The vocabulary of the Russian language is one of the largest in the world. It has been formed over the centuries under the influence of the development of social, economic and cultural life. The list of native Russian words makes up 90% of modern explanatory dictionaries. The rest consists of foreign borrowings that appeared both in the early stages of its development and in modern times.

​Stages of development of Russian vocabulary

Russian language, along with Ukrainian and Belarusian, is part of the East Slavic group of the Indo-European language family. It began to form at the end of the Neolithic era and continues its development to this day.

There are several major stages in the development of native vocabulary:

Words that appeared in our language at any of these stages are considered native Russian.

Words of Russian origin also include lexical units formed from borrowed ones according to the rules of Russian word formation.

Scientists believe that at the end of the Neolithic era there was a single Indo-European linguistic community. Speakers of the Indo-European language lived over a fairly large territory. Some researchers call this place the land from the Yenisei to the Volga. Their opponents talk about the settlement of Indo-Europeans along the banks of the Danube and on the Balkan Peninsula. But they are all unanimous in the opinion that the Indo-European language gave rise to almost all European languages ​​and some Asian ones.

Common Indo-European words reflect specific phenomena and objects of the surrounding reality, degrees of relationship, numerals. Their spelling and pronunciation are almost identical in many languages ​​of the Indo-European family. For example:

In East Slavic languages There are quite a lot of words common to Indo-European languages. These include nouns meaning:

• degree of relationship: mother, brother, sister, daughter, son;
• natural phenomena: sun, moon, ice, rain, water;
• animals: wolf, goose, cow, bear;
• plants: oak, birch;
• metals: copper, bronze.

Words denoting numerals (two, three, four, five), properties of objects (new, white, fast), and actions (sew, go) are of Indo-European origin.

Common Slavic language

Around the 6th century BC. e. Proto-Slavic language appeared. Its carriers were Slavic tribes who settled in the territory between the Dnieper, Vistula, and Bug rivers. Common Slavic vocabulary served as the basis for the development of the languages ​​of the Western, Southern and Eastern Slavs. Their common roots can still be traced today.

The common Slavic native Russian vocabulary is diverse. Examples of nouns:

Among common Slavic words There are nouns that denote not specific objects and phenomena, but abstract concepts. These include: will, guilt, faith, sin, thought, glory, happiness, goodness.

Compared to words of Indo-European origin, more lexical units from the common Slavic vocabulary remain in our language, denoting actions, characteristics and qualities of objects.

• Actions: breathe, lie down, run, write, sow, reap, weave, spin.
• Signs and qualities of objects: tall, fast, black, red, many, few, soon.

Common Slavicisms are distinguished by a simple structure. They consist of a base and an ending. Moreover, the number of words derived from their stems is very large. Several dozen words are formed from the root slav: disgrace, glorify, glorify, glorious, love of glory, glorify.

The meaning of some common Slavic words changed in the process of language formation. The word “red” in common Slavic vocabulary was used to mean “beautiful, good.” The modern meaning (color designation) has come into use since the 16th century.

There are about two thousand common Slavicisms in the vocabulary of Russian-speaking people. This relatively small group of native words forms the core of the Russian written and spoken language.

​Old Russian or East Slavic stage of lexical development

In the 7th century AD, based on the common Slavic vocabulary, three separate groups of Slavic languages ​​began to develop: West Slavic, South Slavic and East Slavic languages. The East Slavic community of peoples became the basis of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. The tribes, which were carriers of a single East Slavic language, formed a single state in the 9th century - Kievan (Ancient) Rus. For this reason, the vocabulary that appeared in the period between VII and XIV is called Old Russian vocabulary.

Old Russian lexical units were formed under the influence of the political, economic, social and cultural development of a single East Slavic state. The original words of our language of this period belong to different parts of speech and lexical-semantic groups.

Great Russian period of language formation

Since the 14th century The actual Russian or Great Russian stage in the development of our vocabulary begins. It continues to this day. The beginning of the formation of Great Russian vocabulary coincided with the formation of Russian statehood and the long-term division of the development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, in the vocabulary of these languages, the same objects are denoted by different words. For example: wallet - Ukrainian. Gamanese - Belarusian. Kashalok; palace - ukr. palace - Belarusian. palace; sparkle - ukr. vibliskuvati - Belarusian. zikhatsets.

Words that appeared during this period are characterized by a derivative stem. They appeared on the basis of known lexical units of Indo-European, Common Slavic and East Slavic origin. New word forms were formed on the basis of borrowings from foreign languages ​​by adding simple stems. Such word forms are considered original. Actually, Russian words make up a significant part of the Russian vocabulary.

Formation of new words in Russian

The vocabulary of our language is replenished quite intensively. The basis for this process is the lexical units of the previous stages of language development and borrowed vocabulary. This vocabulary changes and adapts to the needs of the language in accordance with the rules of word formation adopted in it.

Nouns

Adding to the borrowed stem a specific Russian suffix -schik, -chik, -ovshchik, -lshchik, -lk, -ovk, -k, -tel, -ost. For example: from the word stone, which is of Indo-European origin, with the help of the suffix -schik the actual Russian noun mason was formed; from the word leaf, which appeared in the common Slavic period of the development of the Russian language, with the help of the suffix -ovk the concept of leaflet arose.

