scientist sought to psychologize education, to build it in accordance with the “natural way of knowledge” of a child. Pestalozzi considered the starting point of this path to be the sensory perception of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Follower of I.G. Pestalozzi was F.A. Disterweg, who considered conformity to nature, cultural conformity, and self-activity as the main principles of education (Disterweg F.A., 1956).

Disterweg emphasized that only by knowing psychology and physiology can a teacher ensure the harmonious development of children. In psychology, he saw “the basis of the science of education,” and believed that a person has innate inclinations, which are characterized by a desire for development. The task of education is to ensure such independent development. The scientist understood initiative as activity, initiative and considered it the most important personality trait. He saw the development of children's initiative as both the ultimate goal and an indispensable condition for any education.

F. Disterweg determined the value of individual academic subjects based on how much they stimulate the student’s mental activity; contrasted the developmental teaching method with the scientific (communicating) one. He formulated the fundamentals of didactics of developmental education in clear rules.

The work of K.D. Ushinsky was of particular importance for the development of educational psychology. His works, primarily the book “Man as a Subject of Education. The Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology” (1868-1869), created the prerequisites for the emergence of educational psychology in Russia. The scientist viewed education as “the creation of history.” The subject of education is a person, and if pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first get to know him in all respects. This meant studying the physical and mental characteristics of a person, the influences of “unintentional education” - the social environment, the “spirit of the times”, his culture and social relations.

K.D. Ushinsky gave his interpretation of the most complex and always relevant issues:

a. about the psychological nature of education;

b. the limits and possibilities of education, the relationship between education and training;

c. limits and possibilities of learning;

d. the relationship between education and development;

e. a combination of external educational influences and the process of self-education.

The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s. XX century

The second stage is associated with the period when educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, having accumulated the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.

As an independent field of knowledge, educational psychology began to take shape in the middle of the 19th century, and developed intensively since the 80s. XIX century

The significance of the initial period of development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the fact that in the 60s. XIX century fundamental provisions were formulated that determine the formation of educational psychology as an independent scientific discipline. At that time, tasks were set on which the efforts of scientists should be concentrated, problems were identified that needed to be investigated in order to put the pedagogical process on a scientific basis.

Guided by the needs of education and training, the task of forming a comprehensive personality, scientists of that period raised the question of a broad, comprehensive study of the child and the scientific basis for guiding his development. The idea of ​​a holistic, comprehensive study of the child sounded very convincing. Consciously not wanting to limit the theoretical basis of pedagogy to psychology alone, they stimulated the development of research at the intersection of different sciences. Consideration in unity and interconnection of the three main sources of pedagogy - psychology, physiology, logic - served as the basis for contacts between psychology, physiology and medicine, between psychology and didactics.

This period is characterized by the formation of a special psychological and pedagogical direction - pedology (J.M. Baldwin, E. Kirkpatrick, E. Meiman, P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky, etc.), in which, based on a set of psychophysiological, Anatomical, psychological and sociological measurements were used to determine the characteristics of the child’s behavior in order to diagnose his development (see animation).

Pedology(from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science) - a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy.

The founder of pedology is the American psychologist S. Hall, who created the first pedological laboratory in 1889; the term itself was coined by his student - O. Chrisment. But back in 1867 K.D. Ushinsky in his work “Man as a Subject of Education” anticipated the emergence of pedology: “If pedagogy wants to educate a person in all respects, then it must first know him in all respects.”

In the West, pedology was studied by S. Hall, J. Baldwin, E. Maiman, V. Preyer and others. The founder of Russian pedology is the brilliant scientist and organizer A.P. Nechaev. The remarkable scientist V.M. also made a great contribution to science. Bekhterev.

The first 15 post-revolutionary years were favorable: normal scientific life continued with heated discussions in which approaches were developed and the development difficulties inevitable for a young science were overcome.

Pedology strived to study the child, and to study it comprehensively, in all its manifestations and taking into account all influencing factors. P.P. Blonsky (1884-1941) defined pedology as the science of the age-related development of a child in a certain socio-historical environment (Blonsky P.P., 1999; abstract).

Pedologists worked in schools, kindergartens, various teenage associations. Psychological and pedological counseling was actively carried out; work was carried out with parents; The theory and practice of psychodiagnostics were developed. In Leningrad and Moscow, there were institutes of pedology, where representatives of various sciences tried to trace the development of a child from birth to adolescence. Pedologists were trained very thoroughly: they received knowledge in pedagogy, psychology, physiology, child psychiatry, neuropathology, anthropometry, anthropology, sociology, and theoretical studies were combined with everyday practical work.

In the 30s XX century criticism began of many provisions of pedology (problems of the subject of pedology, bio- and sociogenesis, tests, etc.), which resulted in two resolutions of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Pedology was crushed, many scientists were repressed, the fates of others were crippled. All pedological institutes and laboratories were closed. Pedologists I was erased from the curricula of all universities. Labels were generously pasted: L.S. Vygotsky is declared an “eclectic,” M.Ya. Basov and P.P. Blonsky - “propagandists of fascist ideas.” Fortunately, many were able to avoid a similar fate by being able to retrain. For more than half a century, it was carefully hidden that the flower of Soviet psychology - Basov, Blonsky, Vygotsky, Kornilov, Kostyuk, Leontyev, Luria, Elkonin, Myasishchev and others, as well as teachers Zankov and Sokolyansky were pedologists. More recently, when publishing Vygotsky’s works, his lectures on pedology had to be renamed lectures on psychology (http://virlib.eunnet.net/sofia/05-2002/text/0523.html; see article by E.M. Strukchinskaya “L .S. Vygotsky about pedology and related sciences") (see Media Library).

A number of works by P.P. Blonsky, works by L.S. Vygotsky and his colleagues in child psychology laid the foundation for modern scientific knowledge about the mental development of the child. Works of I.M. Shchelovanova, M.P. Denisova, N.L. Figurin, created in pedological institutions by name, contained valuable factual material that was included in the fund of modern knowledge about the child and his development. These works formed the basis of the current system of education in infancy and early childhood, and the psychological research of P.P. Blonsky, L.S. Vygotsky provided the opportunity to develop theoretical and applied problems of developmental and educational psychology in our country. (http://www.genesis.ru/pedologia/home.htm; see the magazine website " Pedology").

The connection between psychology and pedagogy has given a powerful impetus to the study of age-related characteristics of children and the identification of conditions and factors determining child development. The desire to make pedagogy psychological, to introduce psychology into the pedagogical process became the basis on which the system of educational psychology was built (although the term “educational psychology” itself was not yet used at that time), led to the participation of scientists from various specialties in the development of its problems.

By the end of the 19th century. In Russian psychological and pedagogical science, not only the main areas of scientific activity were formed, but also significant data were accumulated that made it possible to formulate practical problems.

The idea of ​​psychophysiological research of a child and the use of its results in pedagogical practice was reinforced in justifying the possibility of studying mental phenomena experimentally. The use of experiment in learning conditions undertaken by I.A. Sikorsky in 1879, did not initially receive a wide response in science. But with the formation of psychological laboratories, starting in the mid-80s, the experiment began to enter into life, and an active desire arose to connect the pedagogical process with it, i.e. create a qualitatively new science of education and training.

The successes of psychological and pedagogical science aroused interest, on the one hand, among practicing teachers, and on the other hand, among philosophers and psychologists who had not previously dealt with issues of school education. Teachers felt a clear need for solid psychological knowledge, and psychologists realized how much interesting and instructive there is in school life. The state of science and practice has clearly shown that school and science must meet each other halfway. But the whole question was how to do this, how to organize psychological research so that it was directly aimed at solving pedagogical problems. Equally inevitable was the question of who should conduct such research.

