Subject: Managerial psychology
Course work
Topic: “Individual-typological characteristics of personality (temperament)”
Performed:
Checked:
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….2
2. 2.1. THE CONCEPT OF TEMPERAMENT……………………………………………………..4
2.2. What characteristics of the body underlie human temperament: an excursion into history…………………………………………………………………………………..6
2.3. Physiological bases of temperament…………………………………..8
3. TYPES OF TEMPERAMENTS AND THEIR PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
TIKA………………………………………………………………………………...11
4. 4.1. MODERN APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TEMPERAMENT TYPES……………………………………………………………15
4.2. The relationship between temperament and extraversion-introversion………………...21
4.3. The role of temperament in activity………………………………………..24
5. 5.1. TEST. DETERMINATION OF TEMPERAMENT ACCORDING TO THE EYSENCK TEST-QUESTIONNAIRE………………………………………………………………………………………………......27
5.2. Conclusions based on the test results…………………………………………….....29
6. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………..31
7. LIST OF REFERENCES………………………………......32
Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are determined by the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the body, as well as by the characteristics of social development, the uniqueness of social ties and contacts. Biologically determined personality structures include, first of all, temperament. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional sensitivity, pace and energy of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.
Temperament is a dynamic characteristic of mental processes and human behavior, manifested in their speed, variability, intensity and other characteristics.
Temperament characterizes the dynamism of a person, but does not characterize his beliefs, views, interests, is not an indicator of the value or low value of a person, does not determine his capabilities (the properties of temperament should not be confused
with character traits or abilities). The following main components that determine temperament can be distinguished.
1. The general activity of a person’s mental activity and behavior is expressed in varying degrees of the desire to actively act, master and transform the surrounding reality, and express oneself in a variety of activities. The expression of general activity varies from person to person.
Two extremes can be noted: on the one hand, lethargy, inertia, passivity, and on the other, great energy, activity, passion and swiftness in activity. Between these two poles there are representatives of different temperaments.
2. Motor, or motor, activity shows the state of activity of the motor and speech-motor apparatus. It is expressed in the speed, strength, sharpness, intensity of muscle movements and speech of a person, his external mobility (or, conversely, restraint), talkativeness (or silence).
3. Emotional activity is expressed in emotional sensitivity
(susceptibility and sensitivity to emotional influences), impulsivity, emotional mobility (speed of change of emotional states, their beginning and termination). Temperament manifests itself in a person’s activities, behavior and actions and has external expression. By external stable signs one can, to a certain extent, judge some properties of temperament.
Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to study the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not fully resolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing diversity of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which personality is formed as a social being, and personality traits determined by temperament are the most stable and long-lasting. This is what I will try to reveal in my work.
All people differ in the peculiarities of their behavior: some are active, energetic, emotional, others are slow, calm, imperturbable, some are withdrawn, secretive, sad. In the speed of emergence, depth and strength of feelings, in the speed of movements, and general mobility of a person, his temperament is expressed - a personality trait that gives a peculiar color to all activities and behavior of people.
Nevertheless, temperament today remains a largely controversial and unresolved problem. However, with all the diversity of approaches to the problem, scientists and practitioners recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which the personality is formed as a social being.
Temperament reflects the dynamic aspects of behavior, predominantly of an innate nature, therefore the properties of temperament are the most stable and constant compared to other mental characteristics of a person. The most specific feature of temperament is that the various properties of a given person’s temperament are not randomly combined with each other, but are naturally interconnected, forming a certain organization, structure that characterizes 3 temperaments.
So, temperament should be understood as individually unique properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content. goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their relationship characterize the type of temperament.
Temperament- these are those innate human characteristics that determine the dynamic characteristics of the intensity and speed of reaction, the degree of emotional excitability and balance, and the characteristics of adaptation to the environment.
B.M. Teplov gives the following definition of temperament: “ Temperament is called a set of mental characteristics characteristic of a given person associated with emotional excitability, i.e. the speed of the emergence of feelings, on the one hand, and their strength, on the other.” Thus, temperament has two components - activity and emotionality.
Activity behavior characterizes the degree of energy, swiftness,
speed or, conversely, slowness and inertia. In its turn, emotionality characterizes the course of emotional processes, determining the sign (positive or negative) and modality (joy, grief, fear, anger, etc.). S.L. Rubinstein emphasized that a person’s impressionability and impulsiveness are especially important for temperament, and that impressionability is characterized by the strength and stability of the impact that an impression has on a person, and impulsiveness is characterized by the strength of motivation and the speed of transition from motivation to action.
The properties of temperament include individual characteristics that
regulate the dynamics of mental activity as a whole;
characterize the peculiarities of the dynamics of individual mental processes;
have a stable and permanent nature and remain in development over a long period of time;
are in a strictly natural relationship, characterizing the type of temperament;
are uniquely determined by the general type of nervous system.
Using certain signs, it is possible with sufficient certainty to distinguish the properties of temperament from all other mental properties of a person.
Before moving on to the consideration of various types of temperament, we immediately emphasize that there are no better or worse temperaments - each of them has its own positive sides, therefore the main efforts should not be aimed at altering temperament (which is impossible due to the innate nature of temperament), but at the reasonable use of it advantages and leveling of its negative sides.
2.2. What characteristics of the body underlie human temperament: an excursion into history.
Claudius Galen believed that a person's temperament is determined by the ratio or mixture of four "juices" in the body: blood, lymph, black bile and yellow bile. The names of temperament types that have survived to this day came from the ancient names of these “juices.” “Sangva” is blood, “hole” is ordinary bile, “melan hole” is dark bile and “phlegm” is lymph. It was believed that the type of human temperament is determined by the type of fluid that predominates in the body.
The idea that the type of human temperament is determined by the ratio of fluids in the body lasted for quite a long time, until the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when I.P. Pavlov, having introduced the concept of the basic properties of the human nervous system, hypothesized that it is they, their combination, that determines the type of human temperament.
Pavlov's scientific research is associated with the discovery of the following basic properties of the nervous system: strength - weakness, excitability - inertia and balance - imbalance. It is characteristic that Pavlov first discovered and described these properties by observing how dogs behave during the development of conditioned reflexes to various stimuli: electric shocks, light and sound influences. Consequently, Pavlov believed that temperament is not a personal property of only a person, but represents the individual physiological characteristics of the activity of any highly developed living organism.
However, this idea in the twentieth century. It did not remain as Pavlov expressed it, and was subject to change. It turned out that three properties of the nervous system are not enough to characterize all the features of temperament. Domestic psychophysiology B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsyn and V.M. Rusalov proved that the human nervous system has many other properties. They ultimately came to the conclusion that the human nervous system has not three, as Pavlov assumed, but four pairs of basic properties and several more pairs of additional properties. For example, such a property of the nervous system as lability, that is, a rapid response to stimuli, was discovered, as well as its opposite property, called rigidity, a slow response of the nervous system to stimuli.
In addition, research conducted by these scientists discovered that different parts of the nervous system may have different sets of properties. There are, for example, properties that relate to the entire nervous system as a whole, properties that characterize individual, large blocks of the nervous system, and properties that are inherent in small sections or parts of it, for example, individual nerve cells.
In this regard, the picture of the natural basis of people’s temperament types (while maintaining the conviction that the type of temperament depends on the individual combination of properties of the nervous system) has become much more complex and quite confusing. Unfortunately, it has not yet been possible to fully clarify the situation, but modern scientists still agree on the following.
First of all, they recognize that the type of human temperament is determined not by the combination of those three simple properties of the nervous system that Pavlov spoke about, but by many different properties. Then, or it is assumed that different structures of the human brain, in particular those that are responsible for a given person’s communication with people and for his activity with inanimate objects, may have different sets of properties. It follows that one and the same person may well possess and demonstrate different types of temperament in work and in communicating with people.
I.P. Pavlov, studying the peculiarities of the development of conditioned reflexes in dogs, drew attention to individual differences in their behavior and the course of conditioned reflex activity. These differences were manifested primarily in such aspects of behavior as the speed and accuracy of the formation of conditioned reflexes, as well as in the characteristics of their attenuation. This circumstance made it possible to put forward the hypothesis that these differences cannot be explained only by the variety of experimental situations and that they are based on some fundamental properties of nervous processes. According to Pavlov, these properties include the strength of excitation, inhibition, their balance and mobility.
The strength of nervous processes is the ability of nerve cells to tolerate strong excitation and prolonged inhibition, i.e. endurance and performance of nerve cells. The strength of the nervous process is expressed in the appropriate reaction to strong stimuli: strong stimuli cause strong processes of excitation in a strong nervous system, and weak processes of excitation and inhibition in a weak nervous system.
Balance presupposes a proportional relationship between these nervous processes. The predominance of excitation processes over inhibition is expressed in the speed of formation of conditioned reflexes and their slow extinction. The predominance of inhibition processes over excitation is determined by the slow formation of conditioned reflexes and the speed of their extinction.
The mobility of nervous processes is the ability of the nervous system to quickly, in response to the demands of environmental conditions, replace the process of excitation with the process of inhibition and vice versa.
The properties of nervous processes identified by Pavlov can form certain combinations that determine the so-called type of nervous system, or the type of higher nervous activity. This type consists of a set of basic properties of the nervous system characteristic of an individual - strength, balance and mobility, the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition. According to Pavlov, there are four main types of the nervous system, which are close to the types of temperament identified by Hippocrates. Due to differences in the manifestation of the strength of nervous processes, strong and weak types are distinguished, which, in turn, can
divided into balanced and unbalanced. 8
In this case, the unbalanced type is characterized by a predominance of excitation over inhibition. And finally, strong, balanced types are divided into mobile and inert.
The relationship between these processes is presented in the diagram (Fig. No. 1):
Types of higher nervous activity
4
Strong Weak
Balanced Unbalanced
Mobile Inert
The types of nervous system identified by Pavlov, not only in quantity, but also in basic characteristics, correspond to the four classical types of temperament:
1. Sanguine is a strong, balanced, agile type.
2. Phlegmatic – a strong, balanced, sedentary (inert) type.
3. Choleric – strong, but unbalanced, with weak inhibitory processes compared to excitation.
4. Melancholic – weak processes of excitation and inhibition (weak type).
Thus, by the type of nervous system, Pavlov understood the innate and relatively weakly susceptible to changes under the influence of environment and education properties of the nervous system. These properties of the nervous system form the physiological basis of temperament, which is a mental manifestation of the general type of nervous system.
The role of Pavlov's research in the development of modern science is extremely great. However, his discovery of the properties of the nervous system and the typology of the nervous system developed on this basis served as the basis for him to assert that all human behavior, like the behavior of animals, can be explained from the position of physiology. This point of view is still strong in our time and is often found among physiologists and doctors, but it is not the truth. Human behavior is very complex and
is determined not only by innate characteristics, but also by the conditions of the social situation, as well as by the characteristics of upbringing. 9
Nevertheless, Pavlov's typology has become the source of a huge number of experiments and studies in this area. Many physiologists and psychologists conducted further research on animals. In the 50s Laboratory studies of adult behavior have been undertaken. As a result of research carried out first under the leadership of B.M. Teplov, and then V.D. Nebylitsyn, Pavlov’s typology was supplemented with new elements, numerous methods were developed for studying the properties of the human nervous system, and two more properties of nervous processes were experimentally identified and described: lability and dynamism. The lability of the nervous system is manifested in the speed of occurrence and cessation of nervous processes. The essence of the dynamism of nervous processes is the ease and speed of formation of positive (dynamic excitation) and inhibitory (dynamic inhibition) conditioned reflexes.
Currently, science has accumulated a lot of facts about the properties of the nervous system, and as they accumulate, researchers attach less and less importance to the types of the nervous system, especially their magic number - “4”, which appears in almost all of Pavlov’s works on temperament. Each person has a very specific type of nervous system, the manifestation of which, i.e. characteristics of temperament constitute an important aspect of individual psychological differences manifested in activity.
3. Types of temperaments and their psychological characteristics.
According to I.P. Pavlov, temperaments are the “main features” of a person’s individual characteristics. They are usually distinguished as follows: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic.
A relationship has been established between the type of higher nervous activity and temperament.
Types of higher nervous activity and their relationship with temperament
Sanguine temperament .
A sanguine person quickly gets along with people, is cheerful, easily switches from one type of activity to another, but does not like monotonous work. He easily controls his emotions, quickly gets used to a new environment, and actively comes into contact with people. His speech is loud, fast, distinct and is accompanied by expressive facial expressions and gestures. But this temperament is characterized by some duality. If stimuli change quickly, novelty and interest of impressions are maintained all the time, a state of active excitement is created in a sanguine person and he manifests himself as an active, active, energetic person. If the influences are long-lasting and monotonous, then they do not maintain a state of activity, excitement, and the sanguine person loses interest in the matter, he develops indifference, boredom, and lethargy.
A sanguine person quickly develops feelings of joy, grief, affection and hostility, but all these manifestations of his feelings are unstable, do not differ in duration and depth. They arise quickly and can disappear just as quickly or even be replaced by the opposite. The mood of a sanguine person changes quickly, but
As a rule, a good mood prevails.
Phlegmatic temperament.
A person of this temperament is slow, calm, unhurried, and balanced. In his activities he demonstrates thoroughness, thoughtfulness, and perseverance. As a rule, he finishes what he starts. All mental processes in a phlegmatic person seem to proceed slowly. The feelings of a phlegmatic person are poorly expressed outwardly; they are usually inexpressive. The reason for this is the balance and weak mobility of nervous processes. In relationships with people, a phlegmatic person is always even-tempered, calm, moderately sociable, and has a stable mood. The calmness of a person of phlegmatic temperament is also manifested in his attitude towards events and phenomena in life, a phlegmatic person is not easily enraged and emotionally hurt. It is easy for a person of phlegmatic temperament to develop self-control, composure, and calmness. But a phlegmatic person should develop the qualities he lacks - greater mobility, activity, and not allow him to show indifference to activity, lethargy, inertia, which can very easily form under certain conditions. Sometimes a person of this temperament may develop an indifferent attitude towards work, towards life around him, towards people and even towards himself.
