Examples of different types of borders are new transparent. Exploring Political Boundaries

Types	Kinds	Description
Natural type of boundaries	Land:	Includes plains, mountains, rivers, lakes.
Marine
Economic type of borders	Contact	connecting borders- borders with a developed transport network, which play a large role in foreign trade. Integration boundaries– these are the boundaries between countries involved in the process of economic integration. For example, the border between Russia and Belarus.
Transparent	These are unguarded borders, poorly secured by customs institutions. For example, the Russian border with Ukraine and Kazakhstan.
Barrier	These are borders across which economic relations are difficult due to natural obstacles or state-established regimes (obstacles).
Filtering	These are borders at which restrictions are set on the transportation of any goods. For example, non-ferrous metals across the Russian-Estonian border.
Geopolitical type	Friendly	Secure borders with friendly countries.
Confrontational	For example, the western border of the USSR before the war, when troops were concentrated on both sides and the situation worsened.
Conflict and unstable	For example, the southern border of Russia in connection with events in the Caucasus.

Land and maritime state borders between neighboring states are established by agreement. There are two types of establishing state borders - delimitation and demarcation. Delimitation - determination, by agreement between the governments of neighboring states, of the general direction of the state border and plotting it on a geographical map. Demarcation - drawing the state border line on the ground and marking it with appropriate boundary signs.

On border lakes, the state border line runs in the middle of the lake or along a straight line connecting the exits of the land state border to its shores. Within the state territory there are also boundaries of administrative-territorial units(for example, borders of republics, regions, states, provinces, lands, etc.). These are internal boundaries.

The political map of the world has gone through a long history of its formation , reflecting the entire course of development of human society. The process of forming the political map of the world spans several millennia. More than 2 thousand ago, the first states arose: Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, as well as ancient China, India, Iran, etc. Since then, many large and small countries have appeared on the political map of the world. Some of them, albeit within different borders, still exist, others have disappeared from the face of the Earth due to the redistribution of the world's territories.

Geographic boundaries act as boundaries that reflect the qualitative replacement of some geographical phenomena and processes by others. If such changes occur simultaneously (state, administrative), then the border is a line. If changes do not occur abruptly, but slowly, then the boundary is expressed as a stripe.

State borders are a special type of border studied by political geography. They are quite rigidly fixed to the ground and quite stable. The state border represents a line on the surface of the earth (land or water) and an imaginary vertical surface outlining the airspace and subsoil, defining the boundaries of the country's territory and separating it from other states and the open seas. The principle of inviolability and integrity of state territory is organically connected with the principle of inviolability and inviolability of state borders. This means not only the prohibition of the threat of force or its use to change borders, but also the recognition of existing borders and the absence of territorial claims.

A state border is a political and economic border limited by the state system, national and cultural isolation, customs and border control, foreign trade rules and other criteria.

In geographical limology - the science of boundaries - there are four theoretical approaches used in their study (Kolosov, Mironenko, 2001).

The historical-cartographic approach arose on the basis of numerous specific studies based on the principle of historicism - the associated study of boundaries in space and time. There are very few borders in the world that have remained unchanged for centuries (between France and Spain, Spanish-Portuguese, Swiss Confederation, etc.) In the past, borders did not have a clearly defined line, it was approximately determined by defense and control points (forts, pickets, fortresses, watchtowers) located at the crossroads of important roads, river crossings, in mountain valleys, etc.) The modern concept of borders is relatively new, formed only in the 11th century. The historical-cartographic approach takes into account the relationship of the regime and functions of the border with the economic, political and military power of neighboring countries, analyzes the influence of the state structure and political regime on specific foreign policy activities to establish, protect and ensure the legitimacy of state borders. Researchers (J. Ancel and others) have proven the unattainability of “natural borders” for the state. The ideas of Western European politicians that only borders that coincide with “natural” natural boundaries (mountain ranges, large rivers) can be safe and stable, justified expansionism and annexation in relation to weaker neighboring states. A variation of the theory of “natural borders” is the justification of the need for the most complete coincidence of state and ethnic borders. The territorial and political reorganization of Europe after the First and Second World Wars was actually based on this principle, when mass relocations of large ethnic groups (Germans, Poles, etc.) were carried out.

The key methods in the historical-cartographic approach are the analysis of the structure and careful mapping of the ethnic composition and cultural characteristics of the population, the sectoral structure and specialization of the economy, natural features and the composition of natural resources on both sides of the demarcation line. In this case, materials from population censuses, elections and referendums, and archival data on the structure of land use and land ownership are used. However, in practice, the credibility of such research is often undermined by political bias, especially in the case of ethno-territorial conflicts.

One of the main approaches to studying the nature of borders is the classification approach, which has no less a long history than the historical cartographic one. In particular, the famous British

politician Lord Curzon, considering the morphology of boundaries, dividing them into astronomical (drawn along parallels and meridians), mathematical (drawn along the radius of a circle with a center in a city) and referential (drawn at a certain distance from a geographical object).