Adding native Russian prefixes to the base at-, pa-, pra-, su-, in-, voz-, na-, ob-, pre-, re- and so on. For example: by adding the prefix to the common Slavic base city, the word suburb is formed; by adding the prefix o- to the same stem, we get the noun vegetable garden.

The formation of new words from two or more bases: from the common Slavic bases -truth- and -lyub- the complex Russian word truth-loving was formed; from the Indo-European basis of the mouse and the common Slavic word to catch with the help of the suffix -k, the noun mouse was formed. Methods of forming verbs.

Ways to form verbs

One of the common ways to form verbs is simultaneous addition of a prefix and suffix to the stem. For example: from the common Slavic base run, with the help of the prefix raz- and the suffixes -at and -sya, the verb to run away appeared; from the common Slavic base -bogat- with the help of the prefix o- and the suffixes -it and -sya, the original Russian word enrichment appeared.

In the Russian period of vocabulary development itself, verbs formed from nouns are quite common. From the German word storm, borrowed in the 18th century, the verb to storm was formed using the suffix -ova. Using the suffix -i, the verb to glorify was formed from the common Slavic word slava.

The Russian vocabulary is one of the most extensive and actively developing in the world. By borrowing vocabulary from other languages ​​and forming new words on its basis, the Russian language is expanding. By using online word origin dictionaries, you can become more familiar with the etymology of Russian vocabulary. In the age of globalization, knowledge of the origins of the Russian language and the stages of its development will help preserve its originality and uniqueness.

Please give examples of original Russian words.

1. bast shoes, etc.
2. Originally Russian words are words that arose in the Russian language at any stage of its development.

   Original Russian vocabulary forms the main body of vocabulary of the Russian language, defining its national specificity. Original Russian words include 1) Indo-Europeanisms; 2) common Slavic words, 3) words of East Slavic origin, 4) actual Russian words.

   Indo-Europeanisms are the most ancient words preserved from the era of Indo-European unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to many European and some Asian languages. Indo-European language is also called a proto-language. For example, the words mother, son, daughter, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc. go back to the proto-language.

   Common Slavic vocabulary is words inherited by the Russian language from the Common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language, which became the basis of all Slavic languages. , Words of common Slavic origin are distinguished by their maximum frequency in speech (field, sky, earth, river, wind, rain, kln, linden, elk, snake, snake, mosquito, fly, friend, face, lip, throat, heart, knife, sickle, needle, grain, oil, flour, bell, cage; black, white, thin, sharp, evil, wise, young, deaf, sour; throw, nod, boil, put; one, two, ten; you, he, who, what; where, then, there; without, about, y, for; but, yes, and, whether, etc.)

   East Slavic vocabulary is words inherited by the Russian language from the East Slavic (Old Russian) language, which is the common language of all Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians). A significant part of words of East Slavic origin is known in Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but is absent in West Slavic and South Slavic languages, for example: bullfinch (Russian), stgur (Ukrainian), snyagur (Belarusian), wintering (Serbian). Words of East Slavic origin include, for example, the words dog, squirrel, boot, ruble, cook, carpenter, village, nag, palm, boil, etc.

   Actually, Russian vocabulary is the words that appeared in the Russian language during the period of its independent existence, when the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​began to develop in parallel. The basis of Russian words proper was all the previous lexical and word-formation material. Properly Russian in origin include, for example, the words visor, sorcerer, spinning wheel, child, shy, etc.

3. Originally Russian: pot, horse, rooster, samovar, puppy, butterfly, duck, bagel, sock, angel, bast shoe, hour, basket.
4. Skrivushka.
5. spectacle - theater
   gulbische - boulevard
   wet shoes - galoshes
6. Almost all words containing a letter, as well as zda, zdra, cattail, fidget, army, terem
7. Borscht, yogurt, okroshka, vodka...
8. Thank you.. . 🙂
9. Hello.
10. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed over the centuries. The basis of the vocabulary is made up of native Russian words. A word is considered primordial if it arose in the Russian language according to the patterns existing in it or passed into it from an older predecessor language - Old Russian, - Proto-Slavic, - Indo-European.
    The language of the tribes that are the ancestors of the Slavic peoples, also unwritten, is called the Proto-Slavic language. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian people, who united in the 9th century into a single state, Kievan Rus. In the 14th century, the Old Russian language splits into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian language becomes the language of the Russian people, and then the Russian nation.
    Indo-European language. It includes words that have correspondences in the roots of words in many other Indo-European languages. These are, for example, words such as mother, son, brother, wolf, water, nose
    Proto-Slavic language. These words have correspondences in many Slavic languages ​​and are native to them, for example: heart, spring, rain, grass, grandson, aunt, lead, kind.
    Old Russian language. It includes words that arose during the period of the unity of Kievan Rus and are common to Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian: forty, ninety spoon, nomad, brown, together, squirrel, milk mushroom.
    Borrowed vocabulary At various times, borrowings from other languages ​​penetrated into Russian vocabulary. For borrowing, the condition must be the presence of linguistic contacts between peoples due to trade, wars, cultural interaction, etc. Borrowings are used to name new realities and to rename old ones.
    1) the need to name the new reality: leggings, grant, digest, skateboard, tape; 2) the need to distinguish between meaningfully similar, but still different concepts: image image, killer killer 3) a tendency to replace the phrase with a word: summit summit, know-how, advanced technologies, electorate, a collection of voters; 4) the desire to increase the status of the named object ; in certain periods, greater social prestige arises for a foreign word, as if increasing the rank of the phenomenon being called: presentation, presentation, exclusive exceptional, shop store; consulting consulting,
    In various historical periods, borrowings from different languages ​​intensified. Thus, in connection with the Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV-XV centuries and with cultural and trade contacts of the Slavs and Turkic peoples, borrowings from Turkic languages ​​appeared, for example: sheepskin coat, herd, horse, chest and others.

