Geographical zoning
The study of any territory (for example, a country) inevitably leads to the establishment of territorial differences “from place to place.” Moreover, each phenomenon (natural or socio-economic) occupies not the entire territory, but some part of it - the area. Within an area, it can cover it almost entirely (continuously) or only separate parts, i.e. discretely.
The division of a territory (water area) according to some characteristic (phenomenon, condition) and the degree of its expression or according to a combination of characteristics is spatial differentiation , i.e. zoning in the broad sense. It should be borne in mind that such differentiation is always objective, since it is based on the presence or absence of a quantitative expression of any characteristic.
Zoning is a universal method of ordering and systematizing territorial systems, widely used in geographical sciences. Zoning as a method is of great importance for solving problems of territorial administration and regional grouping, for administrative division, etc. According to Yu. G. Saushkin, the identification and description of regions is a criterion of the theoretical maturity and practical significance of geographical science. There are many methods of zoning, the main of which are cartographic, statistical, mathematical, complex, etc. The essence of the zoning process is to identify unique territorial entities and their boundaries in space.
Let us dwell on the content of the concepts “region” and “geographical region”. Region is the main category in geography, reflecting both the differentiation of space and the processes of territorial complex formation, thus being a criterion for the geographical nature of research and an attribute of geographical thinking. In the broadest sense area - this is a territory identified by a combination of any interrelated characteristics or phenomena, as well as a taxonomic unit in any system of territorial division.
Geographical area - an integral territory (water area), characterized, as a rule, by a common genesis, the interconnectedness of the components of the geographical shell and elements of the landscape or social reproduction (these characteristics differ from those observed in neighboring territories).
Due to the peculiarities of the geographical location and, mainly, the combination of various components and elements in a given territory, general patterns appear within the region in specific forms, characterized by relative stability and giving the whole combination the character of a system. Internal (intra-district) relationships and interactions of the region differ from external (inter-district) ones in greater stability and intensity. As a rule, the intensity of processes characteristic of any region (especially a central region) is maximum in one of the areas (core) and decreases towards the periphery, often making it impossible to clearly limit the territory of the region. Sometimes several such nuclei are found, which indicates a complication of the structure, the formation of spatial combinations of a lower hierarchical order - subregions.
The area is homogeneous (homogeneous)– an area, at each point of which the object or phenomenon being zoned (for example, soils, landscape, direction of agriculture) is characterized by the same feature or set of features. A homogeneous area is depicted on the map using a qualitative background method.
Nodal area (nodal)– an area with a center (core) that collects or separates flows (of matter, energy, information). Nodal areas arise mainly as a result of the division of space between industrial, social, cultural and other enterprises and institutions, administrative and government bodies (states, territorial-political units, land holdings; areas gravitating to cities, ports, railway stations; areas of post offices, clinics). The boundaries of the nodal region, identified by the prevailing flows, are drawn where connections with its own center become weaker than with the neighboring one.
Regional formation– the process of the emergence of stable spatial combinations of landscape elements (natural regional formation) or elements of social reproduction (economic regional formation) with a high intensity of internal relationships and interactions. Regional formation is a manifestation of the heterogeneity of the geographical envelope, the chorologically unequal intensity of interaction of its various elements. District formation may not cover the entire territory, while administrative zoning requires dividing the territory “without remainder”. In this case, empty, “reserve” territories from the point of view of the development of the district-forming process are annexed to the region by willful means (most often on the basis of territorial contiguity). Thus, an administratively assigned economic region may not have economic integrity at all (but only territorial).
In contrast to the process of regionalization, regionalization is characterized by goal setting; it can be carried out to identify objectively existing areas, regionalize socio-economic policy, in the interests of management, etc. The result of zoning is a network (grid) of districts, which reflects the hierarchy of spatial systems. At the same time, both districts of the same level and the hierarchical chain of districts of different levels must meet predetermined typological and classification characteristics.
Zoning is a method of dividing the territory under study into taxa that would meet at least two criteria - the criterion of the specificity of the allocated territorial cells and the criterion of the interconnectedness of the elements saturating them.
Spatial-temporal typological zoning– unification of objects that are internally heterogeneous, but possessing some common characteristics, selected in accordance with the purpose of zoning, and delimiting from them objects that do not possess these characteristics. There must be a difference between neighboring objects according to an established characteristic that is no less than an arbitrarily chosen level of indistinguishability.
Zoning methodology – « the doctrine of the principles of construction, forms and methods of scientific knowledge, which aims to divide geographical space into taxa and identify patterns of spatial differentiation of natural, demographic and economic geosystems. The features of the use of general scientific and general methods in zoning are also considered.".
Generalization of data from natural science and social science from the standpoint of monism led A. Yu. Reteum to the conclusion that the world consists of complex objects that have the same concentric structure plan, similar to the architectonics of our planet. He proposed to call these material, material-ideal and ideal-material formations chorions – spatio-temporal cells (from the Greek chorion - country, locality, region, space, period of time).
In the course of physical-geographical studies, numerous territorial and aquatic combinations of components of living and inanimate nature (tracts, landscapes, etc.) were found, confined to certain masses of mineral matter with a characteristic relief.
The ability of individual material-energy principles to organize the environment around themselves can obviously be considered as a law, but the status of specific centralistic forms has not been established in the literature.