In political geography, a number of private classifications of boundaries have been developed:

· natural-geographical;

· morphological;

· genetic;

· functional.

Based on natural-geographical characteristics, boundaries are identified that coincide with physical-geographical objects and boundaries (mountain ranges, watersheds, large rivers). The most pronounced hydrographic boundaries run along the Rhine (French-German border), the Danube (Romanian-Bulgarian, Hungarian-Slovakian, etc.), Mekong (border of Laos and Thailand), Rio Grande (border of the USA and Mexico), Senegal (border Mauritania and Senegal) and others. Borders along mountain ranges separate Russia from the countries of Transcaucasia (the Main Caucasus Range), pass through the Pyrenees (Franco-Spanish border), the Andes (the border of Chile and Argentina) and other mountain systems. Despite its apparent simplicity, delimitation and demarcation of borders along natural boundaries is often a complex political problem. In particular, when establishing boundaries along rivers (the width and bed of which varies along its length, often meandering), it can be established along one of the banks (then one of the countries monopolizes river navigation and fishing), along the median (the midline between the two banks) or fairway - a line that connects the deepest places of river flow. Difficult situations arise if there are islands in the riverbed (for example, the Russian-Chinese border on the Amur). The Rio Grande River has been the border between the United States and Mexico since 1848 and runs along the middle of the channel, or in the case of branches, along the widest and deepest of them. In the context of frequent changes in the main channel, the 1970 treaty establishes that in the event of natural changes in the channel causing separation of a section of territory of less than 250 hectares or with a population of up to 100 people, the “injured” state has the right, at its own expense, to return the river to its previous course. If the area of the separated area exceeds 250 hectares or the number of 100 inhabitants, then the river returns to its previous course through the joint efforts of the countries and the border remains unchanged. In total, natural boundaries in the world account for about 55% of state borders (20.4% - along mountain systems, 6.4% - along watersheds, 28.1% - along rivers).

Based on morphological characteristics, boundaries are distinguished as geometric, astronomical, straight and sinuous. A geometric boundary is a line between two points, drawn regardless of natural, ethnocultural and historical boundaries. This type of border is often found in North America (the border separating Alaska from the Canadian province of Yukon for a long distance), Africa (the border of Egypt and Libya, Libya and Chad, Algeria and Mauritania, Mali and Niger), Central Asia (the western section of the border of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan ) etc. Boundaries drawn along geographic parallels or meridians are called astronomical - the western section of the border between the USA and Canada at 49˚ N. sh., Egyptian-Sudanese border at 22˚ N. sh., the southern section of the border between Namibia and Botswana coincides with the meridian. In total, about 42% of all borders in Africa are astronomical and geometric, drawn during the colonial era without taking into account ethnic realities.

Genetic (historical) classification takes into account the nature of the origin of boundaries, the duration of their existence, and the conditions of their occurrence. In accordance with their genesis, boundaries are divided into subsequent and antecedent, the nature of which is discussed above. Most European borders are subsequent, the antecedent border was drawn in the western part of the USA and Canada, the Russian-Chinese border is in the Far East. Taking into account the historical situation of drawing borders, they are divided into post-war (drawn following the war on the basis of international or bilateral treaties - the borders of Poland after the Second World War), arbitration (determined based on the results of international arbitration), plebiscitary (drawn based on the results of a plebiscite, when the population voted for joining one of the states - for example, the German-Danish border), compensatory (formed as a result of the exchange of territories between neighboring states (for example, between the USSR and Finland after the Second World War).

Historically mature, “old” borders are characterized by pronounced ethnic properties. Ethnic and ethnocultural boundaries separate the areas of residence of various nations, peoples and ethnocultural groups. The logic of creating national states actively pushed European countries in the 11th - 20th centuries. to the establishment of ethnic boundaries that prevail on this continent. However, the number of ethnic borders is small even here (Norwegian-Swedish, German-Dutch, Spanish-Portuguese), some states arose at the junction of ethnic areas and are considered multinational (Belgium, Switzerland).

The functional classification divides boundaries into types according to their main functions - barrier, contact and filtering. The first function separates one country from another using a border. The second serves to bring countries closer together, promotes cross-border cooperation, and the development of economic and cultural ties. With the help of a third country, it selects goods, people, cultural values and other goods and information, regulating their flows into its territory and into the outside world. In the first case, the border acts as a barrier and is closed in its regime, in the second, it contributes to the integration of the two countries, the development of cooperation in all areas, and its regime is of a connecting (integration) nature. The filter border is not very transparent; interaction takes place through it; the parties develop cooperation, but establish certain controls on their borders to minimize unwanted external influence. Borders also play an important regulatory role in maintaining a certain political and economic regime and maintaining stability on state territory. They also have a comparison function, since borders make it possible to maintain elements of competition in world economic relations and to compare the costs, advantages and benefits of production in different countries.