In this article we will look at such layers of vocabulary as outdated and original Russian words. By origin, native Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous. It consists of several layers that differ in the time of their occurrence.

Indo-Europeanisms

The most ancient of the original Russian ones are Indo-Europeanisms, that is, words that have passed into our language since the times of Indo-European unity. According to researchers, in the 5th-4th centuries BC there was an Indo-European civilization, within which various tribes united, living over a fairly large territory. According to the research of some scientists, this region extended from the Yenisei to the Volga. Others suggest that it was a southern Russian or Balkan-Danubian localization. A linguistic community such as Indo-European laid the foundation for European languages, as well as some Asian ones (for example, Sanskrit, Bengali).

Words that go back to the proto-language that is the basis of this community denote animals, plants, minerals and metals, forms of economic management, tools, types of kinship, and others - these are native Russian words. Examples: salmon, oak, wolf, goose, copper, sheep, honey, bronze, son, mother, night, daughter, snow, magnifying glass, new, water, sew and etc.

Common Slavic words

The next layer of native Russian words includes common Slavic ones, which were inherited from the common Slavic (that is, Proto-Slavic) Russian language. They served as a source not only for our language, but also for all other Slavic ones. This base language existed in prehistoric times on the territory of the Vistula, Bug and Dnieper. These places were inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. The Common Slavic language collapsed in the 6th-7th centuries AD. This opened the way for the development of a number of Slavic languages, to which Old Russian belongs. The common Slavic words in them are easily distinguished; their common origin is obvious even today. The Russian language also goes back to the common Slavic languages. Originally include common Slavic as a component.

There are many nouns among them. First of all, these are specific names that represent native Russian words. Examples: throat, head, heart, beard, field, palm, forest, mountain, maple, birch, cow, ox, sickle, knife, pitchfork, neighbor, seine, servant, guest, friend, spinner, shepherd, potter.

There are also abstract ones, but they are much smaller. This: will, faith, sin, guilt, glory, happiness, thought, rage.

Among other parts of speech, verbs are also represented in the common Slavic vocabulary: hear, see, lie, grow. Adjectives: old, young, cunning, wise. Numerals: three two one. Pronouns: you, we, you. Pronominal adverbs: where, there, how. Some function words: by, yes, and, a, over and other native Russian words. The examples can be continued.

Common Slavic vocabulary today amounts to approximately two thousand words, but this rather small vocabulary is the core of the Russian vocabulary. It includes the most common, stylistically neutral words that are used both in written and oral speech.

Its varieties, which had their source in Proto-Slavic and had different lexical, grammatical and sound features, separated into the following three groups: eastern, western and southern.

East Slavic vocabulary

The third layer, which is available in the Russian language, consists of the words of Old Russian (East Slavic) vocabulary. This is a later time, to which the origin of native Russian words also dates back. This vocabulary developed on the basis of the East Slavic language, one of the three groups into which the Old Slavic languages ​​are united. The time of its appearance is 7-9 centuries AD. The Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian nationalities can be traced back to the tribal unions that lived in Eastern Europe. That is why the words remaining from this period in our language are known in two others: Belarusian and Ukrainian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the southern and

The following vocabulary belonging to East Slavic can be distinguished. Since these words were used in the language from the very beginning, they were not borrowed, these are also native Russian words. Examples:

Names of birds and animals: squirrel, dog, drake, jackdaw, bullfinch;

Names of tools: blade, ax;

Names of household items: ladle, boot, ruble, casket;

People's occupational titles: cook, carpenter, miller, shoemaker;

Names of various settlements: settlement, village, as well as other lexical-semantic groups.

Actually Russian vocabulary

The next, fourth, layer that can be distinguished is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, that is, during the period of independent development of the Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian languages. They already have their own equivalents for expressing certain objects or phenomena.

Actually Russian words can be distinguished by their derivative basis: leaflet, bricklayer, community, locker room, intervention and others.

It should be noted that such vocabulary may also contain words with various foreign roots that have gone through the path of word formation and added Russian prefixes and suffixes ( non-partisan, party affiliation, ruler, aggressiveness, teapot, glass), and also having a complex basis ( steam locomotive, radio center). These also include many different compound words that entered our language in the 20th century: wall newspaper, timber industry enterprise, Moscow Art Theater and etc.