The phenomenon of territorial stratification in the economy was first examined in detail by I. G. Thunen, who established the presence of agricultural zones around market centers. The experience of economic construction in our country allowed N. N. Kolosovsky to conclude that on the basis of sources of raw materials and energy, territorial production complexes - clusters of enterprises connected with them vertically and horizontally. Associations of cities with their dependent settlements and surrounding lands have been known as hub areas since the time of P. Vidal de la Blache. The order of influence and mutual influence of cities is reproduced by the theory of central places by W. Christaller and A. Loesch.
We can state the universality of the structure and organization of formations endowed with a center that plays a double and triple role: the initial basis, the ordering core and the final peak.
Familiarity with the central part of any real system reveals a concentric structure due to centripetal and centrifugal tendencies.
With the help of the concepts of body, scattering, field, wave, fire, sign or idea, it is possible to develop the monistic attitude to the level of methodology for the analysis and synthesis of chorions. A. Yu. Reteum named her archism (from Greek arche - beginning). From the standpoint of archism, chorions are considered as nuclear, i.e. nuclear, systems. The functions of the core - the hearth and focus in these systems - are performed by the body, scattering, field, wave, fire, sign or idea. Relatively large mass, energy and (or) information are concentrated here; the core is surrounded by more or less continuous shells and is connected with branched subsystems, i.e., subordinate chorions.
All of the above is summarized by the diagram of the process of monistic study of reality. Changing the space-time boundaries of monistic research, one can see how matter flows and changes the shape of certain chorions under the influence of the electromagnetic and gravitational fields of the Sun, Earth and Moon.
We can conclude that the geographical space formed by geosystems of various kinds is continuous with elements of discreteness.
Geosystems of many groups are located on the earth's surface. And each of them has a specific area of distribution. A special study of the patterns of distribution of taxa of geosystems brings the geographic problem of zoning to a completely different plane. . Identification of areas and their description is the task of zoning from a systemic point of view.
Habitats can be simple or complex, depending on how many species, genera, or types of geosystems we consider together. Despite the fact that people are always interested in a rather narrow range of natural properties, there is a need to analyze simple and complex habitats. This is explained by the practical need to take into account the qualities of both homogeneity and heterogeneity of space when planning activities, especially construction, agriculture and forestry. Knowing the first is necessary to select the areal boundaries of the distribution of any one action, for example, planting trees, the second is necessary to know the territorial (less often, aquatorial) binding of combinations of actions, for example, land reclamation. Strict consideration of specific conditions increases labor efficiency and ensures the stability of its results.
Some groups of geosystems have a global distribution, others have a regional distribution, and some are narrowly localized in their distribution. Based on the outlines of the habitats, one can distinguish continuous, island and single areas. There are at least ten types of habitat forms: areal (when the distribution is both continuous and island), linear, tree-like, network, ring, banded, etc. Each type of habitat, as a rule, is not typical for all categories of geosystems.
Analysis of the distribution of geosystems inevitably turns into research genesis one or another area. It is discovered that geosystems that receive food from large monolithic bodies or vast fields often have a continuous range. Island habitats are inherent in geosystems associated with various spatially separated principles, both currently active and inactive.
By origin, habitats can be monofactorial or multifactorial. In the first case, we are dealing with only one condition for the distribution of geosystems of a certain group. It is clear that a real monofactorial area is essentially a projection onto the plane of homogeneous components of a larger system, the core of which acts as the general cause of location. In the second case, the placement of geosystems is controlled by a set of conditions, but when determining the circumstances of the formation of an area, the core of the embracing geosystem is always or almost always discovered, which determines the location of the subsystems generated by it.
Knowledge of the origin of geosystems is important when studying their distribution. At a certain stage, it allows us to rise to the reflection of paragenetic associations.
From the standpoint of the theory of nuclear (core) geosystems (Reteum, 1988), the purpose of zoning is to identify homogeneous, or rather isotropic in a previously known respect, territories or water areas. The concept of isotropy in this context does not mean perfect similarity of properties of all points of the limited region. This implies a certain similarity in the characteristics of regional elements; each of them, upon closer examination, turns out to be anisotropic and of different quality.
Thus, zoning should reflect the phenomenon of homogeneity-heterogeneity. The sequence of operations here is as follows: selection of geosystems → establishment of the necessary characteristics → classification → finding areas of distribution of individual groups.
In geography, and primarily in physical geography, multi-stage schemes of subordinate regions have been developed. Recognizing their scientific significance (they reproduce in their own way the complexity of the structure of the Earth’s nature), it should nevertheless be noted that they are inconsistent, explained by the vagueness of the initial principles (mixing procedures for delimiting geosystems and delimiting habitats, including complex ones).
Introduction
Practice goals:
Drawing up a comprehensive description of winter landscapes in winter conditions.
Preparation for summer landscape practice.
Practice objectives:
Introduction to the theory of physical-geographical zoning.
Familiarization with the methodology of working in winter conditions.
Identification of the role of snow cover in nature and human economic activity.
Characteristics of landscapes in winter conditions.
Meteorological, hydrological, phenological observations in winter.
Getting to know the areas where summer internships are held.
Drawing up the general part of the summer landscape practice report.
Devices and tools:
GPS navigator, mountain compass, tape measure, snow measuring rod, shovel, weight snow meter, scales, anemometer, thermometer, PH meter, snow containers.
Research methods:
Observation method
Description method
Complex profiling method
Method for analyzing the obtained data
Comparison method
At the end of the practice, calculations are made and a report is written.