Solving complex theoretical and methodological problems in educational psychology became impossible without their discussion and comprehensive analysis. This was also required by the further development of specific research and the determination of the main directions of movement of research thought. In other words, a significant expansion of scientific and organizational activities was necessary.

The development of educational psychology in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. firmly established on scientific foundations. The status of this science has been established as an independent branch of knowledge, which has important theoretical and practical significance. Research in this area has taken a leading place in Russian psychological and pedagogical science. This was due to successes in the study of age-related development, which ensured the authority of developmental and educational psychology not only in the scientific field, but also in solving practical problems of upbringing and teaching.

Not only in science, but also in public opinion, the point of view has been established, according to which knowledge of the laws of child development is the basis for the correct construction of an education system. Therefore, scientists of various specialties, the best Russian minds, outstanding theorists and organizers of science, who enjoyed great authority, were involved in the development of these problems, in particular: V.M. Bekhterev, P.F. Lesgaft, I.P. Pavlov. A whole galaxy of domestic psychologists has formed who are actively involved in theoretical and organizational issues of studying child development and building the scientific foundations of upbringing and teaching. This galaxy included primarily P.P. Blonsky, P.F. Kapterev, A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, A.P. Nechaev, M.M. Rubinshtein, I.A. Sikorsky, G.I. Chelpanov and others. Thanks to the efforts of these scientists, intensive theoretical, methodological and scientific-organizational activities developed, aimed at deepening and expanding scientific work, promoting psychological and pedagogical knowledge among practical workers in the education system, and improving their qualifications. On their initiative, specialized scientific centers began to be created to provide research and educational activities and personnel training. Small laboratories, circles, and classrooms for studying child development at some educational institutions became widespread; psychological and pedagogical societies and scientific and pedagogical circles were created for those wishing to direct their efforts to improve upbringing and teaching. Pedagogical psychology has become an integral part of the content of education in pedagogical educational institutions. The question was raised about studying the basics of psychology in high school, and training courses in psychology were developed.

In domestic educational psychology since the 30s. Research on the procedural aspects of training and development was launched:

a. the relationship between perception and thinking in cognitive activity (S.L. Rubinshtein, S.N. Shabalin);

b. the relationship between memory and thinking (A.N. Leontyev, L.V. Zankov, A.A. Smirnov, P.I. Zinchenko, etc.);

c. development of thinking and speech of preschoolers and schoolchildren (A.R. Luria, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, etc.);

d. mechanisms and stages of mastering concepts (Zh.I. Shif, N.A. Menchinskaya, G.S. Kostyuk, etc.);

e. the emergence and development of cognitive interests in children (N.G. Morozova and others).

In the 40s Many studies have appeared on the psychological issues of mastering educational material in various subjects: a) arithmetic (N.A. Menchinskaya); b) native language and literature (D.N. Bogoyavlensky, L.I. Bozhovich, O.I. Nikiforova), etc. A number of works are related to the tasks of teaching reading and writing (N.A. Rybnikov, L.M. Shvarts, T.G. Egorov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).

The main results of the research were reflected in the works of A.P. Nechaev, A. Binet and B. Henri, M. Offner, E. Meiman, V.A. Laya and others, in which the features of memorization, speech development, intelligence, the mechanism of skill development, etc. are studied, as well as in the studies of G. Ebbinghaus, J. Piaget, A. Vallon, J. Dewey, S. Frenet, Ed. Clapeda; in the experimental study of learning characteristics (J. Watson, Ed. Tolman, G. Ghazri, T. Hull, B. Skinner); in the study of the development of children's speech (J. Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky, P.P. Blonsky, Sh. And K. Byullerov, V. Stern, etc.); in the development of special pedagogical systems - the Waldorf school (R. Steiner), the M. Montessori school.

The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now

The basis for identifying the third stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.

So, in 1954 B.F. Skinner put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning, and in the 60s. L.N. Landa formulated the theory of its algorithmization; in the 70s-80s. V. Okon, M.I. Makhmutov built an integral system of problem-based learning, which, on the one hand, continued the development of the system of J. Dewey, who believed that learning should proceed through problem solving, and on the other hand, it correlated with the provisions of O. Seltz, K. Duncker, S.L. Rubinshteina, A.M. Matyushkin and others about the problematic nature of thinking, its phase nature, the beginning of the emergence of thought in a problem situation (P.P. Blonsky, S.L. Rubinstein).

In 1957-1958 the first publications of P.Ya. appeared. Galperin and then in the early 70s - N.F. Talyzina, which outlined the main positions of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions, which absorbed the main achievements and prospects of educational psychology. At the same time, in the works of D.B. Elkonina, V.V. Davydov developed the theory of developmental education, which arose in the 70s. on the basis of the general theory of educational activity (formulated by the same scientists and developed by A.K. Markova, I.I. Ilyasov, L.I. Aidarova, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.), as well as in the experimental system of L.V. Zankova.

In the period 40-50s. S.L. Rubinstein in “Fundamentals of Psychology” (Rubinstein S.L., 1999; abstract) gave a detailed description of learning as the assimilation of knowledge, which was developed in detail from different positions by L.B. Itelson, E.N. Kabanova-Meller and others, as well as N.A. Menchinskaya and D.N. Bogoyavlensky in the concept of exteriorization of knowledge. Appeared in the mid-70s. the book by I. Lingart “The Process and Structure of Human Learning” (Lingart I., 1970) and the book by I.I. Ilyasov “The structure of the learning process” (Ilyasov I.I., 1986; abstract) made it possible to make broad generalizations in this area.

Noteworthy is the emergence of a fundamentally new direction in educational psychology - suggestionopedia, suggestionology G.K. Lozanov (60-70s of the last century), the basis of which is the teacher’s control of the student’s unconscious mental processes of perception and memory using the effect of hypermnesia and suggestion. On this basis, methods have been developed for activating the reserve capabilities of the individual (G.A. Kitaygorodskaya), group cohesion, and group dynamics in the process of such learning (A.V. Petrovsky, L.A. Karpenko).

In the 50-70s. At the intersection of social and educational psychology, many studies were carried out on the structure of the children's team, the status of the child among his peers (A.V. Petrovsky, Ya.L. Kolominsky, etc.). A special area of ​​research relates to the issues of training and raising difficult children, the formation of autonomous morality among adolescents in some informal associations (D.I. Feldshtein).

During the same period, there were trends towards the formulation of complex problems - educational training and educational upbringing. Actively being studied:

a. psychological and pedagogical factors of children's readiness for school;

c. psychological reasons for schoolchildren’s academic failure (N.A. Menchinskaya);

d. psychological and pedagogical criteria for teaching effectiveness (I.S. Yakimanskaya).

Since the late 70s. XX century work intensified in the scientific and practical direction - the creation of a psychological service at school (I.V. Dubrovina, Yu.M. Zabrodin, etc.). In this aspect, new tasks of educational psychology have emerged:

a. development of conceptual approaches to the activities of psychological services,

b. equipping it with diagnostic tools,

c. training of practical psychologists.

(http://www.pirao.ru/strukt/lab_gr/l_det_p.html; see laboratory of scientific foundations of children's practical psychology PI RAO).

All the diversity of these theories, however, had one common point - the theoretical justification of the most adequate, from the authors' point of view, to the requirements of society, the system of education - teaching (educational activity). Accordingly, certain areas of study were formed. Within the framework of these areas of training, its common problems have also emerged: activation of forms of training, pedagogical cooperation, communication, management of knowledge acquisition, development of students as the goal of learning, etc.