Nowadays, the original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with new inclusions, which are created with the help of word-formation resources of our language as a result of various word-formation processes.

Outdated Russian words

Words that are no longer actively used do not immediately disappear from it. They are still understandable for some time to those who speak it, and are known to us from works of fiction. Although everyday speech practice no longer needs them. These words constitute a passive stock of vocabulary and are listed in various explanatory dictionaries with a special mark “outdated.”

The process of archaization of words

Usually the process of archaization occurs gradually. Among the obsolete words, therefore, there are those that have significant “experience” (for example, this, therefore, scarlet, reche, vorog, child). Others were removed from the active vocabulary due to the fact that they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Sometimes words become obsolete in a relatively short period of time, appearing and disappearing in the modern period. For example, "shkrab" meant "teacher" until the 20s. Words such as “Rabkrin”, “NKVDist” arose, which fell out of use very quickly. Such nominations do not always have corresponding marks in dictionaries, since the process of archaization may not yet be perceived as completely completed.

Reasons for archaization

There are various reasons for the archaization of vocabulary. They can acquire character if the refusal to use certain words is associated with social transformations. But they can also be determined by linguistic laws. The adverbs “right hand”, “oshyu” (right, left), for example, disappeared from the active dictionary due to the fact that the nouns producing them (“left hand” - “shuytsa” and “right hand” - “right hand”) became archaic. In such cases, the systemic relationships of various lexical units played a decisive role. For example, the word “shuitsa” fell out of use, and therefore the semantic connection of various words that were united by this historical root also disintegrated. “Shulga,” for example, could not be retained in the language as meaning “left-handed” and remained as a surname, which goes back to the nickname. This is how the word is used now. You can talk about the Russian language and the processes within it for a long time. All this is very interesting. We will only briefly describe a typical process using one example.

The following anatomical pairs were destroyed: left-right hand, shuytsa-right hand; synonymous connections ( on the left, on the left). But the word “right hand” for some time, despite the archaization of the systemic relations associated with it, remained in our language. For example, in Pushkin’s era this word was used in poetic speech, in a “high syllable”. The Russian language can be said to be constantly developing, so the fact that vocabulary becomes outdated is a natural process. The word “oshyu” remained only as an echo of the archaic; its use only in a satirical context was possible at that time.

Composition of outdated vocabulary

Outdated vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin. Its composition includes native Russian words (examples: this, this, in order, lzya), as well as Old Church Slavonicisms ( loins, kiss, smooth), borrowings from different languages ​​(“polites” - “politeness”, “voyage” - “travel”, “abshid” - “retirement”).

Revival of obsolete words

There are also cases when outdated Russian words are revived and returned to the active stock of vocabulary. For example, the following nouns are often used in Russian today: minister, warrant officer, officer, soldier, which became archaic after October. They gave way to others: People's Commissar, Division Chief, Red Army soldier. From the passive vocabulary in the 1920s, for example, the word “leader” was extracted, which even in Pushkin’s era was perceived as archaic and was listed with the corresponding mark in the dictionaries of that time. Today it is being archaized again. Such words as Duma, gymnasium, department, lyceum. They were assessed after 1917 as historicisms.

Historicisms

Returning to the active stock of some words is possible only under special circumstances. This is always due to various extralinguistic factors. If archaization is dictated by linguistic laws and is reflected in lexical system connections, the resulting words are called historicisms.

Among them are the names of concepts, phenomena, objects that have disappeared: chain mail, oprichnik, policeman, gendarme, tutor, hussar, Bolshevik, schoolgirl, surplus appropriation system, NEP, middle peasant, kulak, VKP(b) and others. Historicisms, as a rule, appear as a result of extra-linguistic reasons: the development of production, social transformations, renovation of household items, weapons, etc.

Today, the school curriculum includes the topic “Outdated and original Russian words” (grade 6). Any person should know at least a little about their native language and the history of its development. Our article was written in order to expand readers’ knowledge about the various layers of vocabulary that make up the great Russian word.

Actually Russian words.

Actually, Russian are all words that appear in the language after it first became an independent language of the Russian people (from the 14th century), and then of the Russian nation.

These words do not exist even in Slavic languages ​​closely related to Russian. These include names of actions: coo, influence, explore; household items: fork, cover, wallpaper, jam, flatbread; names of persons by occupation: driver, fireman, pilot, racer (with suffix -chik\-schik-); names of abstract concepts: result, deception, caution.

All the words given above refer to the commonly used vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

N.M. Shansky: “...Words coming from the common Slavic language (many of which currently exist with other meanings) in our vocabulary are only about 2 thousand. All of them are the most common, frequent and popular and in everyday communication they make up at least 1/4 of all words.”

1. BORROWED VOCABULARY.

2. THE CONCEPT OF BORROWING.

Languages ​​are not isolated from each other. One language can borrow different linguistic units from another, for example, sounds and their combinations. Thus, the sound [f] first entered the Russian language along with borrowings from Greek: Fedor, Thomas, Philip, lantern, etc. Morphemes are also borrowed. For example, the derivational suffix -ism, -ist came into the Russian language with borrowed words (specialist, communism), and then took root and began to participate in the creation of Russian words themselves (weightlifter, bodybuilding). So, borrowing is the process of moving various linguistic elements from one language to another.

