Annexation of Central Asia to Russia. History of the annexation of Central Asia

The loss of the Crimean War stopped Russian expansion in the Balkans. With all the more energy it developed in other directions: in the Far East, in Central Asia.

Taking advantage of China's defeats in the war with England and France of 1856-1860, Russia imposed the Aigun (1858) and Beijing (1860) treaties on it. According to the first, she acquired land along the Amur to the Ussuri River, and according to the second, the Ussuri region. Russia's access to the Pacific Ocean made it necessary to delimit its possessions from those of Japan. According to the St. Petersburg Treaty of 1875, she received Southern Sakhalin, giving in exchange the northern islands of the Kuril chain. But she was unable to retain her overseas possession - Alaska (occupied under Catherine II). There were only 600 Russians there. And in 1867, for 7.2 million dollars - the market price of that time - Russia sold Alaska to the United States of America.

In the southeast of Russia there were vast Central Asian territories. They extended from Tibet in the east, to the Caspian Sea in the west, from Central Asia (Afghanistan, Iran) in the south, to the southern Urals and Siberia in the north. The population of this region was small (about 5 million people).

The peoples of Central Asia developed unequally economically, socially and politically. Some of them were exclusively engaged in nomadic cattle breeding, others - in agriculture. Crafts and trade flourished in a number of areas. There was virtually no industrial production. In the social system of these peoples, patriarchy, slavery and vassal feudal dependence were intricately combined. Politically, the territory of Central Asia was divided into three separate state entities (the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva Khanates) and a number of independent tribes. The most developed was the Bukhara Emirate, which had several large cities in which crafts and trade were concentrated. Bukhara and Samarkand were the most important trading centers in Central Asia.

In the first half of the 19th century. Russia, showing some interest in the Central Asian region bordering it, tried to establish economic ties with it, study the possibility of its conquest and subsequent development. However, Russia did not take decisive foreign policy actions. In the second half of the 19th century. the situation changed dramatically due to Great Britain's desire to penetrate these areas and turn them into its colony. Russia could not allow the appearance of the “English lion” in the immediate vicinity of its southern borders. Rivalry with England became the main reason for the intensification of Russian foreign policy in the Middle East.

At the end of the 50s of the XIX century. Russia has taken practical steps to penetrate Central Asia. Three Russian missions were organized: scientific (under the leadership of orientalist N.V. Khanykov), diplomatic (embassy of N.P. Ignatiev) and trade (led by Ch. Ch. Valikhanov). Their task was to study the political and economic situation of the states of the Middle East and establish closer contacts with them.

In 1863, at a meeting of the Special Committee, it was decided to begin active military operations. The first clash occurred with the Kokand Khanate. In 1864, troops under the command of M. G. Chernyaev undertook the first campaign against Tashkent, which ended unsuccessfully. However, the Kokand Khanate, torn apart by internal contradictions and weakened by the struggle with Bukhara, was in a difficult situation. Taking advantage of this, in June 1865 M. G. Chernyaev virtually bloodlessly captured Tashkent. In 1866, this city was annexed to Russia, and a year later the Turkestan Governor-General was formed from the conquered territories. At the same time, part of Kokand retained its independence. In 1867-1868 Russian troops under the command of the Turkestan Governor-General K.P. Kaufman waged an intense struggle with the Emir of Bukhara. Incited by Great Britain, he declared a “holy war” (gazavat) on the Russians. As a result of successful military operations, the Russian army won a number of victories over the Bukhara emir, Samarkand surrendered without a fight. A peace treaty was signed between Russia and Bukhara. The emirate did not lose its sovereignty, but fell into vassalage to Russia. (It remained with the emir until 1920, when the Bukhara People's Soviet Republic was formed.)

After the Khiva campaign in 1873, the Khiva Khanate renounced the lands along the right bank of the Amu Darya in favor of Russia and, politically, became its vassal while maintaining internal autonomy. (The Khan was overthrown in 1920, when the territory of Khiva was conquered by units of the Red Army. The Khorezm People's Soviet Republic was proclaimed.)