For example, domestic educational psychology studies:

a. psychological mechanisms for managing learning (N.F. Talyzina, L.N. Landa, etc.), the educational process as a whole (V.S. Lazarev, etc.);

b. managing the process of mastering generalized methods of action (V.V. Davydov, V.V. Rubtsov, etc.);

c. educational motivation (A.K. Markova, A.B. Orlov, etc.);

d. individual psychological factors influencing the success of this process;

e. cooperation (G.A. Tsukerman and others), etc.;

f. personal characteristics of students and teachers (V.S. Merlin, N.S. Leites, A.N. Leontiev, etc.), etc.

Thus, at this stage of development, educational psychology becomes more and more voluminous.

So, educational psychology is a science about the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person’s mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process. In general, we can say that educational psychology studies psychological issues of managing the pedagogical process, studies learning processes, the formation of cognitive processes, etc.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the relationship between training and development, the relationship between training and education, taking into account sensitive periods of development in education; work with gifted children, the problem of children’s readiness for school, etc.

Consequently, the general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process. This determines the structure of this branch of psychology: the psychology of learning, the psychology of education, the psychology of teachers.

The term "educational psychology" is used to refer to two sciences. One of them is basic science, which is the first branch of psychology. It is designed to study the nature and patterns of the process of teaching and education. Under the same name “educational psychology”, applied science is also developing, the goal of which is to use the achievements of all branches of psychology to improve teaching practice. Abroad, the applied part of psychology is often called school psychology.

a. Pedagogical psychology is a science about the facts, mechanisms and patterns of human mastery of sociocultural experience, the patterns of intellectual and personal development of a child as a subject of educational activities, organized and controlled by a teacher in different conditions of the educational process.

b. Pedagogical psychology- a borderline, complex branch of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy, and has become the sphere of joint study of the relationships between the upbringing, training and development of younger generations.

There are a number of problems in educational psychology. Among the most important are the following: the relationship between training and development; the relationship between training and education; taking into account sensitive periods of development in learning; working with gifted children; readiness of children for schooling, etc.

a. The general task of educational psychology is to identify, study and describe the psychological characteristics and patterns of intellectual and personal development of a person in the conditions of educational activities and the educational process.

b. The structure of educational psychology consists of three sections: psychology of learning; psychology of education; teacher psychology.

There are three stages in the formation and development of educational psychology (Zimnyaya I.A.):

a. The first stage - from the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. can be called general didactic with a clearly felt need to “psychologize pedagogy” (according to Pestalozzi).

b. The second stage - from the end of the 19th century. until the beginning of the 50s of the 20th century, when educational psychology began to take shape as an independent branch, accumulating the achievements of pedagogical thought of previous centuries.

c. The third stage - from the middle of the 20th century. until now. The basis for identifying this stage is the creation of a number of strictly psychological theories of learning, i.e. development of theoretical foundations of educational psychology.

Pedology(from the Greek pais - child and logos - word, science; lit. - the science of children) - a movement in psychology and pedagogy that arose at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, due to the penetration of evolutionary ideas into pedagogy and psychology and the development of applied branches of psychology and experimental pedagogy

Self-test questions

1. What is the subject of educational psychology?

2. Indicate the features of historical changes in the subject of educational psychology.

3. What is the essence of biogenetic and sociogenetic directions in the development of educational psychology?

4. Name the main tasks of educational psychology.

5. How is the unity of developmental psychology and educational psychology manifested in the system of psychological knowledge about the child?

6. What are the main areas of action of educational psychology and pedagogy?

7. Name the main branches of educational psychology.

8. Describe the main problems of educational psychology.

9. What is the essence of the problem of the relationship between development and training?

10. Expand the applied aspect for pedagogical practice in solving the problem of identifying sensitive periods in development.

11. What approaches to solving the problem of children’s readiness to study at school exist in domestic science and practice?

12. What is the problem of optimal psychological preparation of teachers and educators?

13. Name the main stages in the development of educational psychology.

14. What is characteristic of each stage of development of educational psychology?

15. What are the features of pedology as a science?

16. What basic research has been launched since the 30s. XIX century in the field of procedural aspects of training and education?

17. What fundamentally new direction arose in educational psychology in the 60-70s. XX century?

Bibliography

1. Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. St. Petersburg, 2001.

2. Biological and social in human development / Ed. ed. B.F. Lomova. M., 1977.

3. Blonsky P.P. Pedology: Book. for teaching and stud. higher ped. textbook institutions / Ed. V.A. Slastenina. M., 1999.

4. Developmental and educational psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1981.

5. Developmental and educational psychology: Reader: Textbook. aid for students avg. ped. textbook establishments / Comp. I.V. Dubrovina, A.M. Prikhozhan, V.V. Zatsepin. M., 1999.

6. Developmental and educational psychology: Texts / Comp. and comment. O. Shuare Martha. M., 1992.

7. Volovich M.B. Not to torture, but to teach: On the benefits of educational psychology. M., 1992.

8. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1996.

9. Gabay T.V. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1995.

10. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook. allowance. Rostov n/d, 1997.

11. Ilyasov I.I. Structure of the learning process. M., 1986.

12. Kapterev P.F. Child and educational psychology. M.; Voronezh, 1999.

13. Krutetsky V.A. Fundamentals of educational psychology. M., 1972.

14. Course of general, developmental and educational psychology / Ed. M.V. Gamezo. M., 1982. Issue. 3.

15. Leites N.S. Age-related talent of schoolchildren: Proc. aid for students higher ped. textbook establishments. M., 2000.

16. Lingart I. Process and structure of human teaching. M., 1970.

17. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook. manual for higher students ped. textbook establishments: In 3 books. Book 2. Educational psychology. 2nd ed. M., 1995.

18. Obukhova L.F. Developmental psychology: Textbook. M., 1996.

19. Fundamentals of pedagogy and psychology of higher education / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. M., 1986.

20. Workshop on developmental and educational psychology: Proc. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. A.I. Shcherbakova. M., 1987.

21. Psychology and the teacher / Transl. from English Hugo Munsterberg. 3rd ed., rev. M., 1997.

22. Workbook of a school psychologist / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina. M., 1995.

23. Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia: 2 vols. M., 1993-1999.

24. Rubinstein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. St. Petersburg, 1999.

25. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Fundamentals of psychological anthropology. Human psychology: Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity: Textbook. manual for universities. M., 1995.

26. Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook. aid for students avg. specialist. textbook establishments. M., 1998.

27. Feldshtein D.I. Problems of developmental and educational psychology: Selected works. psychol. tr. M., 1995.

28. Fridman L.M., Kulagina I.Yu. Psychological reference book for teachers. M., 1991.

29. Shevandrin N.I. Social psychology in education: Proc. allowance. M., 1995.

30. Yakunin V.Ya. Pedagogical psychology: Textbook. allowance. M., 1998.

Practical lesson

After studying Chapter 5, the bachelor should:

know

• theories and technologies of training, education and spiritual development of the individual, support of subjects of the pedagogical process;
• methods of psychological and pedagogical study of students;
• ways of interaction between a teacher and various subjects of the pedagogical process;
• ways of professional self-knowledge and self-development;

be able to

• design the educational process using modern technologies that correspond to general and specific patterns and characteristics of age-related personal development;
• create a pedagogically appropriate and psychologically safe educational environment;
• use modern educational resources in the educational process;

own

• ways to prevent deviant behavior and crime;
• ways of interaction with other subjects of the educational process;
• methods of design and innovation activities in education;
• ways to improve professional knowledge and skills.