Chapter 1. Physiographic zoning
– a system of territorial divisions of the earth’s surface (regions) with internal unity and unique features of nature; the process of identifying them is one of the forms of synthesis in physical geography.
Physiographic zoning can be defined as a special kind of taxonomy of natural territorial complexes and as a method of identifying the individual specificity of individual parts of the geographical envelope (while the typological approach in physical geography helps to establish the similarity of natural territorial complexes, which makes it possible to reduce them into classification groups - types, classes, species and etc.).
Physiographic zoning includes the study of subordinate natural territorial complexes (physiographic countries, zones, regions, etc.) and the compilation of their comprehensive characteristics; The study of small territorial complexes that are part of the geographic landscape (tracts, facies) is usually not classified as physical-geographical zoning, but some researchers include natural territorial complexes of all ranks in the scope of physical-geographical zoning.
Zoning can be carried out according to a set of characteristics covering all or almost all components of the natural environment (complex physical-geographical or landscape zoning), or according to any particular characteristics - relief, climate, soils, etc. (private or sectoral natural zoning).
Each region is affected zonal (determined by the latitudinal distribution of solar radiation on the earth’s surface) and azonal factors (features of hypsometric position, material composition of the earth's crust, movement of the earth's crust, relationship between land and sea). Therefore, the theoretical basis of physical-geographical zoning is the patterns of territorial physical-geographical differentiation. At the same time, integration processes are continuously operating in the geographic shell, connecting (through the circulation of air masses, runoff, slope movement of solid material, migration of plants and animals) heterogeneous areas of the earth's surface into complex territorial systems. The closest and most diverse connections are observed between snowy areas of the surface (between the slopes and foothills of mountains, reservoirs and their catchments, etc.). As the size and complexity of the territory increases and depending on the characteristics of the location of its individual parts in relation to the dominant air masses, orographic barriers, etc. The “closeness” of geographic connections usually weakens and the degree of spatial homogeneity decreases. This makes it necessary to distinguish between physical-geographical regions of different ranks and to use a multi-stage system of physical-geographical zoning.
Zonal Azonal
Zone Country
Subzone Province Region
Sub-province
Landscape
Rice. 1. System of taxonomic units of physical-geographical zoning
According to zonal characteristics, physical-geographical belts, physical-geographical zones and physical-geographical subzones are successively distinguished, according to azonal characteristics - physical-geographical countries and physical-geographical regions.
Due to the unequal degree of influence of the oceans on the nature of the continents, physiographic sectors are distinguished within the latter (oceanic, transitional from oceanic to continental, continental, sharply continental). There are complex relationships between zonal and azonal zoning units. The nature of each zone acquires unique features in different physical-geographical countries and regions, and therefore derivative regional units are formed that are both zonal and azonal in nature - zonal segments of physical-geographical countries, physical-geographical provinces. The final degree of zoning in many systems of physical-geographical zoning is the Physical-geographical Region, which meets the condition of homogeneity both zonally and azonally. In practice, in regional physical-geographical characteristics containing zoning schemes, systems of zoning units are usually used, in which zonal and azonal characteristics are used alternately (for example, country - zone - region - province - district).
In the physical-geographical zoning of mountain territories, the role of the most important criterion is acquired by the structure of altitudinal zones: different mountain provinces and regions are characterized by specific series (spectra) of altitudinal zones, depending on the latitudinal-zonal and longitudinal position of a particular type of mountain uplift, its absolute height, and the orientation of the ridges and slope exposure.
The identification of physical-geographical zoning of different ranks, accompanied by the compilation of their textual characteristics, is carried out both “from above” and “from below”, which is a reflection of the unity of the processes of physical-geographical differentiation and integration. By analyzing the leading (zonal and azonal) factors of regional physical-geographical differentiation using a variety of cartographic materials and literary sources, a schematic diagram of the sequential division of the territory “from top to bottom” is outlined, i.e. from highest to lowest. Then this scheme is refined and detailed (from bottom to top), i.e. through the consistent integration of simple natural complexes into more complex ones (tracts - landscapes, landscapes - in the provinces, etc.). The use of landscape maps makes it possible to determine the location of natural complexes of different ranks and the relationships between them. Attempts are being made to apply statistical methods to identify “homogeneous” regions, to mathematically justify the drawing of boundaries, etc.
Being an important basis for a comprehensive comprehensive accounting and assessment of natural conditions and resources, physical-geographical zoning is used for a variety of purposes (agricultural, engineering, construction, transport, medical, recreational, etc.), as well as for regional planning. The practical purpose of a particular physical-geographical zoning determines its detail, as well as the focus of the characteristics of the department. Regions, with an emphasis on those indicators of the natural environment that are essential for solving this problem.