Borrowing indicates the poverty of the language. If borrowed words and their elements are assimilated according to their own norms and transformed according to the needs of the “taking” language, then this indicates that the language is creatively active.

If an entire word passes from one language to another, then we are dealing with lexical borrowings . Borrowed words make up about 20% of words in the Russian language.

Some words came to us a long time ago, and now only linguists can determine their “foreignness”. Such, for example, is the word bread, which many languages, and in particular Russian, borrowed from ancient Germanic. But the non-Russian character of much later borrowings such as jam (English) is felt by all Russian speakers.

1. GROUPS OF BORN WORDS. SIGNS.

Borrowings came from different languages. Usually, borrowed words from Old Church Slavonic and other Slavic languages, and borrowings from non-Slavic languages ​​are distinguished. (For borrowings from Slavic languages, see Fomina M.I., 1990, pp. 168-172)

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages.

Words from the Turkic language penetrated into the Russian language, as a rule, orally. They mean:

a) items of nomadic life: wagon, cart, drum, tarantass;

b) clothing and jewelry: armyak, bashlyk, shoe, zipun, sash, cap, diamond, pearls, turquoise, sundress;

c) items of weapons and equipment: flail, dagger, lasso;

d) horses and their colors: horse, dun, brown, brown, karak, roan;

e) animals, plants: bull, badger, wild boar, herd, cockroach, cabbage, watermelon, raisins, reeds;

f) food and drinks: noodles, kovriga, balyk, shish kebab;

g) concepts from the sphere of social structure and trade: horde, khan, vizier, guard, mosque, farm laborer, Cossack, chumak, bazaar;

h) contemptuous names: dunce, fool, blockhead, head, kayuk, jumble;

i) some other names: label, emery, pencil, plague, comrade.

Phonetic and morphological features of Turkisms: synharmonism (aida, sheepskin coat), former suffixes -mak, -lyk, -cha (shoe, label, cherry plum), initial bash- (head).

The Russian language borrowed words from classical languages ​​- ancient Greek And Latin. Borrowings from the Greek language began in the ancient period (1X-11th centuries), both orally and through the Old Church Slavonic language. New borrowings from the Greek language came to us through Latin and European languages.

Greekisms(about 1% of them in relation to Russian words) relate mainly to religion, the fields of science and art: hell, angel, demon, idol; literacy, alphabet, apostrophe, lexicon, syntax, history; organ, choir, comedy, tragedy, museum, melody; some words of Greek origin are names of household items, proper names of people: coral, metal, sapphire, magnet, lime; buffalo, crocodile, whale; cherry, cucumber, beets; bath, bed; Alexander, Angelina and others.

Basic phonetic and grammatical features of Greek words:

a) combinations of sounds ps, ks, mv, mp: psychology, syntax, monastery, pulpit;

b) suffixes: -ad-a, -iad-a, -is, -isk, -os: lamp, Olympics, basis, obelisk, pathos;

c) prefixes a-, an-, anti-, archi-, pan-, ev-, hyper-, hypo-: alogism, anemia, antipathy, archipelago, panorama, eucalyptus, hyperbole, hypotension;

d) roots: auto-(himself), anthropo-(human), aristo-(best), arifo-(number), ast(e)r-(star), bio-(life), botan-(plant), gast(e)r-(stomach), geo-(earth), gek(a)t-(hundred), gigi-(healthy), hygro-(moist), hydro-(water), gin(ek)-( woman), hypn-(sleep), gram-(letter), graph-(write), geli-(sun), deka-(ten), dem-(people), di-(two), didact-(learning) , zoo-(animal), kilo-(thousand), cinema-(movement), cosmos-(universe), macro-(long), micro-(small), mono-(single), etc.

Latin words, or Latinisms, penetrated the Russian language in different ways and at different times: in the X-XV centuries. - through the Greek language, in the XV-XVI centuries. - through the Polish and Ukrainian languages, and from the 17th centuries. - both directly from Latin and through Western European languages ​​(German, French), since Latin for many centuries was the literary language of almost all of Western Europe. The bulk of Latinisms came to us in the 17th-18th centuries.

The Russian language borrowed mainly scientific and socio-political terms from the Latin language:

a) medical: amputation, operation, resection, lethal, tonsillitis, vein, patient;

b) school life: school, classroom, course, vacation, exam, excursion, review, dictation, notes, globe;

c) general scientific: formula, evolution, erudition, maximum, minimum, process, nature;

d) socio-political and legal: class, nation, intelligentsia, deputy, delegate, plenum, senate, corporation, alibi, lawyer, audit, colleague, justice, office, notary, censorship, administration.

Some Latinisms denote objects and concepts of everyday life, culture, proper names of people: room, factory, motor, mint, cement, form, ceremony, author, copy, Valery, Vitaly, Victor.

Many Latin words have become international: absolute, author, deduction, dictatorship, induction, communism, socialism, materialism, internationalism, cooperation, constitution, corporation, laboratory, meridian, maximum, minimum, nature.