During these same years, penetration continued into the Kokand Khanate, the territory of which in 1876 was included in Russia as part of the Turkestan Governor-General. After the war with Turkey of 1877-1878. The Russian government resumed its “throw to the south.” At the same time, lands inhabited by Turkmen tribes and some other peoples were annexed. Finally, in January 1881, a detachment of General M.D. Skobelev took the Geok-Tepe fortress, after which Turkmenistan was conquered. The process of conquering Central Asia ended in 1885 with the voluntary entry of Merv (the territory bordering Afghanistan) into Russia. The last Russian conquest in Central Asia was the Pamirs (1892). The annexation of Central Asia can be assessed in different ways. On the one hand, these lands were mainly conquered by Russia, and a semi-colonial regime was established on them, imposed by the tsarist administration. On the other hand, as part of Russia, the Central Asian peoples received the opportunity for accelerated development. It was an end to slavery, the most backward forms of patriarchal life and feudal strife that ruined the population. The Russian government cared about the economic and cultural development of the region. The first industrial enterprises were created, agricultural production was improved (especially cotton growing, since “its varieties” were imported from the USA), schools, special educational institutions, pharmacies and hospitals were opened. The tsarist administration took into account the peculiarities of the region, showed religious tolerance and respected local customs. Central Asia was gradually drawn into Russian internal trade, becoming a source of agricultural raw materials and a market for Russian textiles, metal and other products. The Russian government did not strive to isolate the region, but to merge it with the rest of the state.

One of the directions of Russian foreign policy was penetration into Central Asia. Two reasons prompted the autocracy to annex this region.

1. Economic reason. The middle one, with its vast territory and undeveloped industry, was a first-class market and source of raw materials for the young Russian industry. Textile products, metal products, etc. were sold there. Mainly cotton was exported from Central Asia.

2. Another reason was of a political nature and was associated with the struggle against England, which was trying to turn Central Asia into its colony.

In socio-economic terms, this territory bordering Russia was heterogeneous: feudal relations predominated there while preserving the remnants of the patriarchal system.

Politically, Central Asia was also heterogeneous. In fact, there was feudal fragmentation, constant hostility between the emirates and khanates. Still with???? century, three large states were formed - the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva khanates. In addition to them, there were a number of independent fiefs. The most developed of them economically was the Bukhara Emirate, which had several large cities that concentrated crafts and trade, as well as 38 caravanserais. Bukhara and Samarkand were the largest trading centers in Central Asia.

Russia's interest in Central Asia was great even in the first half??? century. Even then, attempts were made to study it. In the 50s, three Russian missions to Central Asia were undertaken - scientific under the leadership of the scientist - orientalist N.V. Khanykova, diplomatic embassy N.P. Ignatiev, trade mission of Ch.Ch. Valikhanov, these missions had a common task - to study the political and economic situation of the states of the Middle East.

In the 60s, the Russian government developed plans for military penetration into Central Asia.

In 1864, troops under the command of Major General M.G. Chernyaev launched an attack on Tashkent, but the first campaign ended in failure. Only in 1865 did Russian troops capture Tashkent.

In 1867, the Turkestan General Governorate was formed, which became the center of a further attack on Central Asia.

In 1868, the Kokand Khanate became dependent on Russia.

In 1868, troops under the command of K.P. Kaufman captured Samarkand and Bukhara. The two largest states - Kokand and Bukhara, while maintaining internal autonomy, found themselves subordinate to Russia.

“At the beginning of 1869, the British government, then headed by the liberal leader Gladstone, proposed to the tsarist government to create a neutral zone between the possessions of Russia and England in Central Asia, which would be inviolable for both and would prevent their direct contact. The Russian government agreed to the creation of such an intermediate zone and proposed to include Afghanistan in its composition, which was supposed to protect the country from being captured by England. The English government took a counter-move: it demanded a significant expansion of neutral territory to the north, to areas that were the object of desires of Tsarist Russia. It was not possible to reach an agreement." Ibid., page 64.

England attempted to expand its sphere of influence further to the north. In this regard, she demanded that Russia recognize the northern border of Afghanistan as the Amu Darya River from the upper reaches to the Khoja Saleh point on the middle reaches in the Turkmen steppe. Disputes between Russia and England continued for three months and on January 31, 1873, the tsarist government recognized the northern border of Afghanistan as the line proposed by England.

This concession was not groundless; Russia pursued a specific goal: to weaken England’s opposition to the conquest of the Khiva Khanate. December 4, 1872 Alexander?? decided to organize a campaign against Khiva.

After the capture of the capital of the Khiva Khanate, which occurred on June 10, 1873, an agreement was concluded with the khan, according to which he became a vassal of the king and renounced independent foreign relations with other states. Khiva fell under the protectorate of Tsarist Russia. The conquest of Khiva took place without serious international complications, except for protests in the English press. But six months after these events, the English Minister of Foreign Affairs, Lord Grenville, sent a letter to the tsarist government.