Physiographic zones- natural land zones, large divisions of the geographical (landscape) shell of the Earth, regularly and in a certain order replacing each other depending on climatic factors, mainly on the ratio of heat and moisture. In this regard, a change of zones and belts occurs from the equator to the poles and from the oceans to the interior of the continents. They are usually elongated in the sublatitudinal direction and do not have clearly defined boundaries. Each zone has typical features of its constituent natural components and processes (climatic, hydrological, geochemical, geomorphological, soil and plant cover and fauna), its own type of historically established relationships between them and the dominant type of their combinations - zonal natural territorial complexes. Many zones are traditionally given a physical-geographical name based on the most striking indicator - the type of vegetation, reflecting the most important features of most natural components and complexes (forest zones, steppe zones, savannah zones, etc.). The names of these zones are often assigned to individual components: tundra vegetation, tundra-gley soils, semi-desert and desert vegetation, desert soils, etc. Within the zones, which usually occupy vast strips, narrower divisions are distinguished - physical-geographical subzones. For example, the savannah zone as a whole is characterized by a seasonal rhythm of development of all natural components, determined by the seasonal supply of atmospheric precipitation. Depending on the amount of the latter and the duration of the rainy period, subzones of wet tall grass, typical dry and desert savannas are distinguished within the zone; in the steppe zone – dry and typical steppes; in the zone of temperate forests - subzones of taiga (sometimes it is considered an independent zone), mixed and deciduous forests, etc.
If physical-geographical zones are formed in more or less similar geological-geomorphological (azonal) conditions, they are repeated in general terms on different continents with a similar geographical position (latitude, position in relation to the oceans, etc.) Therefore, zone types are distinguished, which are typological units of territorial classification of the geographical envelope (for example, tropical western oceanic deserts). At the same time, the local features of a particular territory (relief, rock composition, paleogeographic development, etc.) give individual features to each zone.
Physiographic subzone– landscape subzone, part of the physical-geographical zone. The subzone is formed within the zones as a result of gradual associated changes in climate, hydrological regime, geochemical and soil-forming processes, and the structure of biocenoses along latitude. They are distinguished by the predominance of landscapes of one type or another. For example, in the zone of equatorial forests there are subzones of constantly wet evergreen forests (gil) and gil with a short dry period, the boundaries between which are usually unclear. Within subzones, signs of transition to neighboring subzones and zones are often found (for example, in the northern taiga, tundra tracts are found in forest communities, etc.).
Country physical-geographical- one of the highest taxonomic units of physical-geographical zoning. It is a part of the continent, characterized over a considerable extent by the unity of the geostructure (shields, plates, etc.) or a natural combination of structural elements, the prevailing tendency of the latest technogenic movements and, as a consequence of this, the generality or homogeneity of the macrorelief (vast plains, plateaus, mountain systems and their combinations ). The geographical position of a physical-geographical country determines the general features of atmospheric processes and macroclimate (the ratio of marine and continental air masses, the degree of moisture, etc.), which together reflects the specific manifestations of latitudinal zonality (the number and features of the location of landscape zones), and in mountainous countries - altitudinal zone.
Physiographic region– one of the taxonomic units of physical-geographical zoning. It unites landscapes that are similar in age, surface deposits, relief, features of the hydrographic network, climate, development history and species composition of biocenoses. It is usually considered as a part (less often as a synonym) of a physical-geographical country, isolated under the influence of recent tectonic movements, marine transgressions and regressions, continental glaciations and other azonal factors. For example, the Northwestern region of the East European Plain is characterized by the influence of the last glaciation (fresh glacial landforms, moraine and glaciolacustrine deposits, an abundance of lakes), mild and humid climate, etc. In mountainous countries, the physical-geographical region corresponds to a large orotectonic unit (Eastern Sayan). A physical-geographical region may belong to different zones and subzones. Part of it, located in one natural zone, is often considered as a physiographic province.
Physiographic province– one of the taxonomic units of physical-geographical zoning. They are distinguished within a physical-geographical zone usually by morphostructural characteristics (lowlands and hills among platform plains, isolated mountain ranges, etc.) and by provincial climate characteristics (humidity, degree of continentality, etc.). A physiographic province defines landscapes that belong to the same zonal type and are similar in age and origin within the physiographic region.
For example, the Central Russian physical-geographical region is represented by two provinces in the zones of steppes and forest-steppes. In mountainous countries, physical-geographical provinces are distinguished within regions according to the predominance of one or another zonal type of altitudinal zone. Thus, the Colchis province of the Greater Caucasus is characterized by belts of broad-leaved Colchis forests and dark coniferous forests; in the neighboring Central Transcaucasian province these belts are distinguished.
Physiographic region– the lowest taxonomic unit of physical-geographical zoning; a geomorphologically and climatically isolated part of a region or province, possessing characteristic combinations of soil and plant groups. It is characterized by a homogeneous geological structure, a uniform climate, a similar combination of soils, biocenoses, etc. The term is most often used in two meanings:
Any defined part of a territory separated by any boundaries;
A taxonomic natural-geographical unit used by different researchers to designate units of various ranks - the basic unit of individual zoning, parts of physical-geographical provinces (or regions, subregions, districts). Sometimes the term is used as a synonym for geographic landscape or region.
6.1 Nature and content
physical-geographical zoning
Zoning as a universal method of ordering and systematization
tion of territorial systems is widely used in geographical
sciences. There are various types of industrial natural
zoning - climatic, geomorphological, soil
etc. We will be interested only in complex physical geography
logical, otherwise landscape, zoning, the objects of which
are specific (individual) geosystems of the regional
level, or physical-geographical regions. Physiographic-geographical
The Russian region is a complex system with territorial
integrity and internal unity, which is determined by community
geographical location and historical development, the unity
vom of geographical processes and the conjugacy of component parts,
i.e., subordinate geosystems of lower rank.