The main features of Latinisms are:

a) suffixes: -um, -us, -ent, -tor, -at, -tsi(ya), -ur(a): consultation, status, incident, equator, dean’s office, section, fittings;

b) prefixes: de-, in-, inter-, re-, ultra-, ex-, post-, pro-, retro-, sub-, trans-: depression, inflation, intervention, repression, ultramarine, excursion, postscript , vice-rector, retrograde, subordination, superarbiter, transcription;

c) roots: avi-(bird), aqu-(water), audi-(hearing), bi-(two), veget-(grow), vice-(instead), wok-(voice), grand-(big ), dant-(teeth), dik(t)-(speak), etc.

With the help of Greco-Latin morphemes, new terms are created even today: astrobotany, barograph, biochemistry, biomycin, cosmonautics, tape recorder, microphone, neutron, positron, radiotherapy, television, tetracycline, photosynthesis, cyclotron, egocentrism. Latin suffixes are sometimes added to Russian roots: svintus, old woman, verkhotura.

In addition to ancient borrowings, many words from new Western European languages ​​came into the Russian language: German, English, French, Dutch, Italian, Spanish.

German words began to penetrate into the Russian language from the 111th century. This process intensified in the 16th century. But especially many words from the German language found their way into the Russian language in the 17th–18th centuries. both orally and in writing, as well as through other languages. German loanwords refer to various areas of human activity. This:

a) military vocabulary: watch, parade ground, assault, camp, fort, carriage, uniform, order, bayonet, ramrod, grenade, soldier, company, corporal;

b) production vocabulary: workbench, chisel, plane, jointer, jack, washer, crane, tripod, sleeper, shaft, panel, slate, matrix, font, plaster, format, mechanic, template, cost-effective;

c) trade vocabulary: bill, accountant, freight, stamp, cashier;

d) terms of art: easel, landscape, stroke, leitmotif, scale, highlight, tour, sold out, flute, horn, dance, painter, choreographer;

e) medical terminology: bandage, paramedic, syringe, spa, plaster, cotton wool, sterile;

f) socially-political vocabulary: dictate, falsify, priority, aggressor, discrimination, disorient, slogan;

g) chess terminology: time trouble, grandmaster, endgame;

h) everyday vocabulary– names of kitchen, table, home and toilet items, entertainment, hunting, animals and plants: minced meat, corkscrew, kitchen, sandwich, celery, pretzel, pate, dumplings, eggnog, riesling, rutabaga, apron, hat, darn, hairdresser , leg.

The most important phonetic and grammatical features of German words:

a) combinations ay, ey, initial pcs, sh: barrier, stamp, spy;

b) compounding without connecting vowels: sideburns, mouthpiece, dial, choirmaster.

French words began to appear in the Russian language in pre-Petrine and Petrine times, but especially many of them came into the Russian language at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. These were:

a) everyday words related to home, clothing, toilet, jewelry, kitchen and table items, and social life: terrace, candelabra, overcoat, overalls, cologne, perfume, manicure, salad, ice cream, marmalade, sausages, vinaigrette, popsicle , lemonade, dessert, cream, chic, masquerade, waltz;

b) terms of art (especially theatrical): stalls, foyer, ramp, poster, stage, screen;

c) words from social and political life: parliament, prime minister, bureaucrat, regime, debate, politics, communiqué;

d) words related to military affairs: trench, dugout, arsenal, barricade, patrol;

e) words related to trade, industry, transport, etc.: advance, balance, credit, store, kiosk, manufactory, assembler, crew, depot, luggage, compartment, metro.

Basic phonetic and grammatical features of French words:

a) combinations ue, ua, oa in the middle of a word: duel, veil, boa;

b) combinations am, an before consonants: role, boarding house;

c) soft hissing: jury, brochure;

d) final shocks e, i, o: pince-nez, pari, bureau;

e) stress on the last syllable, if the word has not acquired a Russian ending: partner, secretary;

f) noun suffixes -er, -azh, -ans: driver, circulation, nuance.

Borrowings from the English language began in the era of Peter the Great, but most English words appeared in the Russian language in the 19th-20th centuries. This:

a) maritime vocabulary: boat, schooner, brig, yacht, trawler;

b) sports vocabulary: ring, boxing, football;

c) technical and transport vocabulary: blooming, conveyor, combine, tractor, tank, radar, detector, bulldozer, container;

d) socio-political vocabulary: rally, boycott, club, knockout, bill, apartheid, escalation, boom, pioneer, pamphlet, dumping;

e) everyday vocabulary: hall, square, comfort, flowerbed, elevator, beefsteak.

The most important phonetic and grammatical features of English words:

a) combinations: gin, jam, jeans;

b) combinations va, vi: whiskey, watt;

c) consonant h: check, match;

d) suffix –ing: tuxedo, training, pressing.

From the Italian language, the Russian language borrowed mainly terms of musical, stage and visual arts:

allegro, opera, caricature, etc. There are others related to different spheres of life.

3. REASONS FOR BORROWING

What makes one people borrow words from another?