“The letter indicated that if Russia continues to advance towards Merv, the Turkmen tribes neighboring Khiva may try to seek salvation from the Russians on Afghan territory. In this case, clashes could easily arise between Russian troops and Afghans. The British cabinet expressed the hope that the Russian government would not refuse to recognize the “independence” of Afghanistan as an important condition for the security of British India and the tranquility of Asia. Strictly speaking, the desire to protect one’s sphere of influence from the Russians was the entire business content of this extremely verbose message. The British government did not raise any objections to the subordination of the Khiva Khanate. This is understandable: it itself sought to do the same with Afghanistan. Gorchakov again assured the British government that Russia considers Afghanistan to lie “completely outside the sphere of its actions.” This was a repetition of statements made repeatedly in the previous decade. If the Afghan Emir fears complications due to the Turkish tribes, Gorchakov’s response went on, then let him let the Turkmen leaders know in advance so that they do not count on support from him.

Negotiations on the Afghan border are a typical example of colonialist diplomacy. The conversation was about Afghanistan, but instead of it, the British government acted as a party in the negotiations, arrogating to itself the “right” to represent this country” Ibid., p. 67..

Rivalry was not in the interests of England and Russia. In a memorandum dated April 29, 1875, Gorchakov stated the need for an “intermediate belt” that would protect them from close proximity. Afghanistan could become such if there is mutual recognition by both sides. Gorchakov immediately assured that Russia no longer intended to expand its possessions in Central Asia.

Thus, the long and complex process of annexation combined both elements of conquest by Russia and elements of voluntary entry into its composition (Merv, a territory bordering Afghanistan, in 1885). Some peoples of Central Asia voluntarily joined Russia, preferring it to English or Iranian rule.

The annexation of Central Asia to Russia had objectively progressive significance. It consisted of the following:

1. Slavery was abolished.

2. The endless feudal strife and ruin of the population ended.

3. Central Asia was drawn into the sphere of capitalist relations, which laid the foundations for the development of an advanced economy and culture.

4. The annexation connected advanced Russian culture with the original culture of the peoples of Central Asia.

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One of the directions of Russian foreign policy was penetration into Central Asia. Two reasons prompted the autocracy to annex this region.

2. Another reason was of a political nature and was associated with the struggle against England, which was trying to turn Central Asia into its colony.

In socio-economic terms, this territory bordering Russia was heterogeneous: feudal relations prevailed there while preserving the remnants of the patriarchal system.

Politically, Central Asia was also heterogeneous. In fact, there was feudal fragmentation, constant hostility between the emirates and khanates. Since the ΧΙΙΙ century, three large states were formed - the Bukhara Emirate, the Kokand and Khiva khanates. In addition to them, there were a number of independent fiefs. The most developed of them economically was the Bukhara Emirate, which had several large cities that concentrated crafts and trade, as well as 38 caravanserais. Bukhara and Samarkand were the largest trading centers in Central Asia.

Russia's interest in Central Asia was great even in the first half of the 19th century. Even then, attempts were made to study it. In the 50s, three Russian missions to Central Asia were undertaken - scientific under the leadership of the scientist - orientalist N.V. Khanykova, diplomatic embassy N.P. Ignatiev, trade mission of Ch.Ch. Valikhanov, these missions had a common task - to study the political and economic situation of the states of the Middle East.

In the 60s, the Russian government developed plans for military penetration into Central Asia.

In 1864, troops under the command of Major General M.G. Chernyaev launched an attack on Tashkent, but the first campaign ended in failure. Only in 1865 did Russian troops capture Tashkent.

In 1867, the Turkestan General Governorate was formed, which became the center of a further attack on Central Asia.

In 1868, the Kokand Khanate became dependent on Russia.

This concession was not groundless; Russia pursued a specific goal: to weaken England’s opposition to the conquest of the Khiva Khanate. On December 4, 1872, Alexander ΙΙ decided to organize a campaign against Khiva.

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Annexation of Central Asia

The most numerous peoples inhabiting Central Asia are the Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Turkmens, Tajiks and Kyrgyz. In the middle of the 19th century. Some of them led a nomadic life (engaged in cattle breeding), others (Uzbeks, Tajiks) lived a sedentary life (farming). The dominant religion was Islam. During this period, there were several states in the Central Asian region: the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Khanate of Kokand. All these countries were weakly centralized, had an extremely low level of economic development and were often at odds with each other. Captured enemies were sold into slavery. A major role in social and political life was played by bays, beks, and hakims - the heads of noble and wealthy families. Having achieved the position of governor of a khan or emir, they often turned into semi-independent rulers.