Choleric temperament .
People of this temperament are fast, excessively mobile, unbalanced, excitable, all mental processes occur quickly and intensely in them. The predominance of excitation over inhibition, characteristic of this type of nervous activity, is clearly manifested in the incontinence, impetuosity, hot temper, and irritability of the choleric person. Hence the expressive facial expressions, hasty speech, sharp gestures, unrestrained movements. The feelings of a person with choleric temperament are strong, usually clearly manifested, and arise quickly; the mood sometimes changes dramatically. The imbalance characteristic of a choleric person is clearly associated with his activities: he gets down to business with increasing intensity and even passion, showing impetuosity and speed of movements, working with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties. But in a person with a choleric temperament, the supply of nervous energy can quickly be depleted in the process of work, and then a sharp decline in activity may occur: elation and inspiration disappear, and the mood drops sharply. In communicating with people, a choleric person admits harshness, irritability, and emotional incontinence, which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate people’s actions, and on this basis he creates conflict situations in the team. Excessive straightforwardness
Hot temper, harshness, and intolerance sometimes make it difficult and unpleasant to be in a group of such people.
Melancholic temperament .
Melancholic people have slow mental processes, they have difficulty reacting to strong stimuli; prolonged and strong stress causes people of this temperament to slow down their activity, and then stop it. In work, melancholic people are usually passive, often have little interest (after all, interest is always associated with strong nervous tension). Feelings and emotional states in people of melancholic temperament arise slowly, but are distinguished by depth, great strength and duration; melancholic people are easily vulnerable, have a hard time withstanding insults and grief, although outwardly all these experiences are poorly expressed in them. Representatives of a melancholic temperament are prone to isolation and loneliness, avoid communicating with unfamiliar, new people, are often embarrassed, and show great awkwardness in a new environment. Everything new and unusual causes melancholics to become inhibited. But in a familiar and calm environment, people with this temperament feel calm and work very productively. It is easy for melancholic people to develop and improve their characteristic depth and stability of feelings, increased susceptibility to external influences.
Psychologists have found that weakness of the nervous system is not a negative property. A strong nervous system copes more successfully with some life tasks, and a weak one with others. A weak nervous system is a highly sensitive nervous system, and this is its well-known advantage. Knowledge of temperament, knowledge of the features of the innate organization of the nervous system, which influences the course of a person’s mental activity, is necessary for a teacher in his educational and educational work. It should be remembered that the division of people into four types of temperament is very arbitrary. There are transitional, mixed, intermediate types of temperament; Often a person's temperament combines traits of different temperaments.
Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of psychological qualities of an individual. However, with any temperament, it is possible to develop in a person qualities that are unusual for a given temperament. Psychological research and pedagogical practice show that temperament changes somewhat under
influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. Some people, having learned the peculiarities of their temperament, deliberately themselves develop certain methods in order to master it.
4. 4.1. Modern approaches to the psychological characteristics of temperament types.
Currently, we are able to give a complete psychological description of all types of temperament. To compile the psychological characteristics of the traditional four types, the basic properties of temperament are usually used. Many of these properties were revealed in the works of B.M. Teplov and his students, and then received further development in the research of domestic scientists. During these studies, the names of some properties proposed by Teplov changed, and new properties were discovered.
The greatest contribution to the development of the theory of temperament in Russian psychology was made by B.M. Teplov. His works devoted to the study of the properties of temperament determined not only the modern view of the problem of temperament, but also formed the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Teplov considered stable mental properties that characterize the dynamics of mental activity to be the properties of temperament. He explained individual characteristics of temperament by different levels of development of certain properties of temperament. The most significant properties of temperament included the following:
1) Emotional excitability. This property was understood as the ability to respond to very weak external and internal influences.
2) Excitability of attention - this property of temperament determines the adaptive functions of the individual’s psyche. It consists in the ability to notice an extremely small change in the intensity of the influencing stimulus.
3) The power of emotions. Teplov saw the main function of this property in the “energization of activity” depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of motives. (Modern psychologists call this property the intensity and modality of emotional manifestations.)
4) Anxiety. By anxiety Teplov understood emotional excitability in a threatening situation. Moreover, he fundamentally separated anxiety and emotional excitability under normal conditions. One of the reasons for this opinion is that emotional excitability does not depend on the strength of the stimulus, but anxiety, on the contrary, is directly dependent on it.
5) Reactivity of involuntary movements. The function of this property is to increase the intensity of adaptive reactions to situations and stimuli that are directly acting at the moment.
6) The activity of volitional purposefulness of activity. This property, according to Teplov, manifests itself in increasing the activity of adaptation by transforming the situation in accordance with the goal.
7) Plasticity - rigidity. The function of this property is to adapt to the changing requirements of activity.
8) Resistance. This property lies in the ability to resist all internal and external conditions that weaken or inhibit the started activity.
9) Subjectivization. Teplov saw the function of this property in increasing the degree of mediation of activity by subjective images and concepts.
From the above characteristics of temperament properties proposed by Teplov, we should draw two main conclusions. Firstly, the properties of temperament are manifested in the dynamics of mental processes and the degree of activity of the individual. Secondly, temperament is closely related to activity.
For example, the property of temperament called thermal “emotional excitability” is often called sensitivity in the psychological literature, and the reactivity of involuntary movements caused by external influences is called reactivity. The names of other temperament properties have also changed. At the same time, extraversion and introversion began to be classified as temperament properties. These concepts determine what a person’s reactions and activities primarily depend on - on external impressions arising at the moment (extroversion), or on images, ideas and thoughts associated with the past and future (introversion).
Temperament is an external manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity of a person, and therefore, as a result of education and self-education, this external manifestation can be distorted, changed, and “masking” of the true temperament occurs. Therefore, “pure” types of temperament are rarely found, but, nevertheless, the predominance of one or another tendency is always manifested in human behavior.
Table 1. Types of temperaments and outstanding personalities.
|
temperament according to Hippocrates |
Brief characteristic |
Properties of nervous |
Outstanding |
| Phlegmatic person |
Passive, very hard-working, slow to adapt, |
Calm, strong, balanced, sedentary |
I.A. Krylov M.I. Kutuzov |
| Sanguine |
Active, energetic, adaptable |
Alive, strong, balanced, agile |
M.Yu. Lermontov |
| Active, very energetic, persistent, emotions uncontrollable |
Easily excitable |
Peter I |
|
| Melancholic |
Passive, easily tired, difficult to adapt, very sensitive |
Weak, unbalanced, reserved, active or sedentary |
N.V. Gogol |
There is also another system of human temperament types. These are the so-called dominant instincts. They are represented by seven types.
Egophilic.
From early childhood he is characterized by increased caution. It is characterized by: “symbiosis” with the mother (does not let go of the mother for a moment, shows neurotic reactions if you have to separate), a tendency to fear, intolerance to pain, anxiety in relation to the new and unknown, a tendency towards conservatism, distrust, suspicion, suspiciousness.
Their credo: “Safety and health come first! There is one life, and there will be no other.” But with disharmony, self-centeredness and anxious suspiciousness, denial of changes and any risk are formed. The preferred color is grey. 17
Genophilic. (from lat. genus - gen.)
“I” is replaced by the concept “WE”. Already in childhood, fixation on the family leads to neuropsychic disorders if there is discord in the family. People of this type subtly perceive the deterioration in the well-being of their loved ones and are very responsive. The credo of such people: “My home is my fortress! The interests of the family come first.” Under unfavorable circumstances, an anxious personality is formed with anxiety focused on children and family. The preferred color is brown.
Altruistic.
Research.
From early childhood, people of this type are characterized by curiosity and a desire to get to the bottom of everything. He upsets his parents by taking everything he can apart into pieces, asking the question “why?” more often than others, conducts experiments. At first he is interested in everything, but then his interests narrow. These are passionate creative people. The preferred color is red.
Dominant.
From early childhood, there is a desire for leadership and the presence of the qualities of a true leader: the ability to organize, set a goal, and show the will to achieve it. These are very courageous people, with logical thinking, criticality, responsibility, and the ability to highlight the main thing. But in communication and business contacts, they are characterized by an orientation towards leaders and disdain for the weak. They tend to take into account the interests of the entire team. Their credo: “Business and order above all.” Preferred colors are green and red.
Libertophilic. (from Latin libertas - freedom.)
Already in the cradle, a child of this type sharply protests against being swaddled or kept in a crib for a long time. The tendency to protest against any restriction of his freedom grows with him. People of this type are characterized by denial of authority. Characterized by tolerance to pain, hardship and the desire for independence. The tendency appears early: “My home is the whole world”;
tendency to leave one's home. Behavior manifests itself as stubbornness, adventurism, and optimism. Characterized by a tendency to change jobs, lifestyles, and intolerance to routine. The credo of such people is “Freedom above all.” Preferred colors are yellow, red.
Dignitophilous. (from Latin dignitas - dignity.)
Already at an early age, a person of this type is able to grasp irony, ridicule and is absolutely intolerant of any form of humiliation. In childhood, you can only come to an agreement with him with affection. In defending his rights he can sacrifice many things. His credo is “Honor above all.” A bit of family honor. Preferred colors are green and gray.
Psychodiagnostic methods allow us to draw conclusions regarding the temperament of a person. But no judgment about a person can be considered final. If only because today you have the opportunity to learn something new, then tomorrow you will be a little different.
In the last century, the English scientist F. Galton was the first to use tests to measure human mental abilities. Since then, about 10 thousand different tests have been created, with the help of which their authors hoped to find out anything - from the professional suitability of an employee to his sincerity.
In modern psychological science, most constitutional concepts are subject to sharp criticism due to their underestimation of the role of the environment and social conditions in the formation of a person’s mental properties. Concepts based on consideration of the peculiarities of the functioning of the nervous system, which plays a dominant and controlling role in the body, deserve more serious attention. A theory of the connection between some general properties of nervous processes and types of temperament has been proposed I.P. Pavlov and received further development and experimental confirmation in the works of his followers. The research conducted by Pavlov is deservedly regarded as the most significant for understanding the physiological foundations of temperament.
According to I.P. Pavlov, temperaments are the “main features” of a person’s individual characteristics.
However, it would be a mistake to think that all people can be classified into four main temperaments. Only a few are pure representatives of these types; in the majority we observe a combination of individual traits of one temperament with some traits of another. The same person in
in different situations and in relation to different spheres of life, activity can reveal traits of different temperaments.
There is no question about that. Which temperament is better? Each of them has its positive and negative sides. The passion, activity, energy of a choleric person, the mobility, liveliness and responsiveness of a sanguine person, the depth and stability of the feelings of a melancholic person, the calmness and lack of haste of a phlegmatic person - these are examples of those valuable personality traits, the possession of which is associated with individual temperaments. At the same time, with any of the temperaments there may be a danger of developing undesirable personality traits. For example, a choleric temperament can make a person unrestrained, abrupt, and prone to constant “explosions.” Sanguine temperament can lead to frivolity, a tendency to be scattered, and lack of depth and stability of feelings. With a melancholic temperament, a person may develop excessive isolation, a tendency to become completely immersed in his own experiences, and excessive shyness. A phlegmatic temperament can make a person lethargic, inert, and indifferent to all the impressions of life.
Temperament- this is an external manifestation of a type of higher nervous activity
person, and therefore as a result of education, self-education, this external
the manifestation can be distorted, changed, and the true temperament is “masked.” Temperament is neither “bad” nor “good”; everyone has their own temperament. It is good in some cases and bad in others. You can train your temperament through tests or various situations in life.
Eysenck, as a result of numerous studies and analysis of a large number of works by other authors, showed that the fundamental parameters of personality structure are the factors: “neuroticism” and “extroversion - introversion”.
The famous psychologist C. Jung divides people according to their personality into extroverts (“outward-facing”) and introverts (“inward-facing”). Extroverts are sociable, active, optimistic, mobile, they have a strong type of GNI, and by temperament they are sanguine or choleric. Introverts are uncommunicative, reserved, separated from everyone, their actions are guided mainly by their own ideas, they take decision making seriously, and control their emotions. Introverts include phlegmatic and melancholic people. However, it is rare in life to meet absolutely pure extroverts or introverts. Each of us has traits of both those and others, it depends on the innate qualities of the nervous system, age, upbringing, and life circumstances. It is curious that for extroverts the leading hemisphere is the right hemisphere, which can partially manifest itself even in appearance - their left eye is most developed, i.e. the left eye is more open and more meaningful (a person’s nerves run crosswise, i.e. from the right hemisphere to the left half of the body and from the left hemisphere to the right half of the body). In introverts, the left hemisphere is dominant.
Extraversion in combination with increased neuroticism causes the manifestation of choleric temperament; “introversion + neuroticism” determines the temperament of a melancholic person; the opposite of neuroticism is emotional stability, balance in combination with extraversion manifests itself as a sanguine character, in combination with introversion as a phlegmatic character.
It is curious that prosperous married couples with stable and maximally compatible relationships are distinguished by opposite temperaments: an excitable choleric person and a calm phlegmatic person, as well as a sad melancholic person and a cheerful sanguine person - they seem to complement each other, they need each other. In friendships there are often people of the same temperament (except for choleric people - two choleric people often quarrel due to mutual incontinence).