Fundamentals of Educational Psychology

From educational psychology to educational psychology. Psychological foundations of subjectivity in education. Psychology of research activity as the basis for the development of subjectivity in education. Development of giftedness in education.

From educational psychology to educational psychology

Active development of educational psychology at the beginning of the 21st century. as a special direction of psychological science and practice can be considered as a new stage in the development of basic problems of psychological and pedagogical knowledge, the foundations of which were laid at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. in line with educational psychology.

The beginning of the formation of educational psychology as a separate direction of psychological knowledge and practice in our country is largely associated with the name Peter Fedorovich Kapterev(1849–1922) (“Educational Psychology”, 1883; 1914). The term itself has actually been introduced into scientific circulation in our country since 1874, when the magazine “People's School” began publishing chapters from the upcoming book Π. F. Kapterev “Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators” (published as a separate supplement to the journal in 1876). This work, already by its title, shows the general direction of the emerging branch of knowledge: promoting educational practitioners in their pedagogical activities, arming them with psychological knowledge.

The main accents in his works Π. F. Kapterev focused on the psychological foundations of the educational process. At the same time, he considered the educational process as “an expression of the internal initiative of the human body,” as “the development of abilities.” At the same time, the natural, social and personal components of the process of human education were touched upon. Although the main works of this period were based on the descriptive method, they provided a deep analysis of the psychological potential of the existing cultural means of development (games, fairy tales, etc.).

In 1922, S. L. Rubinstein published the article “Principles of creative amateur activity. Towards the philosophical foundations of modern pedagogy,” which in many ways can be considered as the beginning of the formation of a theoretical direction in educational psychology, based on the activity basis of understanding the nature of personality development as a process of formation of subjectivity.

This article contains a basic idea, the potential of which, perhaps, began to actively develop only in recent years within the framework of educational psychology - “in creativity, the creator himself is created.” “By creating both him and himself by the same act of creative initiative, a personality is created and defined only by being included in its encompassing whole.” It is noted that “complete individuality does not mean isolated individuality.”

In the 1920s. Pedology was actively developing - as a special direction of psychological and pedagogical science and practice associated with the names Π. P. Blonsky, M. Ya. Basov, L. S. Vygotsky.

Pedology(from the Greek παιδός - child and λόγος - knowledge) - a direction in science that aimed to combine the approaches of various sciences (medicine, biology, psychology, pedagogy) to the development of a child. The term currently retains only historical meaning. Most of the productive scientific results of pedological research have been included in developmental psychology, childhood psychology and educational psychology.

In 1926, L. S. Vygotsky’s book “Educational Psychology” was published, which largely determined the further line of development of educational psychology. This fundamental work began with a discussion of the problem of the psychology of reaction and behavior, the most important laws of human higher nervous activity, i.e. the role of biological (natural) development factors. The work discusses the psychological nature and pedagogical possibilities for the development of emotions and feelings, attention, memory, imagination, and thinking. The significance of the social situation of development in the formation of a person is determined. A large number of issues are raised that have now become separate areas of psychology: the psychology of giftedness and creativity, differential psychology (the problem of temperament and character), the problem of the development of higher mental functions (a tool and a sign in mental development), personality psychology (the problem of its study). The key issue of the book was the problem of the relationship between training and development, the proposed solution of which, given by L. S. Vygotsky, largely determines the psychological basis for building effective pedagogical interaction in the educational process. Not only domestic psychologists and teachers now rely on this approach, but it is fully accepted by almost the entire world of psychological science and pedagogical practice.

Second half of the 20th century full of in-depth research in the field of educational psychology. These studies revealed the developmental potential of communication (M. I. Lisina), gaming activity (D. B. Elkonin), motivation and will (L. I. Bozhovich), educational activities (V. V. Davydov), etc. If we analyze the works of leading Russian psychologists of this period, which have become classic for the psychology of education, we can safely say that the semantic dominant in most of them is the problem of becoming an active, active personality. The prerequisites, conditions and internal position were discussed as determinants of the formation of not only a social unit, but rather a unique personality (V.S. Mukhina).

In fact, in Russian psychology, the main vector of development of psychological research for almost 150 years has largely been in line with educational psychology. However, with the development of psychological science in general, as well as in connection with the active development of psychological practice in recent decades, the directions, problems and methods of research assigned to the specialty "Educational Psychology" were greatly reduced when compared with the original range of scientific problems developed in the works of Π. F. Kapterev, L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein.

In recent decades, works on educational psychology have actually touched mainly on the topic of the psychological foundations of learning (N. F. Talyzina), as well as the formation of the subject of learning as a result of specially organized pedagogical influences (I. A. Zimnyaya). In some cases (but no longer in all) the problems of the psychology of education and the psychology of pedagogical influence are also touched upon. Most modern works on educational psychology address issues of social psychology of education, as well as questions about the internal resources of personality development, although to a certain extent they are key in the actual psychological component of psychological and pedagogical issues.

In this regard, it is no coincidence that such a direction of psychological science and practice has been identified as "educational psychology ", which has its own specifics, but is inextricably linked with educational psychology.

Educational Psychology can be considered as direction of fundamental research patterns of development and functioning of society and the individual, the relationship of the natural, social, cultural and individual in the formation of humanity in a person, mechanisms, means and ways of transforming development into self-development. Educational psychology reveals significant issues of human cultural formation in ontogenesis, psychological mechanisms and processes of development of higher mental functions, cognitive abilities, personal potentials and abilities.

Educational Psychology can be understood as an actively developing branch of applied psychology. Educational psychology allows, based on an understanding of the patterns of mental development and personal development of a person, to build adequate social conditions of educational systems with the goal of effective socialization of a person through introducing him to the spiritual wealth of culture and bringing him to an active position as a subject of creative activity.

Educational psychology in the applied aspect:

• – accompanies the socio-psychological positions of the teacher and student in the situation of their interaction in the process of teaching and upbringing;
• – sets the psychological foundations for creating effective conditions for the development of students’ cognitive processes, allows for the most effective and efficient building of the educational process;
• – provides psychological support for the individual educational trajectory of each student, taking into account his age potential, personal characteristics and social development situation;
• – promotes the mental, physical, spiritual development of a person and the educational community;
• – sets guidelines and criteria for assessing the effectiveness of educational conditions for the development of cognitive processes, personal potentials, and abilities of students.

In the socio-organizational aspect, educational psychology has become an applied industry, institutionalized in the form psychological service in education. In the scientific aspect, psychological service in education sets the methodological and theoretical foundations for the development of programs, methods, means and methods of applying psychological knowledge in specific educational conditions. In the applied aspect, the psychological service in education provides psychological support for the entire process of teaching and upbringing, including the analysis and psychological foundations of didactic and methodological materials. In a practical aspect, the psychological service in education carries out the direct work of psychologists in educational institutions of various types and special centers for the purpose of psychological support for students, teachers, and the social community of educational institutions.

The semantic dominant of the development of educational psychology, laid down at the beginning of the 20th century, it is possible to determine the assistance the formation of a person’s subject position based on an understanding of the patterns of mental development of the individual.