The special interest that Russia began to show in Central Asia from the middle of the 19th century is explained by the following: reasons: geopolitical rivalry with Great Britain, which uses its colonies (India) as a springboard for strengthening influence in the Central Asian region. Russia intended to thwart British expansion; underdeveloped Central Asia was an ideal market for Russian industrial products and at the same time could serve as a raw material base (cotton).

Russia begins to advance into Kazakhstan in the 1820s. By the middle of the century, Kazakhstan’s entry into Russia had already been completed.

In the first half of the 1850s. Russian penetration began deep into Central Asia from the northwest and northeast. The Syrdarya and New Siberian military lines arose. Russian troops were thus already located on the borders of the Kokand Khanate.

In mid-1864, the conquest of the Kokand Khanate began. Detachments of Colonels M.G. Chernyaev and N.A. Verevkin invaded its territory from both sides and captured the cities of Turkestan, Chimkent, and in 1865 the capital, Tashkent. In 1866, the Turkestan Governor-General was created. Then the war against the Bukhara Emirate begins. Turkestan Governor-General P.K. Kaufman inflicted a number of defeats on the troops of Emir Muzaffar-Eddin, who responded by declaring ghazavat (holy war) on the Russians, but this did not help. In May 1868 P.K. Kaufman captured Samarkand and moved to Bukhara. Only the anti-Russian uprising in Samarkand saved the emirate from final defeat. PC. Kaufman was forced to return and suppress the rebellion.

In January 1868, Russia concluded a peace treaty with the ruler of Kokand, Khudoyar Khan, and in June of the same year, with the Emir of Bukhara. Both states ceded significant territories to the Russian Empire, paid indemnities, but most importantly, recognized the Russian protectorate over themselves. St. Petersburg deliberately preserved the appearance of statehood for the Central Asian peoples, so as not to provoke the growth of a national liberation movement, which the British could take advantage of. Moreover, the Russian authorities were very sensitive to local customs, traditions and religion.

In the spring of 1873, Russian troops under the overall command of K.P. Kaufman moved from four directions to Khiva, the capital of the last independent state in the region. The city surrendered without a fight. Khan Mohammed Rahim II tried to escape, but he was caught and brought to the negotiating table. In August 1873, Khiva signed an agreement with Russia on terms similar to those accepted by Kokand and Bukhara.

In 1875, an uprising broke out in Kokand, in the suppression of which the detachment of General M.D. took an active part. Skobelev, the future hero of the Russian-Turkish war. After the pacification of the rebels, in February 1876 the Kokand Khanate was abolished, transferring its entire territory to the Russian Empire.

From 1877 to 1884 Russian troops fought against warlike Turkmen tribes. General M.D. Skobelev in 1881 captured one of the main strongholds of the Tekin tribe - the Geok-Tepe fortress. In 1884, the last stronghold of the Turkmen struggle, the city of Merv, fell.

For obvious reasons, Great Britain had an extremely negative attitude towards Russian expansion in Central Asia. Each Russian victory brought its possessions closer to India and Afghanistan. In 1885–1887 the issue of borders and division of spheres of influence was resolved.

The annexation of Central Asia had both positive as well as negative consequences .

On the one hand, Russia acquired a huge region, demonstrating its strength and ability to compete with Great Britain. New markets and sources of raw materials for industry have emerged.

On the other hand, St. Petersburg was responsible for the development of these backward territories, which required enormous human and material resources. The Central Asian peoples, perhaps, benefited more from joining the mighty empire. Constant internecine wars stopped, slavery was abolished, and gradual familiarization with the achievements of world civilization began.

The Russian offensive in Central Asia began with the campaign of Orenburg Governor-General V.A. Perovsky. On December 14, 1839, his detachment of 5 thousand soldiers and Cossacks with 12 guns and a convoy of 12 thousand camels set out from Orenburg towards the Aral Sea, with the goal of reaching Khiva. In two and a half months, 670 miles were covered, but having lost more than half of the detachment and almost all the camels in the harsh winter, Perovsky turned back. By the spring of 1840, the surviving part of Perovsky’s detachment returned to Orenburg. Although Perovsky’s “Khiva campaign” ended in failure, it made a strong impression on the Khiva Khan, who freed over 600 Russian prisoners and began negotiations on concluding a trade agreement with Russia.