Zoning can be considered as a special kind of system -
landscapes, and in this respect it is similar to the classification:
in both cases we are talking about combining landscapes. But
if, when typologically combining landscapes, we guide
we appreciate their qualitative similarity, regardless of how the landscape
are you located in relation to each other and do you exist between
them territorial connections, then with regional unification
territorial community, genetic
integrity of the territory, but qualitative similarity is not obligatory
specifically. Therefore, physical-geographical regions represent co-
battle integral territorial areas expressed on the map
one contour and having their own names; when classification-
tions, landscapes can be included in one group (type, class, species)
territorially separated, they are more often represented on the map
broken contours.
When classifying landscapes, like any other objects,
we have to discard the individual specificity of each
them, choosing common features. When zoning, on the contrary,
"individualization" comes from. Each region is unique, in nature
there is no second Urals or second Pripyat Polesie. And the higher
rank of a region, the more unique it is, the higher its individuality.
In the typological system, the highest categories in content
poorer than the lower ones as they climb the taxonomic ladder
individual differences are increasingly erased and the level of
scientific abstraction.
However, between regional and typological landscape
There is a certain connection between these associations. She expresses herself
there are already such “paired” concepts as, for example, “taiga zone”
and “taiga type of landscapes”. These concepts are not identical, because
just as the concepts of “podzolic soils” are not identical
and “zone of podzolic soils”. L. S. Berg also noticed that each
The zone is characterized by landscapes of the same type. This idea was not discussed in detail
developed, but it correctly reflects the essence of the matter, although in reality
In nature, more complex relationships can also be observed.
Speaking about the fact that this or that zone is characterized by “its own” type
landscapes, we must keep in mind that landscapes of the same type (tun-
firewood or taiga, steppe, etc.) do not necessarily fill the entire
zone, they only dominate it. On the territory of a particular zone
there may be “islands” of landscapes of other types - relict
vye or associated with specific regional conditions.
These are, for example, forest-steppe islands in the taiga zone of the Eastern
Siberia, broad-leaved forest landscapes among the subtaiga zone
us, etc. Often landscapes of this type arise far from
the main massif of “its” zone under the influence of the barrier factor.
Thus, on the northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus among the steppe zone
broad-leaved forest landscapes appear in central european
pei type.
There are known landscape zones formed by a combination of two
types of landscapes (forest-steppe). Some types of landscapes
do not form independent zones at all in the strict sense of this
words, for example the so-called landscapes of the humid subtropics
Transcaucasia. They are of typically barrier-rain origin
within the sub-Mediterranean zone. Fragmentary placement
Most Mediterranean landscapes are distinguished by this
pa, as well as tropical humid (wet forest) landscapes.
Large regions of the azonal series can be characterized
only a combination of different types of landscapes. They are often associated
ciate with certain classes of landscapes, but within
lowland countries and regions often meet mountain landscapes
class (for example, remnant mountain ranges in Turan physical-
geographical country), and within mountainous countries - lowland
landscapes. Many physical-geographical countries are mixed
mountain-plain mountains (for example, Central European,
Amur-Korean).
Zoning has traditionally been reduced to the procedure of dividing non-
of which the whole (land, continent, individual country, etc.) to
parts; the system of the resulting regions was considered as a reflection
understanding the processes of differentiation of the geographical envelope. Now
such an approach is regarded as one-sided. As we know,
in the geographical shell the processes of differential
differentiation and integration. Diverse flows of matter and energy
gies connect simpler geosystems into more complex ones. District-
formation is both the division and unification of geosystems at the same time.
On the one hand, in the process of zoning, the
reveals the regional structure of the geographical envelope, forming
world under the influence of zonal and azonal factors
differentiation. On the other hand, the zoning process is
consistent unification of the Earth's landscapes into increasingly
complex territorial systems based on the study of factors
integration. The combination of both approaches provides the greatest
reliability, completeness and accuracy of zoning results.
Each physical-geographical region is thus pre-
forms a link in a complex hierarchical system, being a structural
ny unit of regions of higher ranks and integration of geosystems
lower ranks. The integration approach is significantly more complicated -
zoning tasks: now they cannot be reduced to a simple procedure
the fool of identifying and plotting boundaries on a map according to given recognition
Kam. Physiographic zoning can be defined as
section of physical geography (and landscape science), covering
covering the whole complex of problems related to the geosystems of the supraland
shaft level, including the study of patterns of their differentiation
rendition and integration, the study of their structure and development, their
systematization and description.
When studying regional systems of higher ranks,
tasks similar to those faced when studying landscape
Comrade However, this case also has its own specifics. On the one hand
we, only the highest regional systems serve as the arena for many
processes with a wide range of action in time and space
things that are difficult to understand within individual landscapes (trans-
formation of air masses and the formation of large hydrographic
ski systems, migrations of organisms and some gravitational flows
substances, etc.). On the other hand, many properties and processes
inherent in geosystems are difficult to study at higher regional
levels, they become seemingly irrelevant in the macro-regional
on a large scale. It makes little sense, for example, to talk about studying
functioning of physical-geographical countries or dynamics of financial
zico-geographical provinces. This does not mean that the processes are func-
rationing and dynamics are not characteristic of countries and provinces,
but these processes must be known through landscapes, inbox
to these countries and provinces, because it is the landscape that is the level
geosystems that best corresponds to the research data
sky tasks.