At the same time, we can consider education itself in several aspects:

• 1. Education as one of the fundamentally significant functions of society, ensuring the reproduction and development of society itself and systems of activity, addressed to each specific individual for the purpose of its development and socialization. The educational process is realized through the transmission of culture and social norms in changing historical situations, on new material of social relations, by generations of people continuously replacing each other. In its functional sense, education is distributed throughout the entire system of human relations.
• 2. Education as an organized process is carried out by special social institutions, formed into a system of institutions and social associations. For some social institutions, education is the main content of activity, defining the goals, values, subculture and self-determination of people (schools of all levels, the teaching profession). For other social institutions, the meaning of their existence is not limited to the implementation of the function of education, but without it they are unthinkable (family, state, church). In viable and dynamic societies, all structures, institutions and social actors are involved in implementing the function of education in one form or another.
• 3. Education as a process of development of a person’s mental and personal potentials, his socialization, the formation of his subjectivity in relation to the world, others, activities, and himself. Education can be understood as the process and result of the assimilation of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of universal and special abilities, the formation of a worldview and the assignment of certain forms of life activity.

In the process of education, there is a transfer from generation to generation of the spiritual wealth that humanity has developed, the assimilation of the results of socio-historical knowledge reflected in the sciences of nature, society, technology and art, as well as the mastery of skills, abilities, and abilities in activities. The primary basis of education at the personal level is the appropriation of experience of action through imitation and emulation (K. Lorenz, R. Chauvin, etc.), independent research activity (I. P. Pavlov, A. N. Poddyakov, etc.), as well as appropriation of a mode of action through the internalization of sign systems (according to L. S. Vygotsky). The main way to obtain education in modern social conditions is training and education in various educational institutions. Self-education, cultural and educational work, and participation in socially significant activities also play a significant role in the acquisition of knowledge, mental and moral development of a person.

Thus, we can consider education at three different levels:

• 1) sociocultural – as a function of self-reproduction and development of society and culture;
• 2) institutional - as a specially organized process of targeted influence on the process of human development and socialization, carried out by special social institutions that have formed into a system of institutions and social associations;
• 3) personal – as a process of development of a person’s mental and personal potentials, the formation of his subjectivity in relation to the world, others, activities, and himself.

At the same time, education at both the institutional and personal levels always takes place in specific historical sociocultural realities. Since these realities are becoming more and more dynamic, changes are naturally required in the process and conditions of education.

• Kapterev P. F. Pedagogical psychology for folk teachers, educators and educators. St. Petersburg: Printing house of A. M. Kotomina, 1976.
• Rubinshtein S. L. Principles of amateur creativity. On the philosophical foundations of modern pedagogy // S. L. Rubinstein. Selected philosophical and psychological works. Fundamentals of ontology, logic and psychology. M.: Nauka, 1997. pp. 433–438.
• Right there.
• Vygotsky L. S. Pedagogical psychology. M.: ACT; Astrel; Guardian, 2008.

Subject, tasks and sections of educational psychology

Pedagogical psychology is an interdisciplinary and typically applied branch of psychological science that arose in connection with real needs pedagogical theory and expanding educational practice. The presence of systematic and mass education is one of the significant achievements of civilization and at the same time a condition for the very existence and development of humanity.

In the pedagogical and educational process there is no special psyche set aside for it, different from that described in the previous chapters of the textbook. It’s just that in the psyche and personality, only some of its aspects, the accents of functioning and development, determined by the specifics of the educational process itself, stand out in relief. But since this process occupies one of the leading, decisive places in the life of a modern person, the need for the existence and practical application of educational psychology does not require special argumentation. Education needs separate and systematic psychological support.

Educational psychology studies human psyche as a subjective reflection of objective reality, carried out in special educational activities in order to implement other activities, for the entire life of a person.

The subject of educational psychology phenomena, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche appear subjects educational process: student(pupil, student) and teachers(teacher, lecturer). This involves a targeted study of the structure and dynamics, formation, functioning of the mental image in the course and as a result of processes training And education.

Since the specifics of the content and numerous tasks facing educational psychology are objectively determined by the characteristics of the educational, or pedagogical, process, let us first consider the initial concept education both process and result.

Education in the narrow sense of the word, this is the assimilation by a person of knowledge, skills and abilities, carried out in the learning process, therefore educated in everyday life is a literate, knowledgeable, well-read person.

In a broader and strictly psychological interpretation process and result of education take on a special meaning creation man, his "education"as a whole as an individual, and not just an increment, an arithmetic increase in knowledge and skills.

This is a fundamental, qualitative change, a basic redesign, a re-equipment of the psyche and personality. Education is a socially organized assistance the current and subsequent development of personality, its self-realization and self-change, the entire existence of a person. That is why the level of education of an individual is not reduced to the sum of years allotted for his education. The legalized questionnaire gradations of education: primary, secondary, specialized secondary, higher are very arbitrary, changeable, and relative. Education as a holistic result, it presupposes something different and much more than graduation certificates, certificates and diplomas, than a listing of compulsory disciplines attended by a person and passed during the period of study.

The amount of knowledge in itself does not change a person’s consciousness, his attitude towards the world in which he exists. Real, truly human education is inseparable from the process of education. Form a person - this means not only teaching him, but also helping to build image own personality, samples and models of social and professional behavior, life in general. Therefore, a competent, humanely organized educational process is certainly educational, those. complex in essence, inseparable into separate and seemingly sequential components.

Despite the apparent obviousness of this situation, even in the modern history of Russian education, for example, new ideological slogans and direct orders to remove the educational process from school and university practice have been recently proclaimed. Fortunately, this is almost impossible to implement even for the most order-obedient official from the education system. Thinking and consciousness are inseparable, like the psyche and personality. In a specific person, training and education are impossible without the other, although they are realized by different psychological mechanisms. To ensure the effectiveness of each of these processes, special conditions, targeted social and pedagogical efforts are required, a state educational system and special professional training and skill of teachers are required.

Varied and numerous tasks of educational psychology, can be reduced to five main ones, which in reality are interdependent, intersecting, interdisciplinary, i.e. not only psychological.

The first task is comprehensive study of the student’s psyche(educated) involved in a single educational process. Such organized, targeted research is necessary to optimize and individualize education, to promote the formation of the necessary psychological and personal characteristics, to provide competent, systematic psychological support and support for the processes of training and education. Here there are many particular and general psychological and socio-psychological problems, the solution of which provides an answer to the interdisciplinary and practically important question about the main subject of the process: "who is studying(educated, brought up)?"

People are not the same from birth, with the possible exception of monozygotic twins. But the number and scope of individual differences (behavioral and psychological) increases with age. The younger the child is, the more similar he is to his peers, although from a psychological point of view there are not even two identical personalities on the planet.

To identify and take into account the psychological characteristics of each student’s personality, it may be useful to use all seven parameters identified in the psychological structure of the individual: needs, self-awareness, abilities, temperament, character, characteristics of mental processes and states, mental experience of the individual (see Chapter 4), each of which can be decisive in the educational process.

The second task is psychological justification and selection of educational material to be learned. The problems solved here are intended to answer the never-ending and always debatable question: "why exactly what should be taught (educated, brought up)?" These are complex issues of selecting the content and volume of educational material, choosing compulsory (and elective, selective) academic disciplines.

Suppose it is necessary to study logic and Latin in a modern school (as previously in gymnasiums)? How much class time should I devote to geography and what sections should be taught? How to conceptually and logically build a Russian (or other) language course from first to 11th grade? There are no clear, universal or convincing answers to such questions. Everything depends on the level of civilization, cultural traditions, and state educational ideology and policy. A professional driver, for example, pragmatically does not need knowledge about the structure of the nervous system of the lancelet. But why does someone “at the top” have the right to decide what the same driver needs and does not need to know as a person, an individual, a citizen?