It also turned out that the most universal partners are phlegmatic people, because they are satisfied with any temperament except their own (couples
phlegmatic people turned out to be very unfavorable, according to many authors).
Eysenck tried to determine the physiological basis of the parameters of “extraversion - introversion”, so, based on Pavlov’s hypothesis, he assumed that extraverted behavior is determined by the emergence of strong inhibitory excitation potentials, while the behavior of introverts is the result of the weakness of inhibitory potentials and the strength of excitation potentials. Eysenck identified experimental signs on the basis of which the division into extroverts and introverts is made:
As already noted, other representatives of factor analysis identified a larger number of factors - personality traits.
Let us give several examples of factors (personality traits) as normal psychological characteristics of people. Factor A describes the features of the dynamics of emotional experiences. People with high scores on this factor are distinguished by richness and rage of emotional manifestations, naturalness and ease of behavior, willingness to cooperate, sensitive and attentive attitude towards others, kindness and kindness. They get along well in a team and are active in establishing contacts. At the opposite pole (low score on the factor), such traits as lethargy of affect and lack of lively emotions are important. These people are cold, harsh, and formal in their contacts. They shy away from people, preferring to communicate with books and things; They try to work alone and avoid group events. They are precise and obligatory in business, but not flexible enough. Factor E: dominance (persistence, assertiveness) – conformity (submissiveness, dependence). High scores on the factor indicate authority, a desire for autonomy, independence, and disregard for social conditions and authorities. These individuals act boldly, energetically and actively. They live according to their own laws and considerations, aggressively defend their rights to independence and demand independence from others. 22
A person who has a low score on this factor is obedient, conformist, does not know how to defend his point of view, obediently follows the stronger, gives way to others, does not believe in himself and his abilities, therefore he often turns out to be dependent, takes the blame, submits to everyone responsibilities. Factor I characterizes the desire to comply with moral requirements. At the pole of high factor values are such traits as a sense of responsibility, commitment, conscientiousness, firmness of moral principles, rigidity, and stagnation of assessments. These people are precise and careful in their affairs, they love order in everything, they do not break the rules, they follow them literally even when they are an empty formality. A person who has a low score on this factor is prone to inconstancy, changes in assessments, and easily gives up the job he has started. The identification of personality traits presupposes the existence of a finite set of basic qualities, and individual differences are determined by the degree of their expression.
4.3. The role of temperament in activity.
Since each activity places certain demands on the human psyche and its dynamic characteristics, there are no temperaments ideally suited for all types of activity. It can be figuratively described that people of choleric temperament are more suitable for active risky activities (“warriors”), sanguines for organizational activities (“politicians”), melancholics for creative activities in science and art (“thinkers”), phlegmatics for systematic and fruitful activity (“creators”). Certain human characteristics are contraindicated for certain types of activities and professions; for example, slowness, inertia, and weakness of the nervous system are contraindicated for the activities of a fighter pilot. Consequently, phlegmatic and melancholic people are not suitable for such activities.
The role of temperament in work and study is that the influence on the activity of various mental states caused by an unpleasant environment, emotional factors, and pedagogical influences depends on it. The influence of various factors that determine the level of neuropsychic stress (for example, assessment of activity, expectation of control of activity, acceleration of the pace of work, disciplinary action, etc.) depends on temperament.
There are four ways to adapt temperament to the demands of activity. The first way is professional selection, one of the tasks of which is to prevent persons who do not have the necessary temperamental properties from participating in this activity. This path is implemented only during selection for professions that place increased demands on personality traits. Second way adapting temperament to activity consists in individualizing the requirements, conditions and methods of work placed on a person (individual approach). Third way consists in overcoming the negative influence of temperament through the formation of a positive attitude towards activity and corresponding motives. Fourth, the main and most universal way of adapting temperament to the requirements of activity is the formation of its individual style. An individual style of activity is understood as such an individual system.
techniques and methods of action that are characteristic of a given person and ensure the achievement of successful results. 24
Temperament leaves its mark on the ways of behavior and communication, for example, a sanguine person is almost always the initiator in communication, he feels at ease in the company of strangers, a new unusual situation only excites him, but melancholic, on the contrary, frightens, confuses, he gets lost in a new situation, among new people. A phlegmatic person also has difficulty getting along with new people, shows little of his feelings and does not notice for a long time that someone is looking for a reason to get to know him. He is inclined to begin love relationships with friendship and eventually falls in love, but without lightning-fast metamorphoses, since his rhythm of feelings is slowed down, and the stability of feelings makes him a monogamist. For choleric and sanguine people, on the contrary, love often arises with an explosion, at first sight, but is not so stable.
A person’s work productivity is closely related to the characteristics of his temperament. Thus, the special mobility of a sanguine person can bring an additional effect if the work requires him to frequently move from one type of activity to another, efficiency in decision-making, and the monotony, regimentation of activity leads him to rapid fatigue. Phlegmatic and melancholic people, on the contrary, under conditions of strict regulation and monotonous work, show greater productivity and resistance to fatigue than choleric and sanguine people.
In behavioral communication, it is possible and necessary to anticipate the peculiarities of the reaction of persons with different types of temperament and respond adequately to them.
We emphasize that temperament determines only dynamic, but not meaningful characteristics of behavior. Based on the same temperament, both a “great” and a socially insignificant personality are possible.
I.P. Pavlov identified three more “purely human types” of higher nervous activity (HNA): mental, artistic, and average. Representatives of the thinking type (the activity of the second signaling system of the brain of the left hemisphere predominates) are very reasonable, prone to a detailed analysis of life phenomena, to abstract, abstract logical thinking. People of this type are usually interested in mathematics, philosophy, and they like scientific activities.
People of the artistic type (the activity of the first signaling system of the brain of the right hemisphere predominates) have imaginative thinking, which is imprinted with great emotionality, vividness of imagination, spontaneity and vividness of perception of reality. They are primarily interested in art, theater, poetry, music, writing and artistic creativity. They strive for
to a wide circle of friends, these are typical lyricists, and they skeptically regard people of the thinking type as “crackers”. Most people (up to 80%) belong to the “golden mean”, the average type. The rational or emotional principle slightly predominates in their character, and this depends on upbringing from early childhood, on life circumstances. This begins to manifest itself by the age of 12-16: some teenagers devote most of their time to literature, music, art, others to chess, physics, and mathematics.
Modern research has confirmed that the right and left hemispheres have specific functions, and the predominance of activity of one or another hemisphere has a significant impact on the individual characteristics of a person’s personality.
5.5.1. Practical part. Test. Determination of temperament using the Eysenck questionnaire test.
It is proposed to answer 57 questions. It is necessary to give unambiguous answers (yes-no). Work quickly without spending a lot of time thinking about answers, i.e. your first reaction is most important. You must answer every question without missing a single one.
1. Do you often feel a craving for new experiences, to “shake yourself up”?
2. Do you often need friends who understand you and can cheer you up or console you?
3. Are you a carefree person?
4. Do you find it very difficult to refuse people?
5. Do you think before doing anything?
6. If you promise to do something, do you always keep your promises?
7. Do you often have lows or highs in your mood?
8. Do you usually act and speak quickly, without thinking?
9. Do you often feel like an unhappy person?
10. Would you do almost anything on a dare?
11. Do you feel shy and ashamed when you want to start a conversation with an attractive stranger?
12. Do you sometimes lose your temper and get angry?
13. Do you often act under the influence of a momentary mood?
14. Do you often worry because you have done or said something that you should not have done or said?
15. Do you usually prefer books to meeting people?
16. Are you easily offended?
17. Do you often like to be in company?
18. Do you have thoughts that you would like to hide from others?
19. Is it true that sometimes you are so full of energy that everything burns in your hands, and sometimes you are completely lethargic?
20. Do you prefer to have fewer friends, but those who are especially devoted to you?
21. Do you often dream?
22. When people shout at you, do you respond in kind?
23. Are you often bothered by feelings of guilt?
24. Are all your habits good and desirable?
25. Are you able to give free rein to your feelings and have a lot of fun in a noisy company?
26. Do you consider yourself an excitable and sensitive person?
27. Are you considered a lively and cheerful person?
28. Do you often, after doing something important, feel that you could have done it better?
29. Are you more silent when you are in the company of other people?
30. Do you sometimes gossip?
31. Does it ever happen that you can’t sleep because all sorts of thoughts come into your head?
32. If you want to know about something, would you rather read about it in a book than ask?
33. Do you have palpitations?
34. Do you like work that requires constant attention from you?
35. Do you have tremors? 27
36. As a child, did you always meekly and immediately do what you were ordered?
37. Do you try to keep a low profile when in society?
38. Are you irritable?
39. Do you like work that requires you to act quickly?
40. Are you worried about any unpleasant events that might happen?
41. Do you walk slowly, leisurely?
42. Have you ever been late for a date or work?
43. Do you often have nightmares?
44. Is it true that you love to talk so much that you never miss an opportunity to talk with a stranger?
45. Do you have any pain?
46. Would you feel like a very unhappy person if you were deprived of communication with people for a long time?
47. Would you call yourself a nervous person?
48. Are there people among your friends who you clearly don’t like?
49. Would you say that you are a very confident person?
50. Are you easily offended if people point out your mistakes at work or personal failures?
51. Do you find it difficult to truly enjoy a party?
52. Does the feeling that you are somehow worse than others bother you?
53. Is it easy for you to bring some life into a rather boring company?
54. Does it happen that you talk about things you don’t understand?
55. Are you worried about your health?
56. Do you like to make fun of others?
57. Do you suffer from insomnia?
5.2. Conclusions based on the test results.
Let's evaluate the results on three scales.
Extraversion– is the sum of the answers “yes” in questions 1, 3, 8, 10, 13, 17, 22, 25, 27, 39, 44, 46, 49, 53, 56 and the answers “no” in questions 5, 15, 20 , 29, 32, 37, 41, 51. (1 point each)
If the sum of points is 0-10, then you are an introvert, closed within yourself.
If 15-24, then you are an extrovert, sociable, facing the outside world.
If 11-14, then you are an ambivert, you communicate when you need it.
Neuroticism– find the number of “yes” answers in questions 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, 16, 19, 21, 23, 26, 28, 31, 33, 35, 38, 40, 43, 45, 47, 50 , 52, 55, 57. (one point each)
0-10 – emotional stability.
11-16 – emotional sensitivity.
17-22 – individual signs of nervous system instability appear.
23-24 – neuroticism bordering on pathology, possible breakdown, nervousness.
Indicator for "lie scale" is determined by the sum of the points for the answers “yes” in questions 6, 24, 36 and the answers “no” in questions 12, 18, 30, 42, 48, 54.
0-3 is the norm, the answers can be trusted.
An indicator of 4-5 is critical, it indicates a tendency to give only “good” answers.
6-9 - answers are unreliable.
Calculate the points for each scale separately and mark the result on the proposed coordinates. Temperament is determined by the intersection of the points.
A choleric person strong nervous system, he easily switches from one thing to another, but his unrestrained behavior, i.e. imbalance of the nervous system reduces harmoniousness with other people. Choleric people are prone to sudden mood swings, are quick-tempered, impatient, and prone to emotional breakdowns.
I completely agree with this. Indeed, this is my type of temperament.
6. Conclusion
So, to summarize the above, I would like to note once again that psychologists from different countries have been and are studying temperament. The methods of studying it are quite conventional and not objective, but work in this direction is being carried out and is bearing fruit. Many theories have been put forward regarding the nature of temperament and methods for studying it. The methods include laboratory, complex, natural methods of studying temperament and the observation method.
Various points of view have been expressed about the nature of temperament, starting with Hippocrates and Galen, who identified 4 types of temperament (these types have almost invariably survived to this day and are used in the research of modern psychologists); E. Kretschmer connected the nature of temperament with the chemical composition of the blood, his theory was supported by W. McDougall and the Japanese psychologist T. Furukova; Albrecht Haller introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, and his student G. Wriesberg connected temperament with the characteristics of the nervous system; I.P. Pavlov experimentally confirmed the theory about the physiological basis of temperament; K. Seago associated the difference in temperamental characteristics with physique, and W. Wundt with the strength and speed of change in emotions. Based on these studies, the study of temperament continues today.
The works of I.P. Pavlov, B.M. Teplov, V.S. Merlin, I.M. Paley, L.B. Ermolaeva-Tomina and many others made a significant contribution to the study of this issue.
In my work, I tried to reveal such questions as: what is the basis of temperament and what relates to the properties of temperament, to illuminate the physiological basis of temperament, to give a psychological description of temperament types, to reveal the connection of temperament with extraversion and introversion and modern approaches to the psychological characteristics of temperament types, to identify the role of temperament in human activity, as well as the achievements of psychologists in this area.
In my opinion, I succeeded.
7. List of used literature:
1. Practical psychology for managers. Information and publishing house "Filin",
2. Psychology and ethics of business communication. Edited by Professor V.N. Lavrenenko. UNITY., M., 2000.
3. Kolomensky Ya.L. Human psychology. M., Education, 1986
4. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 2003.
5. General psychology. Lecture notes. Comp. Titov V.A. m, PRIOR-izdat, 2002.
6. Methodological manual. Managerial psychology. N. Novgorod, 2004.
Let's consider the characteristics of temperament types.
Choleric temperament.
Representatives of this type are characterized by increased excitability, and as a result, unbalanced behavior. The choleric person is quick-tempered, aggressive, straightforward in relationships, and energetic in activity. Cholerics are characterized by cyclical work patterns. They are able to devote themselves to their work with all passion and get carried away by it. But their strength is exhausted, their faith in their abilities has dropped, a depressed mood has set in, and they do nothing. Such cyclicality is one of the consequences of the imbalance of their nervous system.