Landscape is the main structural cell of all higher regional
nal units. Hence the need to pay special attention
attention to the “landscape arrangement of natural complexes of the region”
onal dimension" 1 . Study of the landscape structure of the regional
nov of the highest ranks, their knowledge “through landscapes” is determined
V. A. Nikolaev as a task of regional landscape science.
Between regional landscape science and regionalization proper
there is no sharp boundary; physical-geographical zoning
in its full modern scope - this is essentially a regional
nal landscape science, or the regional section of landscape science
Denia. This should also include the doctrine of the patterns of regional
differentiation of the geographical envelope as necessary
theoretical prerequisite for regionalization, and the doctrine of regional
national integration, which has yet to be developed, then -
questions of taxonomy and systematics of physical-geographical regions
new, studying their landscape structure, evolution, etc.
Physical-geographical zoning, in addition to its theoretical
Russian aspects have methodological and applied aspects. To the technique
zoning includes issues such as selection and study
necessary literary and cartographic sources, working
techniques for determining regional boundaries and drawing up maps of districts
onation, methodology for describing regions. In this manual, dedicated to
based only on the theory of landscape science, these questions are not considered.
rush - they belong to special courses devoted to methods
landscape research.
Physico-geographical zoning has significant practical
technical significance and is used for integrated accounting
and assessment of natural resources, when developing territorial plans
economic development, large reclamation projects
etc. Problems of applied physical-geographical zoning
tions represent a large independent topic that goes beyond
scope of the contents of this book and discussed in special manuals
industries 2.
The natural components of the geographic environment (climate, soil, vegetation, etc.) are closely interconnected and, changing in space, form regular combinations - natural territorial complexes of different orders. In geographical science, the geographical landscape is accepted as the central (basic) classification territorial unit - a territory with a homogeneous geological foundation, the same type of relief, a general (background) climate, a natural set of soils and biocenoses. Each landscape can be considered as a specific (regional) human habitat, i.e. as a natural ecological area with a specific set of living conditions for the population and natural resources for the development of production. Different landscapes respond differently to anthropogenic impacts, are differently resistant to them, and exhibit varying degrees of ability to recover from disturbance.
The large extent of Russia from north to south and from west to east has led to a variety of landscapes, distinguished by their spatial heterogeneity.
The universal geographical patterns of landscape distribution include latitudinal zoning, continental sectoring and altitudinal zonation.
The latitudinal zonality of landscapes is determined by the uneven distribution of solar radiation, on which the components of the landscape directly or indirectly depend. Accordingly, all landscapes are combined into zonal types - from arctic to desert. The gradualness of zonal changes makes it possible to divide landscape types into subtypes (for example, forest-tundra, northern, middle and southern taiga). Sectorality is associated with changes in the degree of continental climate and reflects the influence of oceans on land landscapes. In almost every zonal type or subtype of landscapes, their sectoral variants are distinguished: Eastern European, Western Siberian, etc. The tectonic development of the Earth predetermined the division of land landscapes into two classes: flat and mountainous. The landscapes in them differ significantly in location, position and other characteristics. A distinctive feature of mountain landscapes is the rapid decrease in heat supply with height, which leads to the formation of a system of landscape altitudinal belts (tiers). It should be emphasized that the presence of altitudinal belts does not exclude mountain landscapes from the system of latitudinal zoning and sectoring: in each zonal type, mountain landscapes have their own series (“spectrum”) of altitudinal belts. At the same time, its various sector variants are possible (for example, on opposite slopes of the mountains of the Altai-Sayan system).
Based on additional azonal hypsometric characteristics, two subclasses are distinguished in plain landscapes (lowland and elevated), and three in mountainous landscapes (low-, mid- and high-mountain).
All landscapes, based on a similar combination of patterns of their location, are united into zonal-sector and altitudinal-tier (belt) groups.
The classification of landscapes also distinguishes azonal (species) groups of landscapes. The main criterion for this is the geological foundation of the landscape with its inherent relief and lithological composition of rocks (for example, low-lying accumulative aeolian plains). A special place is occupied by swamps and floodplains - the most common local natural territorial complexes of character.
Identification of individual characteristics of landscapes, historically formed as a result of the influence of zonal and azonal factors of geographic differentiation on the earth's surface and differing in genesis and landscape structure, underlies the isolation of physical-geographical regions of different ranks. There are 13 physical-geographical countries and 71 regions.
Physiographic countries are characterized by a common macrogeo- and morphostructure, sectoral-climatic unity and the originality of the spectrum of latitudinal zones in the plains and altitudinal zones in the mountains. Lowland zonal areas are part of physical-geographical countries and are characterized by the dominance of a certain zonal type of landscape. The isolation of mountain regions is based on differences in the nature of neotectonic structures, relief types and altitudinal structures.
PHYSICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL COUNTRIES AND REGIONS
Country Arctic Islands (I). It was formed on a structural-tectonic foundation of different ages. During the neotectonic stage, the main morphostructural plan of the islands was determined: low mountains, high and low plains, with a significant role of glaciation. The increasing continentality of the climate from west to east and the influence of the seas predetermined the specifics of their landscapes.
Country of the Baikal region and (IX). The geosynclinal development of the territory, which is the folded frame of the ancient Siberian platform, ended at different times: Late Archean (east), Precambrian (northwest), Paleozoic (center), Mesozoic (southeast). During the neotectonic stage, the main morphostructural elements were formed: highlands, depressions, folded block mountains, the Baikal rift zone with 9–11 points. The uniqueness of the territory is associated with the oldest and largest freshwater lake in the world.