The first and main reason is the borrowing of a thing, an object: along with the object comes its name. This is how we came up with the words car, metro, taxi, tractor, combine, robot, scuba, laser, transistor, etc.

Another reason is the need to designate some special type of objects or concepts, to clarify, to delimit semantic differences. For example, with the advent of hotels, the French word PORTER entered the Russian language, because the original Russian word SLUGA would not clearly indicate the scope of activity of this person.

Wed. also convenience - comfort

hobby - hobby

jam - jam

Most often, the need to name objects and concepts arises in various branches of science and technology, which is why there are so many foreign scientific and technical terms. They differ from Russian words that are similar in meaning to their strict definiteness, specificity of meaning, and lack of ambiguity. Let's compare, for example, the words TRANSFORMER and CONVERTER: a transformer is a special device for converting electric current, and a converter can be called both such a device and a person; LOCAL and LOCAL: mathematicians say - local variable, not local variable, etc. This is how the system of international terminology is drawn up: energy, atom, volt, ampere, coulomb, lux, weber (magnetic flux), induction. The division and differentiation of a general concept into types occurs both in the field of science and in everyday life, so in the Russian language pairs of words that are close, but not identical in meaning, arose: fear - panic, universal - total, story - reportage, report - inform. A foreign word is easier to learn if it replaces a descriptive phrase. So, the word SNIPER replaced the combination marksman; TOUR - a journey along a circular route; SPRINTER – short-distance runner; STAYER – long-distance runner; SPRINT – short distance running.

True, in this process of replacing one’s own phrase with someone else’s word, some restrictions apply. If, for example, descriptive phrases form a group of names of homogeneous objects, then it is difficult for a borrowed word to break into such a group: it violates the unity of names (they are all non-word). Thus, with the invention of sound cinema, the word tonfilm, borrowed from German, appeared in the Russian language. However, it did not take root in our dictionary: this was hampered by the fact that we had already formed a group of descriptive, two-word names: silent - sound film, cinema, cinematography.

Foreign words differ in the degree of their mastery in the language. How is a word acquired in another language? Let us use examples to trace the changes occurring with borrowed words.

Phonetic mastery.

When a word passes into another language, it changes its sound appearance and adapts to the phonetics of that language. For example, words borrowed from French are subject to the law of word endings in force in Russian:

Fr. etage rus. this[w]

Devise devi[s]

polonese polon[s]

Pronunciation of vowels in an unstressed syllable - akanye:

Fr. portrait rus. portrait

Rus. momentum m[a]ment

Sometimes mastery is incomplete. So, the consonants before the letter E in Russian are soft. And in borrowed words it can be pronounced firmly: [te]mp, [te]mbr, ti[re].

Graphic development.

Foreign words, as a rule, receive a Russian graphic appearance quite quickly.

Wed. from Pushkin: Onegin’s fate kept:

At first Madame followed him,

Then Monsieur replaced her.

How the London dandy is dressed...

Now we write madame, monsieur, dandy, as well as beach, business, beefsteak, although at the beginning of our century these words were not written in Russian.

(For insufficient graphic development, see below - about barbarisms).

Morphological development.

An important stage in mastering foreign words is their adaptation to the grammatical system of the language. For example, a noun must receive a gender and enter the declension system. Wed. FLOOR – noun, m.r., 2nd text, unit. h.

But there are a number of nouns that are not declined, i.e. are not fully mastered from a grammatical point of view. For example: coat, coffee, pince-nez, muffler. There are fluctuations in the gender of borrowed words: piano - cf. and f., coffee - m. and Wed.

Word formation development.

A mastered borrowed word becomes active in the word-formation system of the language and is capable of forming derivative words. For example: coat - coat (fabric), coat, coat; hero - heroic, heroism, heroic.

Lexical acquisition.

A lexically mastered word is understandable and usable in speech. His LZ is part of the lexical system of the language: it can develop derivative meanings and enter into various lexical groupings.

For example: German der Maler – “painter”

rus. painter - “a worker who paints premises”, transl. "bad artist"

Synonyms: artist, painter, muff

Borrowed words enrich synonymous series:

simple-minded – naive coziness – comfort

sympathy - sympathy runner - sprinter - stayer

force - energy

Such synonyms, as a rule, are assigned to different areas of language functioning.

Shmelev: “Foreign words, due to their less burden with polysemy, are more easily subject to terminology, enrich synonymic series, conveying shades of meaning.”

So, let's summarize. Borrowed, according to L.I. Krysina, words that differ in the following characteristics are considered:

1. Graphic mastery.

2. Phonetic mastery.

3. Grammatical mastery.

4. Word formation activity of the word.

5. Entry into the lexical system of the language.

6. Regular use in speech.

Phonetic and grammatical mastery, word-formation activity are optional properties: mod[e]l, ton[e]l;

coffee, coat, jumper (no derivatives).

Against the background of mastered foreign language vocabulary, the so-called exoticisms. Exoticisms (from the Greek exotihos - alien, foreign) are borrowed words, the meaning of which expresses the distinctive features of social life, life and morals of a particular people.