Sanguine temperament.
A representative of this type of temperament, I.P. Pavlov is characterized as an ardent, very productive figure, but only when he has an interesting business, i.e. constant excitement. When there is no such thing, he becomes boring and lethargic.
For a sanguine person, great mobility and easy adaptability to changing living conditions are common. He quickly finds contact with people, is sociable, and does not feel constrained in a new environment. In a team, a sanguine person is always cheerful, cheerful, willingly gets down to business, and is capable of passion. However, while developing vigorous activity, he can cool down just as quickly as he can quickly get carried away if the matter ceases to interest him, if it requires painstakingness and patience, if it is of an everyday nature.
For a sanguine person, emotions arise easily and are easily replaced. This is one of the conditions that he can quickly free himself from oppressive disorder, if it arises, and remain in a constant optimistic state of mind, if circumstances sufficiently excite him and attract him to one thing or another.
The ease with which a sanguine person forms and remakes new temporary connections and great mobility characterize the flexibility of the mind. A sanguine person is prone to wit, quickly grasps new things, and easily switches attention. He is productive in dynamic and varied work. Work that requires quick reactions, and at the same time balance, suits him best.
Phlegmatic temperament.
According to the characteristics of I.P. Pavlova, a phlegmatic person is a calm, balanced, always even, persistent and persistent worker of life. Balance and some inertia of nervous processes allow a phlegmatic person to easily remain calm in any conditions. In the presence of strong inhibition, balancing the process of excitation, it is not difficult for him to restrain his impulses, impulses, strictly follow the developed routine of life, the system at work, and is not distracted by minor reasons. A phlegmatic person can perform a task that requires an even expenditure of effort, prolonged and methodical effort (perseverance, sustained attention and patience).
The phlegmatic person is solid, he does not waste his efforts: having calculated them, he brings the matter to the end. He is equal in relationships, moderately sociable, and does not like to chat in vain.
The disadvantage of a phlegmatic person is his inertia and inactivity. He needs time to swing, to concentrate, to switch it to another object, etc. Inertia also affects his stereotypes, the difficulty of restructuring them, which leads to excessive fixedness of character and insufficient flexibility. However, this quality - inertia - also has a positive meaning. It ensures unhurriedness, thoroughness and, in general, constancy and certainty of character. Phlegmatic people are especially suited to work that requires method, composure and long-term performance.
Melancholic temperament.
Representatives of this type are distinguished by high emotional sensitivity, and as a result, increased vulnerability. Melancholic people are somewhat withdrawn, especially if they meet new people, are indecisive in difficult circumstances, and experience strong fear in dangerous situations.
The weakness of the processes of excitation and inhibition when they are unbalanced (inhibition predominates) leads to the fact that any strong influence inhibits the activity of the melancholic person, and he experiences extreme inhibition. Mild irritation also has a specific effect on a melancholic person; subjectively, it is experienced by him as a strong impact, and therefore the melancholic person is inclined to give himself over to worry about an insignificant reason. This was considered by psychologists as the ability of a melancholic person to experience strong feelings.
In a familiar environment, and especially in a good, friendly team, a melancholic person can be a fairly sociable person, successfully conduct the assigned task, show perseverance, and overcome difficulties.
So, temperament affects the nature of activity (in performance, communication or social contact), adaptation to changing conditions.
10.3. Concept and general characteristics of character.
Character is a holistic formation that determines the characteristics of a person’s activity and behavior and is characterized by a stable attitude towards various aspects of reality.
In character, personality is revealed from the side of its content. In temperament - from the side of its dynamic manifestations.
Character is an individually unique combination of constant, essential properties of a person, manifested in his behavior. Character expresses the most typical, essential characteristics of a person, knowledge of which allows us to some extent foresee how a person will act in certain situations.
Character arises and is formed in society. The typical features of society manifest themselves in the character of each person differently, depending on his interests, abilities, feelings, and motives.
The individual and the general in character acquire unity. Character is both “stable” and “changing.”
Character cannot be identified with temperament, and at the same time they are closely interrelated. Temperament can change qualitatively under the influence of character; temperament colors character traits in its own way and gives them unique forms; character can deeply influence temperament, subordinating emotional excitability to the content side of the personality, its orientation and will. Character is also interconnected with other aspects of personality: intelligence, special abilities.
Human character is multifaceted and diverse in its manifestations. At the same time, he is complete. Integrity is achieved by the core, most stable, dominant in strength and activity traits.
Character Structure
In the structure of character, several groups of traits are distinguished that express different attitudes of the individual to reality.
The first group includes traits that manifest themselves in activity: initiative, hard work, efficiency, etc.
The second group consists of traits that manifest themselves in relation to others: tactfulness, sensitivity, etc.
The third group is a system of a person’s relationship to himself: self-criticism, modesty, pride, etc.
The fourth group includes traits that characterize a person’s relationship to things: accuracy, thrift, generosity, stinginess, etc.
Character is inextricably linked with a selective attitude towards the environment; it is a specific combination of attitudes towards nature, society, and oneself. Like the entire mental life of people, relationships to the environment are deeply dynamic, dependent on changes occurring outside, in life, in human activity; some relationships are replaced by others - relationships of a different level.
Character is considered as the psychological makeup of a person’s personality, expressed in its direction and will.
Character is a socio-historical category. The basis of its formation is the socio-historical conditions of human life with the surrounding social environment. At different age stages, character formation occurs in different ways, depending on life experience, living conditions, prevailing forms of activity, conditions of upbringing and self-education. The formation of character begins in childhood and largely depends on the microworld with which the child interacts.
The system of constantly increasing the complexity of demands on the part of adults is of decisive importance for the formation of positive character traits. An important point is the objectivity of assessing people’s actions.
10.5. Character typologies.
In the history of sciences, there are known attempts to explain the character of various people depending on the structure and outline of their face, on the shape of the hands and folds of the skin of the palms, on the color of the eyes and hair, etc.
The so-called constitutional theories connecting the characteristics of a person’s character with his appearance have become widespread (I. Lombroso, E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon).
The character has the following expressive features:
1. Actions and actions (conscious and intentional actions allow us to judge what a person is like).
2. Features of speech (loud or quiet, fast or slow pace, verbosity and isolation, emotionality and dryness, etc.), all this expresses certain character traits.
3. Appearance (a smiling or gloomy face, the expression of the eyes, how a person walks: with sweeping or small steps, how he stands - all this also characterizes a person).
Accentuation character are extreme variants of the norm as a result of the strengthening of its individual traits.
1. Demonstrative type. Characterized by an increased ability to repress, demonstrative behavior, liveliness, mobility, and ease of establishing contacts. He is prone to fantasy, deceit and pretense, aimed at embellishing his person, to adventurism, artistry, and posturing. He is driven by the desire for leadership, the need for recognition, the thirst for constant attention to his person, the thirst for power, praise; the prospect of being undetected weighs him down. He demonstrates high adaptability to people, emotional lability (easy mood swings) in the absence of truly deep feelings, and a tendency to intrigue (with an externally soft manner of communication). There is boundless egocentrism, a thirst for admiration, sympathy, veneration, and surprise. Usually the praise of others in his presence causes him a particularly unpleasant feeling; he cannot stand it. The desire for a company is usually associated with the need to feel like a leader, to occupy an exceptional position. Self-esteem is very far from objectivity. He can irritate with his self-confidence and high claims; he systematically provokes conflicts, but at the same time actively defends himself. Possessing a pathological ability to repress, he can completely forget what he does not want to know about. This unchains him in his lies. He usually lies with an innocent face, because what he says is true for him at the moment; Apparently, he is not internally aware of his lie, or he is aware of it very shallowly, without noticeable remorse. Able to captivate others with his originality of thinking and actions.
2. Stuck type. He is characterized by moderate sociability, tediousness, a penchant for moralizing, and talkativeness. Often suffers from imaginary injustice towards him. In this regard, he shows wariness and distrust towards people, is sensitive to insults and grief, is vulnerable, suspicious, vindictive, worries about what happened for a long time, and is not able to easily move on from insults. He is characterized by arrogance and often initiates conflicts. Arrogance, rigidity of attitudes and views, and highly developed ambition often lead to persistent assertion of his interests, which he defends with particular vigor. He strives to achieve high results in any business he undertakes and shows great persistence in achieving his goals. The main feature is a tendency to affect (love of truth, resentment, jealousy, suspicion), inertia in the manifestation of affects, in thinking, in motor skills.
4. Pedantic type. It is characterized by rigidity, inertia of mental processes, and prolonged experience of traumatic events. He rarely enters into conflicts, acting as a passive rather than an active party. At the same time, he reacts very strongly to any manifestation of disorder. At work he behaves like a bureaucrat, making many formal demands on others. Punctual, neat, pays special attention to cleanliness and order, scrupulous, conscientious, inclined to strictly follow the plan, unhurried in carrying out actions, diligent, focused on high quality work and special accuracy, prone to frequent self-examinations, doubts about the correctness of the work performed, grumbling, formalism willingly cedes leadership to other people.
5. Excitable type. Insufficient controllability, weakening of control over drives and impulses are combined in people of this type with the power of physiological drives. He is characterized by increased impulsiveness, instinctiveness, rudeness, tediousness, gloominess, anger, a tendency to friction and conflicts, in which he himself is an active, provoking party. Irritable, quick-tempered, often changes jobs, and is difficult to get along with in a team. There is low contact in communication, slowness of verbal and non-verbal reactions, heaviness of actions. For him, no work becomes attractive, he works only when necessary, and shows the same reluctance to learn. Indifferent to the future, he lives entirely in the present, wanting to extract a lot of entertainment from it. Increased impulsiveness or the resulting arousal reaction is difficult to suppress and can be dangerous to others. He can be domineering, choosing the weakest for communication.
6. Hyperthymic type. People of this type are distinguished by great mobility, sociability, talkativeness, expressiveness of gestures, facial expressions, pantomimes, excessive independence, a tendency to mischief, and a lack of a sense of distance in relationships with others. They often spontaneously deviate from the original topic of conversation. They make a lot of noise everywhere, love the company of their peers, and strive to boss them around. They almost always have a very good mood, good health, high vitality, often a flourishing appearance, good appetite, healthy sleep, a tendency towards gluttony and other joys of life. These are people with high self-esteem, cheerful, frivolous, superficial. At the same time, they are businesslike, inventive, energetic, and proactive. A great desire for independence can be a source of conflict. They are characterized by outbursts of anger and irritation, especially when they encounter strong opposition and fail. They are prone to immoral acts, increased irritability, and projectism. They do not take their responsibilities seriously enough. They find it difficult to endure conditions of strict discipline, monotonous activity, and forced loneliness.
7. Dysthymic type. People of this type are distinguished by seriousness, depressed mood, slowness, and weak willpower. They are characterized by a pessimistic attitude towards the future, low self-esteem, as well as low contact, reticence in conversation, and silence. Such people are homebodies and individualists. They usually avoid society, noisy company, and lead a secluded lifestyle. They are often gloomy, inhibited, and tend to fixate on the shadow sides of life. They are conscientious, value those who are friends with them and are ready to obey them, have a heightened sense of justice, as well as slow thinking.
8. Anxious type. People of this type are characterized by low communication, minor mood, timidity, timidity, and lack of self-confidence. Children of the anxious type are often afraid of the dark, animals, and are afraid to be alone. They avoid noisy and lively peers, do not like excessively noisy games, experience a feeling of timidity and shyness, and have a hard time with tests, exams, and inspections. They are often embarrassed to answer in front of the class. They willingly submit to the tutelage of their elders; adult lectures can cause them remorse, guilt, tears, and despair. They early develop a sense of duty, responsibility, and high moral and ethical requirements. They try to disguise the feeling of their own inferiority in self-affirmation through those types of activities where they can reveal their abilities to a greater extent.
The touchiness, sensitivity, and shyness characteristic of them since childhood prevent them from getting close to those with whom they want. A particularly weak link is the reaction to the attitude of others towards them. Intolerance to ridicule and suspicion are accompanied by the inability to stand up for oneself, to defend the truth in the face of unfair accusations. They rarely enter into conflicts with others, playing a mainly passive role in them; in conflict situations, they seek support and support. Friendly, self-critical, efficient. Due to their defenselessness, they often serve as scapegoats and targets for jokes.
9. Exalted type. A striking feature of this type is the ability to admire, admire, as well as smiling, a feeling of happiness, joy, and pleasure. These feelings can often arise in them for a reason that does not cause much excitement in others; they are easily delighted by joyful events and in complete despair by sad ones. They are characterized by high contact, talkativeness, and amorousness. Such people often argue, but do not lead to open conflicts. In conflict situations, they are both active and passive parties. They are attached to friends and loved ones, altruistic, have a sense of compassion, good taste, and show brightness and sincerity of feelings. They can be alarmists, subject to momentary moods, impulsive, easily move from a state of delight to a state of sadness, and have mental lability.
10. Emotive type. This type is related to the exalted one, but its manifestations are not so intense. They are characterized by emotionality, sensitivity, anxiety, talkativeness, timidity, and deep reactions in the area of subtle feelings. Their most strongly expressed feature is humanity, empathy for other people or animals, responsiveness, kindness, they rejoice at the successes of others. They are impressionable, tearful, and take any life events more seriously than other people. Teenagers react sharply to scenes from films where someone is in danger; scenes of violence can cause them a strong shock that will not be forgotten for a long time and can disturb their sleep. They rarely enter into conflicts, they carry grievances within themselves without spilling out. They are characterized by a heightened sense of duty and diligence. They take care of nature, love to grow plants and care for animals.