The greatest complexity of the landscape structure can be traced in the Baikal region (38), where, in addition to alpine-tundra complexes, glacial-nival complexes are found on alpine-type ridges. On the slopes of the middle mountains, elfin-sparse forest-taiga landscapes give way to permafrost-taiga landscapes with the predominance of larch forests, and only near Lake Baikal do fir-cedar forests with an admixture of spruce and pine predominate. “Mari” are common in depressions and only in the Barguzin forest-steppe. In the north of the Transbaikal region (39), North Baikal region (40), elfin-sparse taiga and taiga (with larch forests) landscapes dominate, giving way to alpine-tundra complexes on high ridges. In the southern part (39) in the low mountains, pine and small-leaved forests are widespread in combination with exposure steppes, and in the basins - steppes.
Daurian country (X). created mainly during the era of Mesozoic folding. The hilly and ridged relief here is combined with small hills, low mountains and basins with drainless salt lakes. Under conditions of a sharply continental climate, dry steppe landscapes of the Mongolian type were formed on the lake plains, giving way to exposure forest-steppes on the slopes of the hills, and to the north, in the low mountains, to forest complexes (41).
The country of North-Eastern Siberia (XI) is located in the area of Mesozoic folding. The formation of modern relief is due to the latest tectonic movements. Mid-mountain and low-mountain areas predominate, combined with vast plateaus and intermountain basins. On alpinotype ridges there are areas of modern glaciation (45). In the northern part of the country there are extensive accumulative plains (42, 43, 44), with tundra and forest-tundra landscapes. Thermokarst lakes are abundant. The greatest continentality of the climate is observed in the subarctic zone and is confined to intermountain depressions, where the absolute minimum temperature is –69.8°C (46). The landscape structure of the mountain regions (45–52) is represented by goltsy-tundra-elfin complexes, giving way down the slopes to light forest-permafrost-taiga with a predominance of larch forests, and only in the south (52) areas of dark coniferous forests appear.
Amur-Sakhalin country (XII). The north-west of the country is an area of predominance of Mesozoic, and the east - Cenozoic folding. Among the middle and low mountains (about 80% of the country's area) there are intermountain elevated plains and lowlands. Under monsoon climate conditions in the east, landscapes with coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests dominate in the east (53, 57, part 69); in the north-west, due to the increasing continentality of the climate, the altitudinal spectrum spectra have a typically Siberian character (59, 61). In region 58, coniferous-deciduous forests are developed in the low mountains, dark coniferous forests in the middle mountains, and larch forests in the northern regions, giving way to elfin woodlands. Among the alpine-tundra complexes there are alpine-type meadows. On the plains there are significant areas of swamps, swampy meadows, and “piglands” (55, 60, 62); in the south of regions 55, 60 and 54, forest-steppes (Far Eastern “prairies”) are common.
North Pacific country (XIII). It is located within the Pacific Cenozoic fold belt with modern development in areas 70 and 71. area clearly correlates with Cenozoic structures. The maximum heights and the largest area of glaciation are characteristic of Kamchatka (70). In the low-mountain (65) and mid-mountain (64) regions of the far north, char-Arctic-desert and tundra complexes are widespread, giving way in more southern regions (66, 67) to char-tundra-elfin and, in places, tundra-sparse forest landscapes. The accumulative plains (63) are dominated by tundra, and along the river valleys - poplar-chozenia forests. The most diverse landscapes are in (70), where glacial-nival complexes give way to tundra-alpine-meadow ones, in contact with a belt of dwarf cedar trees, passing down the slopes of mid-mountains into stone birch forests with areas of tall grass meadows. A peculiar ecotone is inherent in regions 68, 69, manifested in the combination of typical Siberian dwarf-larch-permafrost taiga mid-mountains and mountain ranges with Okhotsk dark-coniferous taiga and stone birch forests. A shortened spectrum of altitudinal zonation is characteristic of the low-mountain Kuril region (71). In the forest belt here, in addition to park stone birch forests, areas with broad-leaved forests appear in the south.
I would be grateful if you share this article on social networks:
10. Differentiation of geographical space: area distribution, zoning, regionalization. Types of zoning, their goals and methods, significance in regional studies and territorial organization of society.
Types of GP differentiation:
Distribution - distribution by distribution
Zoning – density distribution
Zoning – reflects the distribution of a process
Zoning- dividing a territory or water area into parts (regions) that differ from each other and are somewhat homogeneous within themselves.
The characteristics by which regions are distinguished may vary in nature, in the breadth of coverage of the characteristics, and in the purpose of zoning.
zoning is the most important method for studying the spatial self-organization of socio-economic systems.The following stages are distinguished in the zoning procedure: 1) distinguishing regions, 2) understanding them (i.e., substantive characteristics) and 3) delimitation (i.e., indicating boundaries).
In addition to its educational value, zoning is widely used in public practice - for the purposes of regional planning, dividing districts during voting, etc.
Physico-geographical zoning - a system of territorial division of the earth's surface, based on the identification and study of a system of subordinate natural regions that have internal unity and unique individual features of nature.
There are:
Zoning according to individual natural components: relief, climate, soils, etc.
Complex (landscape) zoning.
The formation of natural areas is due to:
Zonal factors determined by the latitudinal distribution of solar radiation over the earth's surface: geographic zone, geographic zone, subzone, etc.; And
Azonal geological and geomorphological factors: sector, country, region, province, district, district.