The school is designed to prepare people not only for work, but for life as a whole. In addition, every person has the right not only to choose, but also to a conscious, sometimes necessary change of profession. To do this, he must be sufficiently broad and comprehensively educated. Otherwise, mass education may become socially unjust, veiledly caste-based, and therefore inhumane. It is impossible (and not necessary) to “teach everyone and everything,” but it is absolutely necessary to facilitate the process of personal development as much as possible in teaching.

• The third psychological and pedagogical task is to answer probably the most popular question: “how to teach and educate?”, i.e. in the development and psychological testing, testing of pedagogical methods, techniques and holistic technologies of training and education. We can say that the majority of pedagogical and psychological-pedagogical research is aimed precisely at such methodological problems and issues of the processes of education, training and upbringing. The subsequent chapters of the textbook are devoted to their consideration (see chapters 39–41).
• The fourth task of educational psychology is study of the psyche, professional activity and personality of the teacher. This is the answer to a pressing, fundamentally important subjective question of the entire sphere of human education: "Who teaches (educates, educates)?". The problems raised here are equally social and psychological (see Chapter 42). Can anyone who wants to become a teacher? What are the individual psychological characteristics and professionally significant (necessary) qualities of a teacher, his social -psychological and material status? What are the objective and subjective opportunities for improving mastery and self-realization (professional and personal)?
• The fifth, but theoretically central, initial task of educational psychology is participation in the development of theoretical and practical issues related to the conscious formulation and formulation goals public education, training and education. It is here that the social and the individual clearly appear in their inseparable and possibly contradictory (dialectical) unity. Society determines For what educate people; the personality transforms this question into his own, subjective one: " For what should I have an education?"

Without detailed, clearly formulated goal setting, there cannot be a controlled educational process; prediction, verification, and evaluation of the result are impossible. Psychologically reasoned answers to the basic vital, semantic and even moral question are needed: "For what educate (educate, educate)?". Why and for whom does this education system exist? What can or should acquired knowledge and learned forms of behavior become for an individual? How have they changed the individual himself, his relationships and views on the world, on himself? What kind of personality (and not just a socially necessary professional, a narrowly oriented artisan) does society expect to create at the “output” of the educational process? For more information on this, see § 41.3.

It is clear that such educational issues go far beyond the scope of the subject of psychology, but even without its “shared” and often leading participation, they cannot be competently resolved. At the very least, maximum consideration of the so-called human factor is necessary; practical implementation in education of the well-known ideology of “human relations” is necessary.

The listed and many other problems are solved within the framework of three textbook sections of educational psychology:

• psychology of learning;
• psychology of education;
• psychology of work and personality of the teacher (teacher).

The first two sections relate primarily to the psyche of the subject being trained and educated. These sections of educational psychology are characterized by varying degrees of development and implementation in real educational practice. Currently more developed than others psychology of learning. It coexists many different scientific schools and concepts, which have their successors and critics (see Chapter 39). However, in any psychological and pedagogical design, methodological understanding and theoretical interpretation of fundamental categories and concepts such as “personality”, “psyche”, “education” are especially important. All other concepts, terminological constructs and specific pedagogical “techniques” are derivative, although this is not always recognized and clearly formulated by the authors of numerous modern psychological and pedagogical “innovations.” Unfortunately, behind the indicated pedagogical schemes, a living person, his real psyche, is most often “lost.”

Like any applied branch of science, educational psychology has a pronounced interdisciplinary nature. Any practical, vital task is multi-subject and complex. This fully applies to the educational process, which is studied in its own way not only by pedagogy and educational psychology, but also by philosophy, medicine, sociology, cultural studies, physiology, economics, law, and management. All of these aspects of education in one way or another come to subject necessarily focus on a person - the real creator, performer and user of the public education system.

True, not all specialists and educational leaders are by any means always interested in or satisfied with some positions of domestic scientific psychology (see § 39.4; 39.5). For example, some directions and methods of the current reform of Russian education (early specialization of school education, simplification and reduction of curricula, mandatory two-stage higher education, fetishization of ubiquitous tests, mandatory “competency-based” approach, unproven effectiveness of a number of pedagogical “innovations”, etc.) cannot be considered scientifically indisputable and psychologically substantiated. But this, one must assume, is a traditionally temporary, transitory stage in the existence of modern Russian education and its constantly ongoing modernization. Mass education, according to the ideas of Russian psychology, should not be pragmatically minimal, but reasonable, verified, redundant, and in some ways ahead of both the current society and the current student. Education should work for the future, and therefore be developmental and educational. However, this requires hard efforts not only from the teaching, educational and scientific community, but also from the entire society, the entire Russian state.

To illustrate the deeply interdisciplinary nature of educational psychology, let us outline its connections with some other sections of scientific psychology, since in reality it is associated with almost all modern psychological science. Educational psychology is either part of some other applied branch of psychology, for example, legal, sports, engineering, or organically includes large parts and blocks of many types of modern psychology.

General psychology acts here as a kind of base that sets the necessary methodological, categorical and conceptual structure of educational psychology. It is impossible to list all the general psychological concepts and terms without which educational psychology simply cannot exist. Psyche, personality, consciousness, activity, thinking, motivation, abilities - all these categories “work” here in their own way, in the special context of education.

The relationship between pedagogical and child (age) psychology, especially in relation to school education. A child is not just a small adult, but a qualitatively different personality (J. Piaget), therefore, it is necessary to teach and educate, for example, a junior schoolchild differently than a teenager, and a teenager – differently than a young man. Without taking into account the basic age characteristics of students, effective education is impossible.

The processes of learning and development are not adjacent and not synonymous. They are in complex interaction, the research, organization and optimization of which is one of the pressing problems of modern education. Learning and development now occur in qualitatively different social (and personal, subjective) conditions than those presented in classical psychology of previous years and generations. The current subjects of the educational process - children, schoolchildren, teachers, parents, students - have become in some ways significantly different than just a decade ago (see Chapter 20). All this urgently requires systematic psychological and interdisciplinary research and direct access to mass educational practice at school and university.

A significant place in educational psychology should be occupied by socio-psychological problems(see chapter 25). Education exists in society, solves certain social, state, and not only personal tasks of the subjects of this process. Such tasks may not only not coincide, but also be in serious contradiction. Let's assume that society does not need as many lawyers, economists, bank employees as there are people who want it. But objectively, there are not enough specialists in engineering and blue-collar professions. Coordination of such “demand” and “supply” is a state, economic, political task, and not just an educational one, and even more so a narrowly psychological one. However, its optimal, humane solution cannot do without psychology: social, general, political, differential, pedagogical.

In addition, every teacher actually works not only with the individual student, but with a social group, a class, with parents, a group of professional colleagues, therefore, the educational process necessarily involves an extensive socio-psychological phenomenology of small and large groups, their interactions, group speakers. All these inevitable and significant influences of society on the process and result of education must be properly planned, taken into account, measured, and, if possible, coordinated.

Almost the most important, relevant and directly significant for educational psychology are its connections and interactions, relationships with pedagogy. It would seem that there are and should not be any problems in the cooperation and commonwealth of these two sciences. They have largely common goals and methods, identical scientific objects, a uniting scientific community represented by the Russian Academy of Education, and the presence of common historical roots, creators and great predecessors. In Russia, these are such extraordinary personalities and scientists of an organic psychological and pedagogical profile, such as K. D. Ushinsky, P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, P. F. Kapterev, A. S. Makarenko and many others, including including modern ones. There are many examples of a real, systematic, and not eclectic combination of educational psychology and “psychological pedagogy”; there are models for constructing modern psychodidactics. There are well-developed scientific and practically implemented psychological and pedagogical directions, concepts, and educational technologies. But, on the other hand, interdisciplinary relations between psychology and pedagogy cannot be called idyllic, established, or problem-free.