11. Cyclothymic type. Characterized by alternating hyperthymic and dysthymic states. They are characterized by frequent periodic mood swings, as well as dependence on external events. Joyful events cause pictures of hyperthymia in them: thirst for activity, increased talkativeness, racing ideas; sad ones - depression, slowness of reactions and thinking, their manner of communication with people around them also often changes.
In adolescence, two variants of cyclothymic accentuation can be found: typical and labile cycloids. Typical cycloids in childhood usually give the impression of being hyperthymic, but then lethargy and loss of strength appear; what was previously easy now requires exorbitant effort. Previously noisy and lively, they become lethargic homebodies, there is a decrease in appetite, insomnia or, conversely, drowsiness. They react to comments with irritation, even rudeness and anger, in the depths of their souls, however, at the same time falling into despondency, deep depression, suicidal attempts are not excluded. They study unevenly, make up for any omissions with difficulty, and create in themselves an aversion to studying. In labile cycloids, the phases of mood changes are usually shorter than in typical cycloids. Bad days are marked by more intense bad mood than lethargy. During the period of recovery, the desire to have friends and be in company is expressed. Mood affects self-esteem.
TOPIC 11. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ABILITIES.
11.1. Concept, types, structure of abilities.
B.M. Teplov includes three characteristics in the concept of “ability”:
1. Abilities are understood as individual psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from another.
2. Abilities are not called all individual characteristics, but only those that are related to the success of performing any activity or many activities.
3. The concept of “ability” is not limited to the knowledge, skills and abilities that have already been developed by a given person.
An essential indicator of abilities is the high quantitative and qualitative productivity of a person, even despite the unfavorable conditions of his development and activity.
Types of abilities.
Abilities are divided according to their breadth, the uniqueness of their combination (structure) and the degree of development.
By breadth, general and special abilities are distinguished
By studying specifically the psychological characteristics of various abilities, we can identify general qualities that meet the requirements of not one, but many types of activity, and special qualities that meet a narrower range of requirements of a given activity. In the structure of the abilities of some individuals, these general qualities can be extremely clearly expressed, which makes it possible to talk about the presence of versatile abilities in people, about general abilities for a wide range of different activities, specialties and occupations.
General abilities are studied by different researchers. So, L.S. Leites calls general abilities activity And self-regulation.
Menchinskaya included in her general abilities:
- high level of analytical and synthetic activity;
- flexibility of thinking;
- harmonious relationship between verbal-logical and visual-figurative thinking.
Special abilities are understood as such a system of personality properties that helps to achieve high results in any special field or specific activity.
For example, they distinguish between constructive-technical, organizational, pedagogical, mathematical, musical and other abilities.
Structure of abilities.
Each activity places certain demands on the human psyche. The success of an activity does not depend on any one ability, but on their combination.
The structure of abilities is determined by the requirements of a specific activity. It is different for different types of activities.
Thus, the structure of abilities for foreign languages includes the following components:
Auditory differential sensitivity;
Amount of RAM;
The ability to derive a language rule;
Flexibility of transformation processes (translation from one language to another and back);
Verbal fluency.
The structure of teaching abilities includes other components:
Academic ability (subject knowledge);
Organizational skills;
Didactic abilities (the ability to present material clearly and clearly);
Communication skills;
Love for children;
Pedagogical tact;
Artistic abilities;
Oratorical skills
The structure of each specific ability as an individual’s readiness for a given activity is characterized by significant complexity and includes a set of qualities, among which there are leading and auxiliary ones.
General and special abilities are closely interrelated. The higher the development of general abilities, the more internal conditions are created for the development of special abilities. The development of special abilities has a positive effect on general mental abilities.
Ability levels.
In their development, abilities comprise a number of levels: at the lowest level are the abilities themselves, then comes giftedness, talent, and genius completes the development of abilities.
So, capabilities– these are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure the ease and success of performing activities.
Giftedness- a qualitatively unique combination of abilities on which the possibility of success in activity depends. Individual abilities do not simply exist side by side and independently of each other. Each ability changes and acquires a qualitatively different character depending on the presence and degree of development of other abilities. Giftedness is a systemic manifestation of abilities.
Talent– high level of development of abilities. Talent is a combination of abilities that gives a person the opportunity to successfully, independently and originally perform any work activity. Talent provides the opportunity to acquire mastery. In the development of talent, work and daily practice of relevant activities are of great importance.
Genius– the highest level of development of abilities, both general and special. We can speak of the presence of genius if a person achieves such results of creative activity that constitute an era in the life of society and in the development of culture.
P E D A G O G I K A
The main problems in the study of temperament are related to the discovery of its biological basis and the establishment of its genetic nature. Other, no less important problems relate to the search and measurement of the psychological components of temperament, or its properties, on the basis of which this or that typology is built.
No less important problems are: determining the place of temperament in the structure of individuality, identifying its role in the development of character and general abilities, studying temperament as a factor in the success of professional (and other types of) activities.
Research conducted by the school of B.M. Teplova and V.D. Fables have shown that a fundamentally new approach to the study of the biological foundations of temperament is needed. In their opinion, one should focus not on the study of types, as Pavlov proposed, but on the study of individual properties of the nervous system.
According to V.D. Nebylitsyn, temperament should be based on the so-called “general properties of the nervous system” (properties of the frontal parts of the brain), and not partial, analytical properties. He formulated the principle of separating general and partial properties of the nervous system: the basis of the partial (private) properties is the activity of the analyzer zones of the brain, and the general properties are determined by the specific functioning of the anterior part of the brain - the frontal cortex, together with the underlying formations.
The analysis of the actual psychological properties of temperament was not carried out so actively and successfully. But, nevertheless, there were still different judgments about the psychological components of temperament. S.L. Rubinstein argued that these are impulsiveness and impressionability. V.D. Nebylitsyn attributed general mental activity, motor skills and emotionality to temperament. At V.M. Rusalov's temperament was considered as a set of formal dynamic characteristics: ergicity, speed, plasticity and emotionality.
An important feature of temperament research in foreign countries is the sharp increase in interest in the study of temperament in children. The best known is the New York longitudinal study led by A. Thomas and S. Chess.
The main results of the study of temperament in domestic and foreign psychology are presented by V.M. Rusalov (Fig. 1).
1. Temperamental properties include dynamic, style and energy characteristics of behavior. Various concepts present such characteristics of temperament as “activity”, “reactivity”, “emotionality”, “sociability”. There are authors who include characteristics of general abilities in temperamental properties (for example, B.C. Merlin includes the property of excitability of attention) or character properties (volitional activity and subjectivation). But in most models, temperament is a set of dynamic characteristics.
Rice. 1. Problems of temperament research
2. Hereditary conditioning of temperament and its relative stability are the second indisputable fact. Rusalov's works show that temperament arises under the influence of a general constitution, which includes particular ones: humoral, somatic, chromosomal, physiological and neurodynamic constitutions.
Hereditary conditioning of temperament is manifested in such features as:
- independence from the content of the motive and purpose of behavior;
- universality and consistency of manifestation in all areas
- activity and life;
- early manifestation in childhood:
- high correlation with general properties of the nervous system and
- other biological subsystems.
3. arises under the influence of a generalization of dynamic, formal and stylistic characteristics of the psyche and develops following biological age development and as a result of a change in different types of activity (play, study, work, etc.).
4. Temperament performs a regulatory function. A certain individual level of energy-dynamic capabilities given by nature (level of metabolism, features of nervous processes, hormonal activity, etc.), being included in activities in addition to motives and goals, controls a person’s expenditure of his energy capabilities. Temperament sets the limits of capabilities and guards the body against extremely large or extremely small expenditure of energy.
5. Temperament does not depend on the content of the activity- motives, goals, values, determining its style - pace, speed, duration of the activity. Temperament does not affect the results of activity, determining its dynamic nature.
6. Temperament can be considered as a precursor to general abilities and as a natural prerequisite for the development of creative abilities. In the structure of creative abilities, two characteristics are distinguished: meaningful(originality, productivity) and formal-dynamic - fluency and flexibility. Fluency as a component of creative abilities is determined primarily by temperamental plasticity and tempo, and flexibility primarily depends on social emotionality and general temperamental activity.
One of the modern trends in the scientific study of temperament is represented by the Perm School (Perm Pedagogical Institute). The founder of this school was B.C. Merlin. He considered temperament as a special psychodynamic level in the structure integral individuality. Temperament, according to Merlin, cannot be studied only as a genotypic phenomenon. It is a means that can be controlled and can be compensated up to certain limits. The concept of B.C. Merlin is considered one of the psychological theories of temperament. Temperament represents a separate level in the general system of integral individuality. The latter consists of the following levels: biochemical. somatic, neurodynamic, psychodynamic (temperament itself), level of personality traits, level of social roles.
The structure of temperament differs:
- extroversion as the dependence of mental activity on the existing objective situation;
- psychodynamic anxiety as a predisposition to an avoidance reaction in anticipation of a threatening situation;
- reactivity as the intensity of the reaction in response to incoming stimulation;
- impulsiveness as the speed with which emotion becomes the motivating force of action;
- emotional stability as the ability to control emotions;
- emotional excitability as the intensity of emotional experiences;
- activity as a purposeful activity;
- rigidity as an inability to adjust the program of activities in accordance with the requirements of the situation.
B.C. Merlin introduces the concept of the zone of uncertainty and individual style of activity.
Zone of uncertainty assumes that a person consciously or unconsciously makes a decision about choosing a method of activity based on:
- assessment of individual properties and own capabilities;
- determining the discrepancy between existing methods of activity and objective tasks;
- taking into account varying degrees of motivation to action.
Under individual style of activity is understood as a unique system of psychological means to which a person consciously or spontaneously resorts in order to best balance his (typologically determined) individuality with the objective conditions of activity.
Another direction is related to the search for signs of heritability of temperament. One of the laboratories of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, in the laboratory of psychogenetics of individuality, uses the twin method to study the dynamics of genetic and environmental factors that influence the development of individual psychological characteristics in children of different ages. The heritability indicator acts as the main indicator of whether a particular characteristic belongs to temperament. Variants of the twin method are:
- contrast group method - allows you to compare mono- and dizygotic twins according to the criterion of intra-pair similarity;
- control twin method(or twin-witness method, partner control) - one twin of the pair is exposed to the intervention (experimental group), and the other is not (control group);
- separated twins method, which is a critical experiment for the genotype-environment problem, since it allows us to detect differences determined by the environment;
- twin pair method - used for an in-depth study of the psychological specifics in the relationship between twins and their microcosm. Scientists note that the use of the twin method must take into account the possibility of erroneous judgments that prenatal environment is the same for both twins and that their intrafamily environment is equally equal in impact.
In the laboratory of psychophysiological abilities of the same institute, the natural preconditions of abilities are studied. The findings are directly related to temperament. Researchers believe that general abilities are associated with the properties of temperament at the level of biological foundations and their mental manifestations. They identified the following general abilities: general performance, direct and indirect types of activity, involuntary and voluntary types of self-regulation.
Direct activity is determined activation nervous system; she connects the indirect type of activity with the other pole - inactivation, which manifests itself in methodical and systematic actions. The biological determinant of these types of activity is the dominance of the hemispheres.
People with right hemisphere dominance They have a strong nervous system, mobility, and high activation. development of nonverbal cognitive functions, activation of the involuntary sphere. They study better and work more successfully when time is short (these are sanguine people, choleric people).
Left-hemisphere and low-activated people perform better in humanities subjects, plan activities more successfully, and perform their work more accurately. They have developed self-regulation, arbitrariness and verbal functions; they have a weak nervous system and are more inert (these are melancholic, phlegmatic).
According to this concept, temperamental traits determine the individual’s way of existence and the choice of the optimal environment where abilities can develop best.
Another direction is associated with the development of the concept of general properties of the nervous system as the main determinant of individual psychological differences between people. These studies are carried out under the guidance of V.M. Rusalov in the Laboratory of Psychology and Psychophysiology of Individuality of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, created in 1972 by V.D. Nebylitsyn.
An important place is given to the study of the psychological characteristics of temperament and the development of psychometrically correct methods for assessing temperament - the Temperament Structure Questionnaire (TSQ), which consists of 105 questions that allow us to obtain values for subsequent temperamental scales - ergicity, plasticity, speed, emotionality in accordance with two aspects (subject and social world), and the Questionnaire of Formally Dynamic Properties of Individuality (OFDSI), consisting of 150 questions. The last questionnaire assesses ergicity, plasticity, speed and emotionality in three areas of behavior: psychomotor, intellectual and communicative. The truthfulness of answers is monitored using a lie scale.
In foreign psychology, the study of the problem of temperament largely concerns the same issues. This is the clarification of the genetic conditioning of temperament, the study of its mental properties, the problem of diagnosing the formal dynamic properties of the psyche.
In the London Psychiatric Hospital, which was headed by G. Eysenck for many years, the concepts of personality and temperament are considered identical; the biological basis of mental properties is studied.
The same research center has developed methods for assessing temperament: EPI -EysenckPersonalityInventory- includes 48 questions: 24 questions on the first scale - extra-introversion; the same number of questions on the second scale - neuroticism: the third scale, which includes 9 questions, is a lie scale. Total EP.I. includes 57 questions. EPQ- EysenckPersonalityQuestionnaire- intended for the diagnosis of neurogism, extra-introversion and psychoticism. Consists of 90 questions. Neuroticism - 23 questions, extra-introversion - 21 questions, psychoticism - 25 questions, lie scale - 21 questions.