The offensive against Central Asia resumed in the early 50s in connection with the completion of the annexation of the southern part of Kazakhstan (the lands of the Elder Zhuz) to Russia, which caused a military conflict with the Kokand Khan, who considered the Kazakhs of this region to be his subjects.

In the summer of 1853, the troops of V.A. Perovsky defeated the army of the Kokand Khan at Ak-Mosque. In 1854, the Syr-Darya and New Siberian military lines were built. In the same year on the river. The Verny fortification was founded in Alma-Ata. However, Russia's advance into Central Asia was suspended due to the Crimean War.

Russia's systematic offensive against Central Asia began in the early 60s. It was preceded by three missions sent in 1858 by the Asian Department of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to Central Asia and neighboring countries to study the situation in these countries. The first, led by the famous orientalist N.V. Khanykov traveled from Baku to Iran and the western part of Afghanistan for scientific purposes - collecting information on the geography, economy, and political state of these countries. The second, with diplomatic and trade and economic goals, headed by the adjutant wing N.P. Ignatiev, headed from Orenburg across the Aral Sea and further up the Amu Darya to Khiva and Bukhara. Ignatiev had to get the rulers of Central Asia to reduce duties on Russian goods and lift restrictions for Russian merchants. The third mission, led by the famous Kazakh educator, lieutenant in the Russian service, Ch.Ch. Valikhanov went from Semipalatinsk to the eastern region of China - Kashgar. The purpose of this mission was to study the history, economic and political situation of the region. All three missions often encountered opposition from local rulers along the way, but despite this they succeeded in their tasks, collecting valuable information about the economic situation and political situation of the regions they studied.

Russia's advance into Central Asia was dictated by economic, political and military-strategic motives. The Central Asian region was of great interest to Russia as a market for its industrial goods and a source of raw materials for the textile industry. This region also served as the object of rivalry between Russia and England, which began in the mid-19th century. has worsened significantly. In 1855, England actually established its protectorate over Afghanistan, with the exception of the western part of Herat, which was under the protectorate of Iran. In 1856, England began a war with Iran, which was defeated and, according to the peace treaty of 1857, was forced to abandon Herat and withdraw its troops from it. This greatly strengthened England's position in the regions neighboring Central Asia and increased its pressure on the Central Asian khanates. For Russia, Central Asia was an important strategic springboard for strengthening its positions in the Middle East and countering the expansion of England.

On the territory of Central Asia at that time there were established in the 18th century. three state entities - the Kokand and Khiva khanates and the Bukhara Emirate. In total, about 6 million people lived in them, mainly Uzbeks, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Turkmens, and Karakalpaks. The main ones were irrigated agriculture and nomadic cattle breeding. Cities were centers of crafts and trade. Since ancient times, transit trade routes from Europe and the Middle East to Iran, India, and China have passed through Central Asia.

The most significant in terms of population (from 2.5 to 3 million people) and economically developed was the Khanate of Kokand. It occupied the densely populated Fergana valley, which from time immemorial was widely known for highly developed agriculture and gardening, as well as the territory of the upper reaches of the Syr Darya with large cities - Tashkent, Chimkent and Turkestan. The Khanate of Khiva, with a population of 700 to 800 thousand people, was located along the lower and middle reaches of the Amu Darya. The Bukhara Emirate, whose population ranged from 2 to 2.5 million people, occupied the Zeravshan valley and territories in the middle and upper reaches of the Amu Darya.

Feudal relations dominated in the Central Asian khanates, with rich bai and khans using slaves for household services. In areas of nomadic pastoralism, patriarchal and semi-patriarchal relations prevailed. The population was burdened with numerous exactions, suffered from all kinds of oppression and repeatedly rebelled against their oppressors, which were suppressed with incredible cruelty. The rulers of the khanates were constantly at odds with each other. The local population suffered primarily from their raids: each raid was accompanied by robberies, killings of people, theft of livestock, and destruction of homes and irrigation structures.