For a future teacher, an introduction to general and educational psychology begins with the learning process at a pedagogical university. There is a psychological and pedagogical triad that has been established here for decades: psychology – pedagogy is a private teaching methodology. Such a combination of academic subjects is an absolutely necessary part, achievement and main feature of vocational pedagogical education in our country. This triad greatly contributes to ensuring mandatory psychological and pedagogical literacy and culture, the same name as the student’s readiness for future teaching activities.

The subject of professional work of a chemistry teacher, in contrast to, say, a chemist, is not only chemical substances and properties, but also the students themselves. Scientist and teacher are close, definitely related, but still not the same professions. Many people (including teachers, professors) may not understand this and may not subjectively accept this, but this is an essential, empirically established fact. The true professionalism of a teacher lies not only in knowledge of the subject taught, not only in the assimilation of pedagogical theories and techniques, but in an adequate understanding of the structure and functioning of the human psyche in the process of teaching or upbringing. The true psychological and pedagogical education of a teacher can only be comprehensive, holistic, and not narrowly subject-specific - musical, mathematical, historical, etc. Real educational practice does not need either “pure” teachers as “transmitters” of knowledge, nor “emasculated” psychologists as “all-knowing” and critical theorists. Everyday, labor-intensive and always creative “pedagogization” of psychology and “psychologization” of pedagogy are required.

However, it should be recognized that both in the content and in the execution of the educational psychological-pedagogical triad itself, there are unresolved issues, theoretical and methodological inconsistencies, shortcomings, and inconsistencies. In the mass teaching of these three disciplines there is often no proper methodological, conceptual and operational continuity. There may be substantial repetitions and obvious inconsistencies in the interpretations of the same educational, especially psychological, phenomena. The psychological-pedagogical triad is not always realized as a necessary integral, unified cycle of related, but subject-wise and operationally different disciplines. There are ambiguous, complex, and sometimes adversarial relationships between modern psychology and pedagogy, which is quite acceptable for academic theory as a means of promoting its development. In relation to real educational practice, this situation cannot be considered normal.

A school teacher or university teacher, of course, cannot and should not be professional psychologists. But the requirements for their psychological preparedness, education and culture should not be simplified, downplayed and reduced, for example, to pedagogical communication skills. This is only an integral part, albeit an important one, of the general professional and psychological culture of the teacher (see Chapter 42). In turn, a school psychologist is not obliged and cannot be a teacher without having the appropriate education. However, to ensure efficiency, i.e. practical usefulness of his specific and actually psychological work, he must professionally know and adequately perceive existing pedagogical theories, problems and everyday realities.

Psychologists have long recognized the fact that a person, as an active being, is capable of making conscious changes in his own personality, and therefore can engage in self-education. However, self-education cannot be realized outside the environment, because occurs due to the active interaction of a person with the outside world. In the same way, natural data are the most important factor in human mental development. For example, anatomical and physical features represent natural conditions for the development of abilities in general. The formation of abilities is influenced by the conditions of life and activity, the conditions of education and training. However, this does not mean at all that the presence of the same conditions entails the same development of intellectual abilities. For example, one cannot ignore the fact that mental development is interconnected with biological age, especially when it comes to brain development. And this fact must be taken into account in educational activities.

Russian psychologist L. S. Vygotsky first put forward the idea that education and upbringing play a controlling role in mental development. According to this idea, education is ahead of development and guides it. If a person does not study, he cannot be fully developed. But education does not exclude from attention the internal laws of the development process. It is always necessary to remember that although learning has enormous opportunities, these opportunities are far from endless.

With the development of the psyche, stability, unity and integrity of the personality develop, as a result of which it begins to possess certain qualities. If a teacher takes into account the personal characteristics of a student in his teaching and educational activities, this gives him the opportunity to use pedagogical means and methods in his work that correspond to the age criteria and capabilities of the student. And here it is simply necessary to take into account individual characteristics, the degree of mental development of students, as well as the characteristics of psychological work.

The degree of mental development is indicated by what is happening in a person’s consciousness. Psychologists have characterized mental development and indicated its criteria:

• The speed at which the student learns the material
• The pace at which the student perceives the material
• The number of thoughts as an indicator of the conciseness of thinking
• Degree of analytical and synthetic activity
• Techniques by which mental activity is transferred
• Ability to independently systematize and generalize acquired knowledge

The learning process must be structured in such a way that there is maximum benefit for the student’s mental development. Research in the psychological field allows us to conclude that, along with a system of knowledge, it is necessary to give a set of techniques for mental activity. The teacher, while organizing the presentation of educational material, must also form mental operations in students, such as synthesis, generalization, abstraction, comparison, analysis, etc. Of greatest importance is the formation in students of the skill of systematizing and summarizing knowledge, independent work with sources of information, and comparison of facts on each specific topic.

If we talk about children of the primary school age group, their development has its own characteristics. For example, it is during this period that priority should be placed on the development of scientific and creative abilities, because learning should be not only a source of knowledge, but also a guarantor of mental growth. And if we talk about students, the main focus of their scientific and creative abilities requires that the teacher have sufficient teaching experience and scientific and creative potential. This is due to the fact that in order to increase the mental activity of students, it is necessary to organize classes with the aim of training highly qualified specialists who have high intellectual potential, and who are also the support of society and its successors.

One of the factors that can improve the quality of the pedagogical process is the correspondence of educational methods and specific pedagogical conditions - this is the only way to achieve proper assimilation of new knowledge and cooperation in the educational process between teacher and student.

When developing the creative potential of students, it is important to pay special attention to the organization of classes. And here the teacher’s talent and skill lies in the use of innovative educational technologies and a creative approach to the material being studied during lessons. This will help increase mental activity and expand the boundaries of thinking.

Educational institutions face the most important task - to implement the education of the younger generation, which will meet the requirements of modernity and scientific and technological progress, as well as to equip students with independent basic knowledge and the foundations of current disciplines, awaken skills, knowledge and prepare them for an informed choice of profession and active social and labor activities. In order for this goal to be achieved, it is necessary to achieve a conscious assimilation of the motives of education and to form in students a positive attitude and interest in the subject being studied.

From a psychological point of view, motives here are the reasons why students perform certain actions. Motives are shaped by demands, instincts, interests, ideas, decisions, emotions and predispositions. Motives for learning can be different, for example: to meet the requirements of parents and justify their hopes, the desire to develop with peers, receive a certificate or gold medal, go to university, etc. However, the highest motives are the desire to acquire knowledge in order to be useful to society, and the desire to know a lot.

The task of the teacher is to develop precisely high, one might say, spiritual motives in students - to cultivate faith in the need to acquire knowledge in order to bring social benefit, and to cultivate an attitude towards knowledge as a value. If it is possible to form such a motive in students and instill in them an interest in acquiring knowledge, then all learning will be much more effective. Such outstanding teachers as J. Komensky, B. Disterweg, K. Ushinsky, G. Shchukina, A. Kovalev, V. Ivanov, S. Rubinshtein, L. Bazhovich, V. Ananyev and others spoke and wrote on the topic of interest in knowledge. . Interest in knowledge contributes to intellectual activity, increased perception, vividness of thought, etc. In addition, it cultivates the strong-willed and spiritual component of the personality.

If the teacher manages to awaken interest in his discipline, then the student receives additional motivation, desires to gain knowledge and overcome obstacles in the process of obtaining it. He will be happy to work independently, devoting his free time to the subject. If there is no interest in the subject, then the material does not leave any trace in the student’s mind, does not evoke positive emotions and is quickly forgotten. In this case, the student himself remains indifferent and indifferent to the process.