A psychobiological approach to the study of temperament is represented by the work of scientists at the University of Oregon in the USA. In accordance with their model, temperament is considered as a set of multi-level properties and is manifested in the action of neurons, in physiological characteristics and dynamic (style) features. The properties of temperament are reactivity and self-regulation.
The idea of including behavioral and physiological responses in temperament can be criticized. These properties are not always adjacent. Thus, reactivity is a direct behavioral expression of the activation reaction, and self-regulation is associated with the adaptation of this activation reaction to specific conditions of existence. Reactivity is explained as the intensity and nature of the reaction in response to a stimulus. Self-regulation represents dynamic features of behavior that modulate (reduce or increase) activation through approach/withdrawal responses.
The Warsaw School (Warsaw University) is represented by the regulatory theory of temperament by J. Streliau.
Regulatory theory is based on the idea that temperament is viewed as a two-level system. It includes the energy level (properties that are determined by individual differences in physiological mechanisms responsible for the accumulation and discharge of energy) and the level of temporal parameters (traits that characterize the course of a reaction over time - speed, tempo, mobility, rhythm, aftereffect). The energy level, in turn, includes two properties - reactivity as the intensity of the reaction in response to stimulation and activity as a set of energetic and prolonged actions (motor, intellectual) performed with a specific purpose. Among the time parameters, the following stand out: speed reactions - speed of action, pace actions - the number of reactions per unit of time, mobility - the ability to quickly transition from one reaction to another when changing stimulation, reaction aftereffect- the time during which the reaction continues after the cessation of the stimulus, and rhythmicity - regularity of time intervals between homogeneous reactions.
R. Plomin’s three-component theory is built on the understanding of temperament as a set of dynamic behavioral characteristics that form the structure of personality traits. The main properties of temperament can be considered activity, emotionality and sociability.
Activity - manifestation of the general energy level in motor skills. Three indicators of activity are identified: pace of movement, intensity and endurance. Tempo is associated with the speed of movements (fast speech, haste, etc.); intensity is manifested in the amplitude and strength of movements; endurance - the ability to remain active for a long time, not get tired, and maintain a high level of performance.
Emotionality - manifestation of two emotions: anger and fear. Fear is spoken of in connection with the intensity of the stimulus that can cause fear, as well as the duration of the consequences, the variety of situations that cause it, and the accompanying physiological reactions. Anger is also determined by the intensity of the stimulus, the amount of latent time, and the duration of the reaction. Positive emotions, according to the authors, do not form independent properties of temperament, since they are components of activity and sociability.
Sociability is revealed in the desire to be among other people. It manifests itself in the desire to avoid loneliness, in the desire to establish new interpersonal contacts.
Plomin and colleagues determined that there is a difference in intrapair similarity between monozygotic and dizygotic twins. It proved the significance of the influence of the genetic factor, but raised the question of why the real difference between dizygotic twins is more significant than could be hypothetically assumed. Howl it was concluded that. that the differences between dizygotic twins are enhanced due to the different attitudes of their parents towards them. Genotype contributes to individual differences between children, but the conditions in which they live can strengthen them, and sometimes, on the contrary, weaken them.
Studies conducted on older children (for example, teenagers) have confirmed the hypothesis about the genetic determination of emotionality, activity and sociability. The assessment of the contribution of the genotype is ambiguous in different studies and ranges from 0.3 to 0.5.
Interest in the twin method and Plomin's data on the importance of taking into account the social factor in the development of a child's temperament raised the question of studying the problem of children's temperament. This is a relatively new and original direction in the study of the problem of temperament, which is represented by the works of both foreign and domestic psychologists.
In the early 1960s. A longitudinal study of temperament (from infancy to adulthood) was initiated at New York University Medical Center.
The following goals were formulated during the study:
- assess the ontogenetic stability of temperament properties;
- consider how temperamental traits discovered in early childhood manifest themselves in the personal characteristics of a child and an adult;
- identify the connection between temperament and a person’s adaptation to social conditions in childhood and at the stages of adulthood.
As a result of an empirical study, 9 properties of temperament were identified:
- activity - level of physical activity and the ratio of physical activity and passivity;
- rhythmicity - predictability of the time of occurrence of behavioral reactions associated with biological needs (does the child fall asleep easily, eat, etc. at the same time);
- zoom in/out - immediate reaction to new stimuli (approach is associated with the manifestation of positive emotions, and removal is associated with the manifestation of negative emotions);
- adaptability— ease of adaptation to new conditions:
- reactivity threshold - the level and intensity of exposure required to produce a response (for example, how much noise must be made to make the child tired);
- mood - the relationship between a joyful state and a state of dissatisfaction;
- distractibility - the effectiveness of new stimuli in changing behavior (for example, is it easy to calm a child if he cries);
- intensity of reactions - the energy level of the reaction, regardless of its quality and direction;
- attention span - how long the child can do the same thing and whether he is inclined to continue the activity if difficulties arise.
Analyzing individual clinical cases, American scientists came to the conclusion that various properties of temperament tend to form syndromes of properties. In total, three property syndromes were identified.
Easy temperament characterized by rhythm in the emergence of biological needs, a positive reaction to new stimuli (approach), rapid adaptation to changes, the predominance of positive emotions and the low intensity of their expression. Children quickly get used to feeding and sleep times and are not afraid of strangers. Adults are sociable and easily get used to new work.
Difficult temperament characterized by irregularity in the emergence of biological needs, a negative reaction to a new situation, long-term adaptation to changes, and a predominance of negative emotions with increased intensity.
Temperament with long habituation characterized by slow adaptation and a negative, but weak in intensity reaction to new situations. People with this type of temperament do not like unusual food or new people, but their negative reaction has a weak external expression and gradually changes to a positive one.
The properties and three syndromes of properties turned out to be ontogenetically stable. From this we could conclude that a child with a difficult temperament is chronically maladaptive. However, this is not quite true. It turned out that if parents take into account the individual characteristics of their difficult child and specially prepare him for difficult situations, they manage to help him cope with problems and avoid failures. A fifteen-year longitudinal study found that the similarity of monozygotic twins is always greater than that of dizygotic twins, and it decreases with age. Significant differences between mono- and dizygotic twins are observed in such indications as activity, adaptability (the difference decreases by 6 years, and then increases again by 15 years), intensity.
The influence of genotype on temperament was also discovered in another study (in the Louisville longitudinal study), where it was clearly visible in 600 pairs of twins, starting from infancy and preschool age, and the severity of the genetic contribution was practically independent of the diagnostic method. As in many other works, it was found that in terms of temperamental properties, monozygotic twins are more similar to each other than dizygotic twins.
The biological basis of temperament is noted in almost all concepts, however, the influence of environmental factors on the formation and manifestation of temperamental characteristics is also considered important. It is interesting that the influence of the intrafamily environment can both weaken and strengthen differences between children in individual and personality traits. The sources of differences in the influence of the environment on children living in the same conditions are the different attitudes of adults, primarily parents, towards them. There is a connection between the character of children and the type of family upbringing: difficult children are more often found in strict and overly stimulating families: easy children - in loving families, passive children - in insufficiently stimulating ones.
Since the mid-1990s. In the laboratory of cognitive processes (Institute of Psychology, Russian Academy of Sciences), a longitudinal study was launched, one of the objectives of which was to clarify the question of the contribution of genotype and environment to the development of temperament at different age stages. The objects of the study were monozygotic twins (genetic similarity equal to 1), dizygotic twins (genetic similarity, like siblings, equal to 0.5), and single-born children (F..A. Sergienko, G.A. Vilenskaya, A.V. Dozortseva). Observations were carried out with the following frequency: in the first year of life - every 3-4 months. 7-9 months and at 12 months, i.e. 3 times, and then - in the second year and then once every six months. We studied 18 pairs of monozygotic twins - 9 pairs of boys and 9 pairs of girls, 22 pairs of dizygotic twins - 11 pairs of boys, 11 pairs of girls and 58 single-born children of the same age.
The Ballega “Baby Day” tests for parents were used (aimed at diagnosing temperamental properties in the early stages of development - from one year to 36 months, consists of 4 scales: tension, control, orientation, mood) and Bailey tests for testing children (intended for examining children at the age of 2 to 30 months for the purpose of diagnosing mental and motor development and consists of three parts: a mental scale aimed at assessing sensory development, memory, learning ability, rudiments of speech development; a motor scale measuring the level of development of muscle coordination and manipulation ; records of the child’s behavior, intended to record emotional and social manifestations of behavior, attention span, persistence, etc.). The Ballega test evaluates a child's temperament. Temperament types are:
- difficult temperament- high internal tension, low control;
- sthenic- average tension, good control, positive and negative reactions to others;
- easy - balanced tension, moderate control;
- passive temperament - low tension, poor control.
The same method allows you to determine the type of family education:
- overly stimulating family - intense relationship between child and parents, high demands;
- loving family - close relationships with children, but more positive, less strict;
- passive family - parents are not particularly interested in children;
- strict family - the mother takes care of the child only when necessary, is very strict and rigid; father behaves harshly.
The Bayley test, as is known, includes a scale of mental and psychomotor development. As a result, the levels of psychomotor development are assessed.
It has been shown that monozygotic twins are more likely to have a difficult and passive character, which in total exceeds the adaptive ones (easy and sthenic). Throughout the entire study period, monozygotic twins have a high frequency of difficult character, and dizygotic twins have a high frequency of mild and passive character; sthenic temperament is rare. Single-born children have either a mild or sthenic temperament.
Regulatory mechanisms in twins are influenced by genetic, biological (prematurity, low weight) and environmental factors (parent-child relationships).
Conducting factor analysis made it possible to identify the following structure of temperament:
- the first factor includes scales of relationships with parents, autonomy and defensive reactions; it was called sociability;
- the second factor presents scales of extreme states of tension; unpleasant sensations, and in monozygotic twins these are scales of high and low tension, in dizygotic twins - medium, and in single-born children - high tension;
- the third factor is the scales of average tension and orientation to people and objects;
- fourth - in monozygotic twins - the scale of the relationship with the father, and in dizygotic and single-born children this factor is poorly interpreted.
Studies have shown that temperament does not exhibit age-related stability. The amount of genetic contribution to temperament varies greatly with age.
In terms of the type of environmental influence (type of upbringing), the families of monozygotic and dizygotic twins turned out to be similar: loving and strict families predominate in them. When studying single-born children and their families, a predominance of a loving family was revealed, and at almost all (except for the age of 4 months) ages.
The data on the instability of family education style turned out to be unique. Thus, up to 12 months of age, a loving family predominates in monozygotic and dizygotic children, and at 18 months. it is replaced by a strict family. At 36 months The frequency of overstimulating families is increasing. It appears that family parenting style depends on the child's stage of socialization.
So, research has not revealed the stability of temperament and family education style. Certain characteristics of temperament are under significant genetic influence throughout the entire study period (from birth to 36 months).
The possibility of age-related dynamics of temperament is confirmed by data on the existence of correlations between family type of upbringing and children’s temperament scales. The type of family upbringing either promotes self-regulation of behavior, as has been shown in single-born children, or leads to its delay (in monozygotic twins).
Many authors note that the question of the nature of temperament still remains open, since there are both theoretical and empirical contradictions associated with different initial premises and hypotheses that are formulated in various psychological schools and directions.
Any parent will tell you that no two children are alike. Children not only look different, but from birth they differ in temperament. Each child manifests himself in his own way: he can be flexible or stubborn, active or calm. These qualities are innate and cause different reactions from people around the child.
Usually considered as a biologically determined style of interaction with the outside world.
American psychologists today distinguish three main types of temperament: easy, difficult and “slow to warm up.”
Easy temperament is defined as a smooth, adaptive, moderately intense style of behavior that is perceived as positive and responsive.
Difficult temperament characterized by intense, erratic, shocking behavior that is usually accompanied by negative emotions.
"Slow to warm up“Children take a long time to enter a state of activity and slowly accumulate experience, but, despite the initial isolation, over time and with proper support they adapt and react positively to the world around them.
The interaction of the temperaments of the child and parents, otherwise called agreement criterion, is the key to the development of a child’s personality. Parents' reactions to manifestations of the child's temperament ensure the stability or instability of the child's interaction with reality. The parents' reaction to the child's temperament also affects his future attachment.
Scientists have conducted several studies on whether there are differences in the temperament of children of different cultures. The social significance of these differences, if they exist, is very great. If children of different cultures have different temperaments at birth, then they will react differently to the world around them. Moreover, they will not cause the same reactions from others that representatives of a different culture might expect. These two fundamental differences - in temperament and in the reactions of others - will lead to differences in the learning and social experiences of these children and subsequently to a different worldview.
Indeed, Chinese American children have been found to be calmer and more serene than children of European and African descent. If the child's nose was covered with a light cloth, Chinese children lay still and breathed through their mouths. Other children turned their faces away or tried to remove the fabric with their hands. The same differences were found in Japanese American children, Navajo Indian children, and European American children. Scientists who have intensively studied Navajo children have found that they are much calmer than Euro-American children.
Researchers believe there is a strong connection between maternal health during pregnancy (especially high blood pressure) and the baby's excitability. This association between maternal blood pressure and child excitability has been found in Malay and Chinese children, Aboriginal and White Australian children, and Navajo children.
An important factor in the development of culture is the response of parents to the manifestation of the child’s temperament. These relationships should be considered key to understanding the development of culture and the process of socialization. The calm temperament and serenity characteristic of Asian and Indian babies is further supported by the behavior of their mothers. Navajo and Hopi babies spend a lot of time tightly swaddled in their cradle. Chinese parents highly value harmony, which is achieved through emotional restraint.
Thus, differences in the temperament of children help parents of different cultures raise their children and introduce them to the cultural tradition of the people. Temperament, therefore, plays the role of a biological prerequisite for a child's learning.