In February 1863, at meetings of the Special Committee chaired by Minister of War D.A. Milyutin, in which the Orenburg and West Siberian governor-generals also participated, a decision was made to systematically attack the Central Asian khanates. The area between the fortifications of the Syr Darya and Western Siberia, from where the offensive was to be launched, was previously studied. On December 20, 1863, Alexander II gave the order to begin in 1864 to connect the Syr-Darya (Orenburg) and New Siberian (West Siberian) fortified lines by attacking the possessions of the Kokand Khanate. It began in May 1864 with an attack from the east from the Verny fortress by a detachment of Colonel M.G. Chernyaev among 2500 people and from the north from the Perovskaya fortress a detachment of Colonel N.A. Verevkin numbering 1200 people. At the beginning of June, Chernyaev took the Aulie-Ata fortress by storm, and Verevkin took the city of Turkestan. In September 1864, Chernyaev captured Chimkent by storm. For the successful operation, Verevkin and Chernyaev were awarded the rank of major general. The capture of these three important fortresses made it possible to connect the New Siberian and Syr-Darya lines and form the advanced Kokand line. The conquered territory from the Aral Sea to Lake Issyk-Kul was united into the Turkestan region, headed by Chernyaev as military governor.

In the fall of 1864, Chernyaev tried to immediately take Tashkent, the largest Central Asian city with a population of 100,000, but after several unsuccessful attacks he was forced to retreat to Chimkent. Minister of War D.A. Milyutin perceived Chernyaev’s failure as “regrettable for Russia,” because it undermined the “moral authority” of the Russian military forces. From St. Petersburg, Chernyaev was given instructions not to take active action against Tashkent until reinforcements arrived. However, the speech of the Emir of Bukhara against Kokand and his occupation of Khojent forced Chernyaev, having gathered available forces, to act at his own peril and risk. First, he captured the fortresses of Niyazbek and Chinak on the river. Chirchik is near Tashkent and thereby cut it off from the supply of bread and water. He then began a long siege of the city. On June 17, 1865, a deputation of honorary residents of Tashkent arrived at Chernyaev and began negotiations on the surrender of the city. As a sign of the surrender of the city, 12 golden keys to the main gates of Tashkent were sent to St. Petersburg. Tashkent was taken with insignificant losses for Chernyaev’s detachment - only 25 people. Although Chernyaev undertook a campaign against Tashkent without the sanction of St. Petersburg, Alexander II approved of his actions, sent him a congratulatory telegram and awarded him an order. In 1866, Tashkent was officially annexed to Russia.

The Emir of Bukhara demanded that Chernyaev leave the conquered city and moved to Tashkent with a large army. At the beginning of May 1866, Chernyaev defeated him at the Irjar fortress, then liberated Khojent from the Bukhara troops, and in October 1866 the Bukhara fortresses of Ura-Tyube, Jizzakh and Yany-Kurgan were taken.

In 1867, from the conquered lands of the Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate, the Syr-Darya and Semirechensk regions were formed, which made up the Turkestan Governor-General. The talented and energetic adjutant general K.P. was appointed the first governor-general of Turkestan. Kaufman. Enjoying the great favor of Alexander II and the confidence of the Minister of War D.A. Milutina Kaufman received the broadest powers, including granting him the right to declare war and make peace with neighboring states. Kaufman began managing the region with a thorough study of the economy and customs of the local population, for which special commissions were sent to cities and villages. Based on the materials they collected, they developed the basics of governing the region. An order was established that, while preserving the privileges of the local nobility, would at the same time protect the population from its arbitrariness. The Russian administration was instructed not to violate local customs. Religious tolerance was evident in confessional politics. Along with the establishment of Russian schools, Muslim spiritual schools were also preserved; With the introduction of the Russian court, the court of Qazis (Muslim judges) was also preserved.

In 1867, Alexander II approved the “Temporary Rules for the Administration of the Turkestan Region.” The head of the regional administration was the governor general. All military and administrative power in the region was in his hands, and he was also the commander of the Russian troops stationed in the region. In 1886, the “Temporary Rules” were replaced by the “Regulations on the Administration of the Turkestan Territory” (i.e., the entire territory of Central Asia annexed to Russia at that time), which was in force until 1917.

In January 1868, a peace treaty was concluded with Kokand. Khan of Kokand Khudoyar ceded to Russia all the cities and lands occupied by Russian troops, recognized his vassal dependence on Russia, and granted Russian merchants the right to free trade in the Khanate, while the duty was halved (to 2.5% of the value of goods) for Russian merchants.