Homogeneous zoning
The objects of homogeneous zoning in economic geography are units of administrative territorial division. When conducting research, absolute indicators are “weighted” taking into account the area of territorial units or population.
With homogeneous zoning, areas can be distinguished either by one characteristic (single-character zoning) or by several characteristics (multi-character zoning). If zoning is carried out according to one criterion, then there may be several options for placing boundaries.
Nodal zoning- This zoning involves the allocation of regions according to the intensity of economic ties within them. It reveals the spheres of influence of cities, transport hubs, and enterprises. Each nodal region has a core where all indicators and phenomena are clearly manifested. The intensity of the phenomenon decreases from the core to the periphery.
Economic zoning– identification of spatial economic systems for the purposes of study and management.
Particular types of geographic zoning:
hydrological (due to deterioration of the water situation)
climatic, etc.
Economic zoning:
industrial, sectoral industrial, ecological (selecting settlement systems), ethnic, confessional, etc.
Identification principles:
M.V. Lomonosov laid the foundations for zoning.
D.I.Mendeleev
P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky
K.I. Arsenyev (1820) - “the similarity of some provinces ... in climate, quality of land, products of nature and industry” can be a criterion for differentiation of space. He proposed a scientific concept of zoning.
N.N. Baransky (1941) – (father of the Russian district school, head of the Moscow school) THC (territorial-economic complex) with maximum production linkage of its elements and with all-Union specialization. Here the criterion is the specialization itself. He proposed to allocate according to the place that the complex occupied in the state.
Vlad. Mich. Chetyrkin (1957) is a specific complex key national economic problem (a problem without a solution to which all other problems cannot be solved).
Emil Boris. Alaev (1983) – specialization, complexity, manageability (economic regions neither in Russia nor in Europe are objects or subjects of management; BUT if we talk about large objects of the Soviet era, then we can talk about manageability, since a five-year plan was drawn up, compiled according to sectoral and regional directions, economic regions did not have subjects of management. When forming regional policies in foreign Europe, economic regions are taken into account); THC is an objective basis.
Taxonomic hierarchy of the economic system. zoning:
large economic area
industrial nodes and centers
N.T.Agafonov
M.D. Sharygin
Taxonomic levels of economic regional studies:
macro and meso levels
A.G. Granberg (2000): two types of regions - homogeneous (homogeneous) and nodal regions.
Spatial structure nodal district:
center (concentrated group of objects)
core - the part of the region in which its essential features are most expressed
periphery.
Signs of economic regions:
homogeneity (i.e. homogeneity in origin; its development proceeded without spatial differentiation)
heterogeneity (heterogeneity) (something changed on lower floors)
complexity
functionality (specialty – functions in the division of labor)
problematic (problematic approach to the study of regional development). sometimes the problem becomes a regional-forming factor (for example, to improve the health of Lake Onega, a district with the catchment area of this lake can be created).
Ecological and economic zoning– reflects the process of interaction between society (economy) and nature.
2 main tasks of Ek-ek district:
production location
protection against impact on the OS
Ecological and economic zoning
ecological-economic zoning (the most promising direction of differentiation of economic space. The goal is to solve a specific environmental problem in such a way that it does not interfere with economic development. Kolossovsky spoke about the need for this type of zoning. Ecological-economic zoning is a system for managing the interaction of economy and nature in within one area. Management of nature goes through a sociogenic component. Administrative approach: administrative differentiation of the territory should be the basis for regionalization; BUT: administrative boundaries cannot be an obstacle to nature).
District functions:
solving environmental and economic problems, i.e. development of production (economy) in an environmentally friendly/acceptable environment. (monograph “Ecological and economic zoning” Razumovsky 1989!!).
Principles for identifying ecological-economic regions, hierarchy:
Global
Regional: macro-, meso- and micro-.
Local
Problems to be solved at the macro level: preserving the potential of inland seas - the fishing potential of the Azov Sea, the polluted Baltic Sea. Problems must be solved, first of all, by economic methods, as well as organizational methods.
Legal (regulatory) methods - establishing laws, environmental legislation, establishing various standards. Those. it is an institutional method.
Organizational methods – creation of various institutions (Roshydromet).
Economic methods
Technical methods
Functions of ek-ek rai-ia: cognition and control.
Hierarchy:
Global level: monitoring and problems of the World Ocean and inland seas. Management objects are inland sea basins.
Macroregional level: basin approach, distribution of technogenesis. Needed where there is a dense placement that produces forces.
Mesoregion level: Landscape approach, taking into account physical and geo differentiation.
Methods: economics, organization, legal and regulatory
Development of combination.
Increasing knowledge intensity
Microregion and local level: Technical methods, waste recycling, modernization
Principles of zoning
The most important principle when solving problems of practical zoning is its continuity - i.e. Each object must be assigned to some class, and there should be no “blank spots” in the grid of districts.
The system of districts should extend to objects of the same nature.
Zoning must serve a specific purpose, which determines the set of characteristics and the number of allocated areas.
The reliability of the final results largely depends on the correct choice of zoning features. Firstly, the characteristics must reflect the properties of the zoning objects themselves; secondly, among them it is important to select the most significant ones, according to which the territory should be divided. The indicators used for division at higher levels should be more important for regionalization purposes than the indicators used at lower levels.
Page 1