As it is easy to see, the main focus in pedagogical and educational activities is precisely to create in the student, which includes interest, a thirst for knowledge, and a desire to develop and learn new things, master new skills, etc. Motivation should be encouraged and supported in every possible way by the teacher, and in many ways this is what determines the success and effectiveness of both pedagogical work (teaching) and the work of students (study).

And with the development of motivation, the conditions of the educational process matter, which should include not only a suitable form of presenting information, but also various forms of activity: putting forward hypotheses, mental modeling, observations, etc. Among other things, the personality of the teacher is also of great importance: a teacher who respects and loves the discipline he teaches always commands respect and attracts the attention of students, and his personal qualities and behavior during classes will directly influence how students will relate to classes .

In addition to this, you can use not only traditional teaching methods that are familiar to all of us, but also more modern ones, which have not yet had time to “set the teeth on edge” and have either been introduced into educational activities not very long ago, or are just beginning to be introduced. But we will talk about teaching methods later in our course, but for now we will conclude that any teacher who sets himself the goal of improving the quality of his work and making it more effective must certainly be guided by basic psychological knowledge.

In fact, we can talk about this topic for a very, very long time, but we only tried to make sure that you have a clear idea of ​​how pedagogy is related to psychology, and why you should know about it. You can find a huge amount of information on the topic of educational psychology on your own on the Internet, and on the topic of psychology in general, we suggest you take our specialized training (it is located). Now it would be more logical to continue the conversation on the topic of achieving learning effectiveness, namely: we will talk about what principles should be followed so that the learning and development of a person - your child, pupil or student - gives maximum results. The information will also be useful to those involved.

10 principles of effective training and development

Any teaching principles depend on the goals that the teacher sets for himself. He can, for example, develop his student, expand his stock of general knowledge, promote knowledge of the phenomena of the surrounding world, create the most suitable conditions for his development, etc. But it is very important to remember that there is no universal “recipe” according to which any person can become developed and intelligent, but there are several principles that will help a teacher become a really good teacher and maximize the effectiveness of his activities.

Principle One - Make sure that training and development is necessary

First of all, you need to conduct an accurate analysis of the skills and abilities of students and determine that there really is a need for training (applies mainly to university graduates, people who want to improve their skills, undergo retraining, etc.). You also need to make sure that the need or problem is a training issue. For example, if a student does not fulfill the requirements of the educational process, it is necessary to find out whether he is provided with the conditions for this, whether he himself understands what is required of him. In addition to this, an analysis of abilities, skills, knowledge, and other personality characteristics should be carried out. This will help to better understand in what direction the educational process should be directed. In a school setting, this can help determine a student’s aptitudes and predispositions for certain subjects.

The second principle is to create conditions conducive to learning and development

It is necessary to provide students with information that it is necessary to acquire new knowledge, acquire new skills and develop, and why this is necessary. Afterwards, you need to make sure that students understand the connection between receiving education and its subsequent practical application in life. The effectiveness of learning increases many times over if students understand the relationship between their learning and the opportunity to be useful to society as a whole and to themselves personally. Successful completion of academic tasks can be encouraged through recognition of progress, good grades and positive feedback. This way, students will be even more motivated.

The third principle is to provide exactly the kind of training and development that will be useful in practice

It is necessary to introduce into the pedagogical process such subjects and disciplines (knowledge, abilities and skills) that will not be of ephemeral utility in the minds of students, but will have specific practical significance. What students learn, they will have to apply in their lives. Without the relationship between theory and practice, learning loses not only its effectiveness, but also ceases to motivate, which means that the functions necessary for students to perform will be performed only formally, and the results will be mediocre, which completely contradicts the goals of education.

Principle four - include measurable objectives and specific results in training and development

The results of learning and development must be reflected in the activities of students, which is why the pedagogical process is necessary. It is important to ensure that the content of the training will lead students to comprehend the knowledge and acquire the skills that correspond to the learning objectives. Students should be notified about this, which means they will know what to expect from their training. Additionally, they will know how what they learn is applied. The educational process must be divided into stages, each stage must pursue its own independent goal. Testing the acquisition of knowledge and skills should be carried out at each stage - these can be tests, tests, exams, etc.

Principle five - explain to students what the learning process will consist of

Students should know before starting their studies what will be included in the educational process, as well as what is expected of them, both during and after their studies. This way, they will be able to concentrate on studying, studying the material and completing assignments without experiencing any discomfort or discomfort.

Principle six - convey to students that they are responsible for their learning

Any teacher must be able to convey to students the information that, first of all, they are responsible for their education. If they understand and accept this, then their attitude to learning will be serious and responsible. Preliminary conversations and preparation of assignments, active participation of students in discussions and practical exercises, the use of new and non-standard solutions in the pedagogical process are encouraged, and students here also have the right to vote - they themselves can propose and choose the most convenient way of teaching, lesson plan, etc. .d.

Principle seven - use all pedagogical tools

Every teacher must be able to operate basic pedagogical tools. Among them are those that are associated with the actions of the teacher, and those that are associated with the interaction between the teacher and students. We are talking about the teacher’s use of diversity - as a way to constantly maintain attention and interest, clarity - as a way to competently present confusing and incomprehensible information, involvement - as a way to attract students to active activities, support - as a way to give students confidence in their strengths and the ability to learn new things , and respectful attitude - as a way to shape students.

Principle eight - use more visual material

It is known for certain that 80% of information enters the brain from visual objects, and the teacher must take this into account in his work. For this reason, it is necessary to use as much as possible of what students can see with their own eyes, and not just read. Sources of visual information can be posters, diagrams, maps, tables, photographs, video materials. For the same reason, in all classes and auditoriums there are always boards for writing with chalk or marker - even the simplest data is always written down. And the most effective method of visual learning is experiments and practical laboratory work.

Principle nine - convey the essence first, and then the details

We have already mentioned this principle several times when we talked about the didactic work of Jan Komensky, but mentioning it again will only be beneficial. Teaching involves studying huge amounts of data, so you can’t convey everything to students at once. Large topics should be divided into subtopics, and subtopics, if necessary, into smaller subtopics. First, you should explain the essence of any subject or problem, and only then move on to discussing details and features. In addition, the human brain initially grasps the meaning of what it perceives, and only then begins to discern details. The pedagogical process must correspond to this natural feature.

Principle ten - do not overload with information and give time to rest

This principle is partly related to the previous one, but to a greater extent it is based on the fact that the human body should always have time to “recharge”. Even the most hardworking people understand the value of rest and good sleep. Learning is a complex process and is associated with high nervous and mental stress, increased attention and concentration, and maximum use of the brain's potential. Overwork is unacceptable in training, otherwise stress may overwhelm the student, he will become irritable, and his attention will be scattered - there will be no sense in such an apprenticeship. According to this principle, students should receive as much information as their age allows, and always have time to relax. As for sleep, it’s 8 hours at a time, so it’s better not to allow night vigils over textbooks.

With this, we will summarize the third lesson, and we will only say that students must learn to learn, and teachers must learn to teach, and understanding the psychological characteristics of the educational process can significantly increase the chances of success for both teachers themselves and their students.

Surely you want to quickly find out what educational methods exist, because there is already plenty of theory, but incomparably less practice. But don’t despair, the next lesson is devoted to traditional teaching methods - precisely those practical methods that have already been tested by many teachers and seasoned over the years, those methods that you can put into practice.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.