However, the Bukhara Khan did not accept his defeat and hoped to take revenge. In March 1868, incited by the reactionary circles of the Muslim clergy and hoping for the support of Khiva, Kokand and Turkey, he declared a “holy war” (gazavat) against Russia. His troops attacked Russian forward posts, destroyed villages, and killed civilians. The offensive of Bukhara troops began on Jizzakh and Yany-Kurgan. In April 1868, Kaufman moved his troops towards the holy city of Central Asia for Muslims, Samarkand, and on May 2 captured it without a fight, and on June 2, he defeated the main forces of the Bukhara emir on the Zerabulak heights (on the way to Bukhara). At this time, Kaufman News arrived about the outbreak of uprisings in Tashkent, Ura-Tube and Samarkand. Thanks to the energetic actions of Kaufman, the uprisings were suppressed relatively easily. According to the peace treaty concluded on June 23, 1868, the Bukhara emir ceded to Russia the Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan districts (in the valley of the Zeravshan River) with the cities of Khojent, Ura-Tyube and Jizzakh, and agreed to pay 500 thousand rubles. indemnity, recognize Russia as a protectorate over itself and grant freedom of entry to Bukhara to Russian merchants. From the territories conquered from the Bukhara Emirate, the Zeravshan district was formed, which included the Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan departments.

Thus, by the end of the 60s, the Kokand Khan and the Bukhara Emir lost a significant part of their possessions, and the Kokand Khanate and the Bukhara Emirate, greatly reduced in size, fell under Russian protectorate. This made it possible to begin the conquest of the southeastern coast of the Caspian Sea. This territory was inhabited by Turkmen tribes that did not have their own statehood. On November 5, 1869, a detachment of Russian troops under the command of General N.G. Stoletov landed in the Krasnovodsk Bay and occupied the territories surrounding the bay, which became part of the Zeravshan district formed in the same year, and the city of Krasnovodsk, founded on the shore of the bay, became the center of the district and an important outpost, from where the Russian troops then attacked Khiva and the territory of the south. eastern Caspian region.

The decision to attack Khiva was made in 1871, but over the next two years negotiations were held with England on some controversial issues about the interests of both powers in the Middle East, primarily in Afghanistan. By the beginning of 1873, an agreement was reached to expand the territory of Afghanistan towards its northern borders, to transform it into a neutral country, which was actually under the influence of England. In turn, Russia obtained from England recognition of the Central Asian territories as a sphere of its interests.

The offensive of Russian troops on Khiva began in February 1873. It was carried out under the overall command of General Kaufman simultaneously from four sides: from Tashkent, Orenburg, Krasnovodsk and the Mangyshlak Peninsula. However, the last two detachments returned due to the difficulties of the journey and the lack of camels. When the first two detachments approached Khiva, the khan's troops offered no resistance, and Khiva surrendered without a fight. On August 12, 1873, an agreement was concluded with the Khiva Khan, according to which the Khan ceded lands to Russia along the right bank of the Amu Darya. From them the Amu-Darya department was formed. While maintaining internal autonomy, the khan recognized his vassal dependence on Russia and refused independent foreign relations. Slavery was abolished on the territory of the Khanate (due to this, 409 thousand slaves were freed), Russian merchants were granted duty-free trade in the Khanate, and Russian merchant ships were given free navigation on the river. Amu Darya. In addition, Khiva was obliged to pay an annual indemnity in the amount of 110 thousand rubles. for 20 years. The Kokand Khanate continued to maintain relative independence. In mid-July 1875, a major popular uprising broke out against Khudoyar Khan and the tsarist authorities. The uprising was led by representatives of the Muslim clergy and some large feudal lords. The uprising took place under the slogan of a “holy war” of Muslims against the “infidels.” The rebels moved to Kokand, surrounded Khojent and invaded the lands that, according to the 1868 treaty with Khudoyar Khan, were annexed to Russia. Kaufman, at the head of large military forces, moved to pacify the rebels. He liberated Khojent from their siege, and on August 22, 1875, inflicted a decisive defeat on them near Mahram. G. Kokand voluntarily opened the gates to Russian troops. On September 22, 1875, the new Khan of Kokand, the son of Khudoyar Khan, Nasreddin, concluded an agreement under which all the lands of the Kokand Khanate on the right bank of the Syr Darya passed to the Russian Empire. On February 19, 1876, the Kokand Khanate was declared abolished. From his lands, the Fergana region was formed, which became part of the Turkestan Governor-General.