Such words are used in scientific, journalistic and fiction literature when describing the life of the people who created them. Thus, in works about England there are words: House of Commons, Labor, Lord, Mister, Sir, Peer, Gentleman, My Lord, Clerk, etc. When describing the life of Germany, the words Reichstag, Bundeswehr, Wehrmacht, Reichswehr, Bundestag are used. Specific features of the national life of France are characterized by the words curé, monsieur, concierge, madame, mademoiselle, franc, centime, etc. The words signore, signorita, tarantella, gondola are Italian exoticisms. Authors who write about Spain use the words bullfighter, picador, matador, castanets, mantilla, don, donna. American exoticisms are the words gangster, boss, dollar, business; Turkish - sultan, janissary, bashi-bazouk, harem, mojlis, Allah, Koran, minaret, mosque. Japanese - samurai, geisha. The exoticisms of the peoples of Central Asia are the words piala, teahouse, kishlak, ditch; the words dzhigit, kunak, aul, saklya, churek, plane tree, zurna are inherent to the peoples of the Caucasus; the words parubok, guy, levada, periwinkle represent Ukrainian exoticisms.

There are foreign words and phrases in the language that retain their foreign graphic appearance. They seem to be interspersed into the Russian text. They are called foreign language inclusions or barbarisms.

For example: alma mater – higher school (lit. – “mother-nurse”).

Tet-a-tet (French) – together

Even if such words are written in Russian letters, they still feel like foreign words.

5.TRAKING

We talked above about lexical borrowing. But this is not the only way of foreign influence on the dictionary. A path of borrowing is also possible in which the word is not borrowed, but it serves, as it were, as a model for a new Russian word. Each significant part of a foreign word is replaced by a corresponding Russian morpheme. Wed. rus. contrast

German entgegenstellen

This method is called tracing.

Other tracing papers:

lat. adverbium fr. journal English sky-scraper

rus. Russian adverb Russian diary skyscraper

All these are word-forming tracing papers. There are also semantic, semantic tracings. They arise under the influence of some meaning of a word belonging to another language. For example: fr. le clou – nail has a figurative meaning “the main spectacle, theatrical performance, parade.” This meaning also influenced the semantic structure of the word nail: from the end of the 19th century. In the Russian language, the expressions “highlight of the season”, “highlight of the program” appear, in which the borrowed figurative meaning is realized.

Another example: the word picture in Russian had the meaning “a work of painting, a spectacle, part of a play.” Relatively recently, it acquired another meaning - “movie film”. This new meaning is a semantic calque of the English word picture, which in English has the meaning of both a picture and a movie.

There are phraseological tracing papers, i.e. according to the translated phraseological units:

lat. pro et contra fr. la lune de miel

rus. pros and cons of Russian kill time

An interesting question is whether to consider words like postgraduate student, - tura, - skiy, formed from the borrowed postgraduate word, as Russian or borrowed. Since they are formed with the help of Russian suffixes according to the laws of Russian word formation, it is advisable to consider them as Russian.

Borrowing words is a natural and necessary process of language development. Lexical borrowing enriches the language and usually does not harm its originality at all, because at the same time, the main, “own” vocabulary is preserved, and in addition, the grammatical structure inherent in the language remains unchanged, and the internal laws of language development are not violated. The process of lexical borrowing depends on various factors. For example, from geographical. Thus, Iceland was not connected with mainland peoples for centuries. Therefore, the Icelandic language has few borrowings from other languages. Sometimes political factors are important. Thus, in Czechoslovakia, the long-term struggle against German influence led, in particular, to the fact that in the Czech and Slovak languages ​​there were very few words of German origin: they were deliberately not allowed into speech. However, these examples are the exception rather than the rule. Usually, countries and peoples actively cooperate and contact each other. One of the forms of such contacts is mutual linguistic influence, which is expressed, in particular, in lexical borrowing.

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in its origin: it consists of several layers that differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. e. There was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living over a fairly vast territory. Thus, according to the research of some linguists, it extended from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was a Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization 1 The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengal, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of economic management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European proto-language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This foundation language existed in prehistoric times on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. The common Slavic language collapsed, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

Among common Slavic words there are a lot of nouns. These are primarily concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, net, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

The following verbs are represented in the common Slavic vocabulary from other parts of speech: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one two Three; pronouns: me, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, how and some auxiliary parts of speech: over, and, and, yes, but etc.

Common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary constitutes the core of the Russian dictionary; it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had their source in the ancient Proto-Slavic language, were separated into three groups according to their sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities go back to the tribal unions that lived here. Therefore, the words remaining in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in both the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

The East Slavic vocabulary includes:

• 1) names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch;
• 2) names of tools: axe, blade;
• 3) names of household items: boot, ladle, casket, ruble;
• 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;
• 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of native Russian words is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words that belong to the Russian vocabulary proper. Wed. lexical units:

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative stem: bricklayer, leaflet, locker room, community, intervention and under.

It should be emphasized that the Russian vocabulary itself may contain words with foreign roots that have gone through the path of Russian word formation and are overgrown with Russian suffixes and prefixes: partisanship, non-partisanship, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex base: radio center, locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry enterprise, wall newspaper and etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.