Why does temperament vary across cultures? It is possible that differences in temperament reflect genetic and reproductive differences. Exposure to environment and culture over many generations may have contributed to some of the biological differences in children through a process of functional adaptation. In addition, the mother's culturally conditioned behavior and diet during pregnancy may have an impact on the child's prenatal development so that the child becomes more compliant with those cultural practices.
An important issue in conducting and interpreting research on differences in temperament is the difficulty of defining race and racial differences. However, these differences, evident at birth, contribute to the differences in character and personality observed in adults across cultures.
The concept of temperament and its manifestations.
Temperament is a set of individual psychological properties of a person that determine the dynamics of human behavior (speed of mental reactions, intensity of mental processes, etc.).
Temperament is a characteristic of an individual in terms of the dynamic features of his activity (tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity of mental processes and states). The concept of temperament also includes energetic and temporal aspects of response to life circumstances. The type of temperament is determined by the optimal activity regime for a person. Temperament, in its modern understanding, is a manifestation in activity of the type n/s.
The main properties of n/s underlying the type of temperament:
- Force;
- Equilibrium;
- Mobility of nervous processes.
More complex typologies take into account both dynamism and lability (along with SUP).
TO properties of temperament include those:
- Which do not depend on the content of the activity;
- Which characterize the measure of energy tension in the human psyche;
- Which are stable and permanent in nature, and are universal for all spheres of life;
- Which appear early in childhood and are congenital and even inherited, although not immediately revealed.
Basic components of temperament included in the following areas: general activity; motor skills; in the emotional sphere (emotionality).
This is manifested in differences in a person’s impressionability, impulsiveness and emotional lability. Exists 3 approaches to understanding the essence of temperament: humoral; constitutional; neurological.
The main content of the theory of temperament is the concept of type. A type is a pattern that serves to combine elements on the basis of their essential characteristics, considered together and possessing a pronounced originality. The properties of the types are most pronounced only in a small part of the sample. The role of temperament in the psyche and behavior. Depending on the type of temperament, people can express themselves differently in the same situation. Depending on a person’s temperament, either the process of excitation or the process of inhibition predominates. This also manifests itself in human behavior. The type of temperament also determines the rate of speech, speed of reaction, etc.
Types and properties of temperaments. There are many types of temperament. Typology of temperament according to Kagon. He bases the typology on 3 characteristics: timidity; aggressiveness; sociability. And in accordance with these characteristics, it distinguishes 3 types of temperament:
- Fearful: see dangers in situations; distance themselves from people;
- Aggressive: strive to overcome emerging problems; prone to agitation and blaming others;
- Sociable: they are balanced in communication; open to the world; adaptive.
Classification by A. Thomas and S. Chess. Based on a combination of 9 signs, they distinguish 3 types:
- Lungs by temperament type: stable rhythmicity of functions; positive reaction to novelty; fast adaptation;
- Difficult: unstable fluctuations of biological rhythms; resistance to change; intense negative reactions;
- Slow: stable rhythm of vital functions; slow adaptation.
There is also Cloninger's classification of temperaments; A. Popova. But the most famous classification is classification of classical types of temperament. There are 4 of them:
- Sanguines. They are characterized by increased reactivity and activity when they are balanced; decreased sensitivity; fast pace of mental reactions; plastic; extraversion; increased emotional excitability. They have high mobility. High responsiveness to events. The desire for frequent changes of impressions. They quickly develop and change emotions and feelings, etc.
- Phlegmatic people. High activity and low reactivity; rigidity; slow pace of reactions; decreased sensitivity; slow pace of mental reactions; introversion; decreased emotional excitability. Only strong impressions can unsettle him. Emotions and feelings arise slowly and persist for a long time. They don't have emotions.
- Cholerics. High reactivity and activity; imbalance; fast pace of mental reactions; high emotional excitability; decreased sensitivity; rigidity; extroversion. Emotions and feelings arise quickly, but they are more intense and more stable. Efficient. They are prone to violent emotions that reach the point of passion. Movements are sharp and rapid, etc.
- Melancholic people. Weak activity and reactivity; rigidity; slow pace of reactions; increased sensitivity (sensitivity); increased emotional excitability of a depressive nature. Feelings arise slowly, being deep.
Problems of studying the physiological foundations of temperament (E. Kretschmer, W. Sheldon, I. P. Pavlov, B. M. Teplov, V. D. Nebylitsin, etc.). Kretschmer believed that temperament and character depend on the structural features of the body. He described three types of body structure: asthenic (physically frail), athletic (physically strong), picnic (tight figure, large belly and short neck).
The first body type is asthenic(mainly the development of the outer germinal layer was going on) - a person of fragile build, with a flat chest, narrow shoulders, elongated and thin limbs, an elongated face, but a highly developed nervous system and brain.
Second - picnic(mainly the inner germinal layer) - a person of small or medium height, with pronounced fatty tissue, a convex chest, a large belly, a round head on a short neck.
Third - athletic– the middle germinal layer determines the development of a strong skeleton, pronounced muscles, a proportional strong physique, and a wide shoulder girdle.
Fourth - diplasty- a person with an abnormal physique.
Kretschmer correlated certain personality types with the identified types of body structure. Of the constitutional approaches, Sheldon's classification is the best known. According to it, temperament is determined by body type, and body type is described by three parameters:
- Endomorphism (large internal organs and weak somatic structures);
- Mesomorphism (predominance of somatic structures);
- Ectomorphism (thinness, predominance of linear dimensions and fragility of the physique).
The temperament of endomorphs is called viscerotonic, and a person is called viscerotonic. The temperament of mesomorphs is called somatotonic, and he himself is somatotonic. The temperament of ectomorphs is called cerebrotonic, and he himself is cerebrotonic. Neurological approach. I. P. Pavlov. The properties of GNI are not equal to the properties of temperament. The properties of GNI are neurodynamic characteristics, and the properties of temperament are psychodynamic, which are not a mirror image of neurodynamic ones. Pavlov proposed the following scheme for correlating the properties of GNI and the properties of temperament types. NS strong weak (melancholic) balanced unbalanced (choleric) mobile inert (sanguine) (phlegmatic) Teplov identified:
- Emotional excitability. This property was understood as the ability to respond to very weak external and internal influences;
- Excitability of attention is a property of temperament that determines the adaptive functions of the individual’s psyche. It consists in the ability to notice an extremely small change in the intensity of the influencing stimulus;
- The power of emotions. Teplov saw the main function of this property in the “energization of activity” depending on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of motives (modern psychologists call this property the intensity and modality of emotional manifestations);
- Anxiety. By anxiety Teplov understood emotional excitability in a threatening situation.
- Reactivity of involuntary movements. The function of this property is to increase the intensity of adaptive reactions to situations and stimuli that are directly acting at the moment;
- Activity of volitional purposeful activity;
- Plasticity - rigidity. The function of this property is to adapt to the changing requirements of activity;
- Resistance. This property lies in the ability to resist all internal and external conditions that weaken or inhibit the started activity;
- Subjectivation. Teplov saw the function of this property in increasing the degree of mediation of activity by subjective images and concepts.
From the above characteristics of temperament properties proposed by Teplov, we should draw two main conclusions. Firstly, the properties of temperament are manifested in the dynamics of mental processes and the degree of activity of the individual. Secondly, temperament is closely related to activity. These provisions were developed in subsequent studies by domestic scientists. Nebylitsyn - highlighting general properties: 1. General activity (reticular formation). Manifests itself in any activity. 2. Emotionality (limbic cortex, parts of the hippocampus) – sensitivity, receptivity. (1) 1 – low activity, 2 – high activity. Conclusion: an innate component of intelligence is general activity. (2, 3) 1 – low emotionality. 2 – high emotionality. Conclusion: nonspecific indicators associated with temperament determine its innate component. V.M. Rusalov, when creating his theory of temperament, relied on the teaching of P.K. Anokhin about the action acceptor (the functional system for generating and correcting any behavioral act) and data from neuropsychophysiology. New theoretical concepts made it possible to interpret temperament as a system of formal behavioral measurements that reflect the most fundamental features of various blocks of the functional system, as P.K. Anokhin understood it. If we consider all human life activity in the form of a continuum of behavioral acts, then each of them can be represented as a structure of four blocks: afferent synthesis (collection of sensory information through all channels), programming (decision making), execution and feedback. Since temperament is the result of a systemic generalization of biological properties (which was discussed in detail in the special theory of individuality), there must be a correspondence between the blocks of the theory of functional systems and the formal aspects of human behavior, i.e. components of temperament. V.M. Rusalov insists that interaction with the objective world (subject-object) and the social world (subject-subject) have completely different meaning and content, and therefore these aspects of human activity may have different formal and dynamic characteristics . Therefore, it is proposed to match P.K. Anokhin’s four blocks not with four, but with eight blocks that form the structure of temperament.
Psychological properties of temperament. By Merlin models psychological properties of temperament 8:
- Sensitivity or sensitiveness. What is the necessary force of external influences for the occurrence of a mental reaction and what is the speed of this reaction;
- Reactivity. What is the degree of involuntary reactions to external and internal influences of equal strength (sometimes reactivity is called the strength of the emotional response);
- Activity. With what degree of energy does a person influence the outside world and overcome obstacles in achieving a goal;
- Correlation of reactivity and activity. What does activity depend on: on random circumstances or on goals and aspirations;
- Rate of reactions. The speed of reactions and processes;
- Plasticity - rigidity. Plasticity is the degree of flexibility in adapting to external influences. Rigidity is inertia and rigidity of behavior;
- Extroversion - introversion. Extraversion is the dependence of activity on external impressions. Internality – dependence on the content of the inner world;
- Emotional excitability.
How weak an impact is necessary for the emergence of emotions and at what speed it occurs. Guilford–Zimmerman model (properties):
- General activity. Level of energy and vitality;
- Limitation. The degree of adaptability to restrictions, control over one’s own manifestations;
- Influence. The ability to lead others, the ability to influence them;
- Sociability. Ability to take the initiative when making contact;
- Emotional stability. Constancy of mood;
- Objectivity. Observation, the ability to look at oneself from the outside or egocentrism;
- Good nature. Degree of respect for a partner, tolerance for aggression;
- Reasonableness. Consideration of behavior, considering the event in perspective;
- The nature of interpersonal relationships;
- Masculinity – femininity (habits and interests).
G. Yu. Eysenck proposed a simplified model of the properties of temperament. In this model, it actually uses 2 properties: 1). Extraversion – introversion; 2). Emotional stability – emotional instability (neuroticism). According to Eysenck, extraversion correlates with the following 7 characteristics: activity; sociability; willingness to take risks; impulsiveness; expressiveness; practicality; irresponsibility. Emotional instability correlates with: inferiority complex; depression; anxiety; obsession; addiction; hypochondria; feeling of guilt.
There are 2 more models of temperament properties: the model of V.I. Garbuzov and the model of Thomas and Chess (as applied to newborns). Temperament and individual style of activity. Temperament leaves its mark on a person’s personality and activities. It can contribute to the manifestation of certain personality traits. Sanguine people show sociability, choleric people show enthusiasm, phlegmatic people show confidence, and melancholic people show isolation. Under the influence of temperament, a certain style of activity is formed. For sanguine and choleric people it is dynamic, impetuous, for phlegmatic and melancholic people it is smooth and calm. In addition, a person’s predisposition to a certain type of activity depends on temperament. Sanguine and choleric people prefer activities where they can demonstrate independence, dexterity, intelligence, and resourcefulness. Phlegmatic and melancholic people love to engage in quiet activities that require perseverance and endurance. In conditions of monotonous work, the best results are shown by people with a weak type of nervous system and vice versa.
Question No. 4. Psychological features of advertising
The effectiveness of the psychological impact of advertising means is characterized by the number of consumers reached, the brightness and depth of the impression that these means leave in a person’s memory, and the degree of attracting attention.
The effectiveness of the psychological impact of advertising on consumers can be determined through observations, experiments, and surveys.
The observation method is used to study the impact of individual advertising media on consumers. This method is passive in nature, since the observer does not influence the buyer in any way, but, on the contrary, makes observations unnoticed by him. According to a pre-developed scheme, the observer records the received data, which is then comprehensively analyzed. An observer, for example, notes which stand of a fair or exhibition-sale attracts the most attention from buyers, how long pedestrians linger at a particular display window, how many people enter the store after looking at the display window, which product in the display case arouses more interest and what kind of demand it enjoys.
The observation method allows us to evaluate the psychological impact of advertising in natural conditions, in direct communication between the consumer and a certain advertising medium.
When assessing the effectiveness of individual advertising media, it is first determined whether this means achieves its intended purpose. So, to determine the degree to which buyers’ attention is attracted to outdoor advertising (window display), you can use the following formula:
B = ,
where B is the degree of attracting the attention of passers-by; O - the number of people who paid attention to outdoor advertising (showcase) during a certain period; P is the total number of people who passed by the display case in the same period.
The degree of effectiveness of the publication of advertiser’s advertisements in the media can be conditionally assessed in a specific store using the formula
D = ,
where D is the degree of effectiveness of advertisements; K - the number of visitors who bought the advertised product; C is the total number of customers who made any purchase in the store.
Such data can be obtained from the readings of receipts punched on summing cash registers, and by registering facts of purchase of the advertised product by cashier controllers.
An indicator of the effectiveness of means advertising the retail trade enterprise itself is the ratio of the number of store visitors during the period of use of these means to the number of visitors on average per day. These data can be obtained by observers or using a photocell.