Events in the Kokand Khanate in the 70s. received a response in the territory of Western China, Kashgar, close to the Russian border, inhabited by Dungans, Kazakhs and Kyrgyz. The local ruler Muhammad Yakub-bek, a Tajik by nationality, relying on local national feudal lords and the Muslim clergy, in 1864 raised an uprising and demanded the separation of the region from China and tried to enlist the support of either Turkey or England. Russia, interested in the integrity of China and the security of the Russian-Chinese border, in 1871 obtained from the Chinese government the “temporary” entry of its troops into Gulja (Ili region - the region of modern Xinjiang). After the suppression of the Dungan uprising and the death of Yakub Beg in 1879, the situation in this area stabilized. In 1881, a new Russian-Chinese treaty on borders and trade was signed. Russian troops were withdrawn from Gulja.

In 1879, the conquest of Turkmenistan began. The tsarist government decided to take advantage of the Anglo-Afghan war to send a military expedition of General I.D. from Krasnovodsk in July 1879. Lazarev to the Ahal-Tekin oasis. The assault on the main fortress of the oasis undertaken by Lazarev was repulsed with heavy losses for the Russian detachment. In May 1880, a new, carefully prepared and well-armed expedition of M.D. was equipped. Skobelev, who became the head of a detachment of 11 thousand soldiers with 97 guns. On January 12, 1881, after a three-month siege, the Geok-Tepe fortress was taken by storm. The 25,000-strong garrison of the fortress put up desperate resistance, but could not resist the well-armed regular Russian army. A few days later, other strongholds of the oasis were taken.

From the conquered lands, the Transcaspian region was formed with its center in the city of Ashgabat, subordinate to the Caucasian governorship. At the end of 1883, a detachment of tsarist troops under the command of Colonel A. Muratov was sent to the Merv oasis area. A Russian diplomatic mission was sent to Merv with the goal of getting local khans and elders to agree not to offer armed resistance and to recognize the power of the Russian Tsar. On January 1, 1884, at a congress of the local nobility of Merv, it was decided to recognize Russian citizenship. Four months later, Russian troops entered Merv, encountering only minor resistance from local residents. During 1884 - 1886 The rest of the Turkmen tribes also submitted to Russia.

The annexation of Merv to Russia led to a sharp deterioration in Anglo-Russian relations. England saw this as a threat to India and began to threaten Russia with war. The British army was mobilized. Under pressure from the British authorities, the Afghan emir sent a 4,000-strong detachment to Turkmenistan, led by British officers. But the detachment was completely defeated by Russian troops. On September 10, 1885, in St. Petersburg, an agreement was concluded between Russia and England, according to which, from 1887, the exact Russian-Afghan border was established, Russia recognized England's sphere of interests in Afghanistan and Tibet, England recognized the Central Asian khanates annexed by Russia. According to the new agreement of 1895 between Russia and England, the lands of the Pamirs along the right bank of the river were transferred to Russia. Panj. The final southern point of Russian possessions on the southern border was determined by the city of Kushka. Tajik territories annexed to Afghanistan along the left bank of the river. Pyanj and in the upper reaches of the river. The Amu Darya formed a barrier between Russian possessions in Central Asia and India.

The process of annexing Central Asia to Russia took more than 30 years (from the early 60s to the mid-90s of the 19th century). It was carried out using military methods. It was necessary to overcome the armed resistance of the khans and emirs, and in the already conquered cities to suppress the uprisings of the local population that broke out. However, the annexation, or rather, the conquest of this largest, economically and strategically important region for Russia, was carried out relatively easily - with small military forces, with minor losses of Russian troops, because the regular and well-armed Russian troops were opposed by the poorly armed khan’s warriors and untrained militias. The resistance of the local khans was greatly weakened by the inconsistency of their actions and constant civil strife, infighting and discord between them.

In Central Asia annexed to Russia, a new administrative structure was created. It was divided into five regions (Syr-Darya, Semirechensk, Fergana, Samarkand and Transcaspian), united into the Turkestan Governor-General. The administration was military in nature. The governor generals and regions were initially headed by tsarist generals who took part in military campaigns in Central Asia. The Emirate of Bukhara and the Khanate of Khiva, which were vassals of Russia, retained nominal autonomy. The Russian government retained many of the rights and privileges of the local nobility, on which the tsarist administration in this region relied in its activities. The rights and privileges of the Muslim clergy, as well as the Muslim court, which operated according to Sharia law (the norms of the Koran), were left intact. The local population was granted the right of internal self-government.

After the annexation of Central Asia to Russia, Russian capital began to intensively penetrate this region. The flow of immigrants from Russia increased (by the end of the 19th century, up to 50 thousand people were migrating from Russia annually). The economic integration of the region into Russia was significantly facilitated by the construction of a railway from Krasnovodsk to Samarkand in the 80s.

Related information.