When using the observation method, in all cases it is necessary to comply with a number of conditions: observation should be carried out on weekdays that are not characterized by increased intensity of customer flows (preferably in the middle of the week); The duration of observations depends on the nature of the advertising medium, the effectiveness of which remains to be established.
Along with the observation method, the experimental method is widely used. This method is active. The study of the psychological impact of advertising here takes place under conditions artificially created by the experimenter. If during observation they only record how the consumer feels, for example, about a certain display of goods, then the experimenter can rearrange the goods and then observe the change in the reaction of buyers.
In the same way, the experimenter can create a variety of combinations of advertising media and, by comparing the reactions of customers, select the most successful one.
The study of the effectiveness of the psychological impact of advertising media through experiments in foreign countries has received especially wide development. This method is used to determine the impact of window displays, packaging, press advertisements, radio or television advertising on customers. So, if you need to assess the psychological impact of product packaging on the buyer, then the same product (for example, washing powder) is placed in different packaging.
The psychological effectiveness of an advertising medium such as an advertisement in a newspaper or magazine is determined by the following experiment. The advertisement includes a coupon with the text of a request to send a prospectus, catalog or sample. The buyer must cut out this coupon and send it to the trading company whose address is indicated in the text of the advertisement. Based on the number of coupons received from readers, the advertiser judges whether his ad was noticed in periodicals and whether the text of this ad turned out to be sufficiently convincing and interesting. However, it should be noted that the small number of requests received may be a consequence not of the low quality of the advertisements, but of the fact that the advertised product itself, for some reason, was not needed by customers. That is why this method of determining the psychological effectiveness of advertisements in periodicals is acceptable only in the case when it is already known in advance that the advertised product is in demand.
The survey method also refers to active methods for determining the psychological impact of advertising. This method is labor-intensive, but much more reliable than others, since it allows one to directly identify from the buyer his attitude not only to the advertising medium as a whole, but also to the individual components of this medium. Using the survey method, you can evaluate the impact of an advertising medium on customers and determine which elements of its design attract the most attention and are better remembered.
To determine the effectiveness of a particular advertising medium, questionnaires are compiled, which, according to a pre-developed program, are brought to the attention of consumers in writing, in personal conversations, on radio or television. Analysis of the responses received allows us to draw appropriate generalizations and conclusions.
Through a survey, it is possible to determine which advertising medium (poster, advertising film, advertisement, display of goods) has the greatest influence on the buyer when purchasing a certain product. For example, you can identify which advertising medium attracted the buyer’s attention to a new product using the following questionnaire:
How did you find out about the availability of a new product:
a) from friends;
b) from an advertisement on the radio, in a newspaper;
c) saw in a store window;
d) during the inspection of goods in the store;
e) from a television program.
Conducting surveys requires a significant investment of time and the involvement of a large number of people. However, the results obtained cannot be sufficiently complete. After all, sometimes it is not clear even to the buyer himself whether he bought a product under the influence of advertising or on the advice of a friend, or was guided by some other considerations. In addition, sometimes verbally interviewing customers can make them wary. Therefore, it is more expedient to invite them to fill out a questionnaire, outlining the objectives of the survey, so that the buyer knows its purpose and tries to answer the questions more accurately.
In some cases, surveys are combined with experiments. Thus, the study of the psychological effectiveness of radio and television advertising is carried out as follows. A group of people is invited to the studio, who are asked to fill out a small questionnaire, indicating information about age, profession, etc. After this, the group listens to or watches advertising programs, and everyone enters their comments and impressions in special sheets. All comments are appropriately motivated. Then a discussion of the program is organized. Sometimes the effectiveness of advertising is assessed based on voting data. Such listening and discussions of advertising programs make it possible to more or less accurately establish the positive and negative aspects of their preparation, as well as to identify which form of presentation is most accessible to a particular contingent of radio listeners or television viewers.
The effectiveness of an advertising event or a separate means of advertising can be expressed by the number of consumers covered by advertising, as well as the amount of costs per viewer, reader, etc. Thus, the feasibility of publishing a newspaper advertisement in a particular print media is determined by determining the total number of people who will be able to read it (this number depends mainly on the circulation of the newspaper), or the amount of advertising costs per reader.
The more readers are reached by advertising, the lower the cost per person will be.
Data on the effectiveness of the psychological impact of advertising allow us to predict its effectiveness.
We can finish our consideration of methods for determining the effectiveness of advertising with an example from foreign practice. Thus, the advertising agency Ted Bates and Company, back in the early 40s, for the first time in advertising practice, began to use scientific methods for assessing the effectiveness of advertising campaigns. One of the founders of the Ted Bates and Company agency was R. Reeves, the author of the theory of the Unique Selling Proposition (USP), widely used throughout the world.
In his book Reality in Advertising, he writes: “Imagine that the entire population of the United States was placed in two huge rooms. In one room there are people who do not know your current advertising. They do not remember what it is about, don't remember ever seeing, reading, or hearing it. Find out which of them are using your product.
Let's assume that five people out of every hundred people unfamiliar with your advertising are regular customers (that is, 5%). Since these 5 people are unfamiliar with your advertising, there is no doubt that they selected the product in some other way. Perhaps their friends told them about your product. Perhaps you yourself once provided them with a free sample. Perhaps your product was recommended to them by a doctor. In any case, they became regular customers not under the influence of your current advertising, which they do not know.
Now go into another room where there are people who remember your ad. They are able to prove that they know it by correctly reproducing the content. Let's assume that twenty-five people out of every hundred people familiar with your advertising are regular customers (i.e., 25%).
Range from 5 to 25%. You have in your hands one of the most exciting statistics in modern advertising. He says that, without resorting to advertising, you can sell your product to 5/0 of the population for some time, while out of every hundred people who remember your advertisement, an additional 20 people become regular consumers of the product.
Here it is - the ratio of those involved in consumption without the help of advertising and with it!
Sales can rise or fall for a variety of reasons. However, know that where your advertising is remembered, the number of consumers increases. And your advertising, and only advertising, attracted them into consumption.
The ratio of the number of people who remembered your current advertisement to the number of people who did not remember it will be called implementation.
Of the hundreds of lessons learned from the practice of advertising and consumer engagement, one of the most instructive is this: making changes to an advertising campaign too often is detrimental to adoption rates.
This is a mistake costing millions of dollars. Consistency is one of the oldest principles of advertising. However, it is he who is ignored more often than others.”
Question No. 20. Temperament. Types of temperament. Modern approaches to psychological characteristicsetypes of temperaments. Manager's temperament and style
The doctrine of temperament was first created by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-356 BC). It was from his teaching that the term “temperament” subsequently came into use, and the names of all four types were fixed.
According to the teachings of Hippocrates, the difference between people in temperament is explained by the different ratio of juices (liquids) in the human body. There are four types of liquids: bile, designed to maintain dryness; blood intended to warm; mucus, designed to cool, and black bile - dampness, moisture in the body.
According to Hippocrates, in each person one of the liquids predominates. Depending on what type of liquids predominates in this mixture, people differ in their temperament types.
What is temperament from a psychological point of view?
Temperament is an individual psychological feature of a person, which manifests itself in the degree of emotional excitability, the speed and energy of mental processes, the speed and expressiveness of movements, facial expressions and gestures, as well as in the peculiarities of mood changes.
One of the classifications connects the characteristics of temperament with the difference in the types of higher nervous activity. According to the teachings of physiologist I.P. Pavlov, types of higher nervous activity are characterized by such basic properties as strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition. Strength refers to the performance of nerve cells, their ability to withstand strong stress without falling into an inhibited state.
(melancholic)
(choleric)
(sanguine) (phlegmatic)
Relationship between temperament and the type of higher nervous activity
Mobility is the speed of change from one process to another. It ensures adaptation to unexpected and drastic changes in circumstances, adaptation to a new team, and transition from one type of activity to another.
I. P. Pavlov gives 4 main typical combinations of the named properties in the form of 4 types of nervous activity. They correspond to the four classical temperaments, the names of which, as already noted, are associated with the works of the ancient Greek physician and philosopher Hippocrates.
It should be borne in mind that temperament is little subject to change under the influence of environment and upbringing. This is an innate personality quality. Temperament properties can either favor or counteract the formation of certain personality traits. Currently, the generally accepted point of view is the equivalence of temperaments, since each of them has positive and negative qualities. Based on each temperament, with improper upbringing, negative personality manifestations can develop.
A manager needs to know the characteristics of the temperament types of his subordinates and take this into account when hiring, when distributing work, and when communicating with them personally. In addition, you should know the characteristics of your temperament and take them into account when establishing contacts with colleagues and business partners, which will allow you to avoid conflicts, as well as correctly select personnel and distribute work.
It is known that the same impact on workers with different temperaments can cause them to react differently. So, for example, a critical remark irritates a choleric person, pushes a sanguine person to take active action, leaves a phlegmatic person indifferent and unsettles a melancholic person. When communicating with a choleric or melancholic person, it is necessary to show maximum restraint and tact, since in the case of, for example, harsh expression of comments, a violent negative reaction on the part of the choleric person or resentment on the part of the melancholic person is possible. It is inappropriate to entrust work related to efficiency and new communication with people to a melancholic person, and to a choleric person - tasks that require special endurance, tact and patience.
A person’s temperament influences his work activity both positively and negatively. However, only extreme manifestations of one or another type of higher nervous activity, for example, excessive excitability or inhibition, mobility or inertia, adversely affect work.
For successful work activity, what is important is not some optimal temperament or the adaptation of the activity to the employee’s temperament. It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of temperament in such a way that it helps to better perform work tasks, so that a person’s temperament can be regulated. That is, use strong qualities of temperament. Knowing your capabilities and temperamental characteristics, it is not difficult to determine in which area you will be more successful. Then, by building on your strengths and developing your weaknesses, you can quickly achieve success in life.
For a long time, psychologists believed that temperament does not change throughout a person’s life. Recent research has shown that it can change, albeit slowly. Eastern psychologists even believe that as a result of certain exercises, a complete restructuring of temperament can occur. The so-called “law of seven” has been discovered, according to which more or less noticeable changes in a person’s temperamental structure occur during periods from one seven-year period to another. This is most clearly observed, for example, around 7 years old, when childhood ends, and between 14 and 21 years old, when a teenager becomes an adult. The next period, ending at 28 years old, marks social adaptation. The critical age is between 49 and 56 years. At this time, age-related changes occur.
Of course, these boundaries are fluid, but the trend is common to everyone. After all, temperament changes primarily because the body itself and its physical capabilities change. Over the years, a mobile choleric person can become outwardly indistinguishable from a phlegmatic person, and only special tests will help recognize the passions raging in him. And modern means of self-regulation can help a melancholic person acquire traits of a strong type.
Regarding the possibility of changing the type of temperament, I would like to emphasize that, in our opinion, only the external manifestation of temperament changes.
So, let's look at the psychological characteristics of temperament types.
Of the four known types of temperament, sanguine and choleric people are more common in life, melancholic people are less common, and phlegmatic people are even less common. Many people have a temperament that uniquely combines the features of several types of temperaments, but the features of one of them predominate. In accordance with this, you should determine what type of temperament you belong to. This can be done using well-known psychological tests, including the Eysenck test, which, agreeing with the famous psychologist C. G. Jung, believes that there are two options for adapting to the world around us - extraversion and introversion. These concepts subsequently began to be considered the main characteristics of temperament. In addition, the Eysenck test determines the stability or instability of the nervous system.
Extraversion is manifested in the personality’s focus on the outside world: sociability, activity, optimism, self-confident and impulsive behavior. Extroverts are people who are open in their emotional expressions and love movement and risk. They are characterized by impulsiveness, behavioral flexibility, and social adaptability.
These are usually active, noisy people, “the life of the party”, ringleaders, excellent businessmen and organizers, have external charm, are straightforward in their judgments, and, as a rule, focus on external assessment, so they can pass exams well, they are drawn to new sensations , optimistic, good at work that requires quick decision making.
Where should extroverts work (cholerics and sanguines):
* investment planning;
* corporate finance;
* positions related to working with clients;
* sale;
* Public Relations;
* management, including work with personnel;
* marketing.
Introverts are characterized by a focus on the inner world of a person; an introvert is uncommunicative, passive, calm, thoughtful, reasonable.
Introverts are people for whom the greatest interest is in the phenomena of their own inner world; For them, their theories and assessments of reality are often more important than reality itself. They are prone to reflection, introspection, are withdrawn and experience difficulties in social adaptation, and are often socially passive. Typically, they are more sensitive to external stimuli, recognize colors and sounds better, are more careful, neat and pedantic, show better results on intelligence tests, and do better at school and university.
Introverts cope better with monotonous work. Bosses who hold high positions that do not require constant communication with people are most often introverts.
Introverts (phlegmatic and melancholic) more often work:
* financial analysts,
* accountants,
* auditors,
* simultaneous interpreters,
* dispatchers.
That is, they work where perseverance, attentiveness and concentration are required. It can also be precise work combined with diplomacy in relationships with people.
Question No. 34. Communication skills. Reasons for ineffective communications. Overcoming communication barriers
Information plays an important role when managers carry out management functions and make decisions. It is received and transmitted through a process called communication.
Communication - to make common, to connect, to communicate.
Communication is the first condition for the existence of any organization.
Without the communication process, without the transfer of information from the subject of management to the object of management, and vice versa, without a correct understanding of the information transmitted and received, management work is impossible.
Let's consider the essence, structure, types, means, methods of communication in the organization.
At the ordinary level, communication is defined as the transfer of information from person to person, as communication. In management, communication is the exchange of information between people, on the basis of which the manager receives the information necessary for decision-making and communicates the decision to the employees of the body, etc.............. ...