The functional approach to the study of borders developed in the second half of the twentieth century. and bore certain critical features of countless classifications, a passion for academicism in considering real, often changing situations. Its representatives (J. Prescott, J. House) noted that the location and nature of the border are the result of many factors, including geographical ones. A model for studying the border was proposed, aimed, on the one hand, at analyzing the influence of various elements of the geographical landscape, on the location, delimitation and demarcation of the border on the ground, and on the other hand, the influence of the border on various elements of the cultural landscape. At the same time, attention is focused on the permeability of the border for different flows in both directions, the barrier functions of the border for the development of communications, forms of cross-border interaction at different levels (interstate, border regions, local communities). The forms of such cooperation, the permeability of borders, the ratio of contact and barrier functions are determined both by generating (primary) factors - political and economic-geographical location, size and compactness of the territory, natural resource potential of border areas, and derivatives - the level of economic development, sectoral structure and the complementarity of the economy, the ethno-confessional structure of the population and the characteristics of its social psychology.

The geographical and political science approach to the study of state borders is developed in political science and is aimed at studying the influence of borders and their stability on the state of international relations. At the same time, however, the relationship between territory and population, the nature of the state and the nature of borders are not considered in sufficient depth. The phenomenon of state borders is explained only by political factors, acting as a mirror of the military and economic power of neighboring states. The associated analysis of state and internal political-administrative borders and cultural boundaries as a single system was practically absent from the first works. Subsequently, in the context of expanding integration processes, the boundaries of this approach began to be studied at the supranational level, taking into account the manifestation of regional identity. This gave impetus to the analysis of borders and the identification of their types depending on their relationship with geopolitical boundaries (borders between “empires”, “normal” sovereign and “under construction” states, etc.). At the same time, recent experience has shown that frontal boundaries have not disappeared where geopolitical boundaries coincide with cultural, ethnic and linguistic ones. In the new historical realities, the study of the influence of territorial, (national and ethnic) identity on the formation and functions of borders has expanded. The main types of territorial identity (ethnic and national-state) can be in harmony or in acute conflict, on which the border system depends. In conditions of diversity of types of ethnic identity (1/ monoethnic - with one ethnic group, 2/ biethnic (or multiple) with two or more groups, 3/ marginal - with weak or unstable self-identification, 4/ panethnic - with strong identification with a large group including many ethnic groups (East Slavic, Arab, etc.). State building and borders must take into account their dynamics and self-development along the path of uniting different ethnic groups and forming a state for the entire population of the country. Taking into account these tasks, the geographical-political approach is to a certain extent transformed into state-political science with a broad consideration of economic levers and regional policy (regional political science) to preserve the integrity of the state and the stability of state borders (Turovsky, 1999; Kolosov, Mironenko, 2001).

>>State borders of Russia. Types and types of Russian borders

§ 7. State borders of Russia.

Types and types of Russian borders

In order to assess the nature of the borders of modern Russia, let’s get acquainted with the types of borders (Fig. 11).

Economic boundaries. The largest role among them is played by contact borders, which connect Russia with neighboring countries via transport routes. They are divided into connecting, which have a large role in Russia's foreign trade, and integration 1.

Rice. 11. Types of Russian borders

What borders of Russia are old and new according to the time of formation?

An example of an integration border is the border with Belarus, with which ties are strengthened, goods are freely transported, and people move.

Many borders with the former republics of the USSR are “transparent”, that is, unguarded, poorly secured by customs institutions - these are the former administrative borders with Ukraine and Kazakhstan. At the same time, barrier boundaries are identified that make it difficult to cross economic ties either due to natural obstacles (high mountains), or due to state-established regimes (obstacles).

Geopolitical boundaries take into account relations between countries. At the end of the 30s. XX century the western border of the USSR was confrontational. Troops were concentrated on both sides. Today, due to a number of conflicts, the border in the south can be called a conflict border.

From a legal point of view, boundaries can be legitimate(legal, determined by government agreements) and conditional, which still need to be clarified by concluding the relevant agreements. Many borders of Russia are still conditional.

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State border- a line and a vertical surface passing along this line that define the limits of the state territory (land, water, subsoil and airspace) of the country, that is, the spatial limit of the action of state sovereignty.

Types of natural boundaries:

1. The lines separating the land territory of one state from the contiguous territory of another state are state border on land. Land boundaries are preferably drawn along characteristic points, relief lines or clearly visible landmarks. They can be rivers, mountains, etc. Such boundaries are clearly visible and cause less misunderstanding.

2. The lines separating territorial waters from the waters of the high seas, that is, the lines of the outer limit of territorial waters, as well as the lines delimiting the territorial waters between two neighboring states, are maritime state borders. The maritime boundaries coincide with the external boundaries of the territorial waters. In accordance with international law, Russia has established a 12-mile width for these waters. In Russia, the length of sea borders is over 40 thousand km.

3. An imaginary surface running along the state border line perpendicular to the earth’s surface serves border of the airspace of the relevant state.

Types of boundaries according to the method of their determination:

Orographic boundary- a line drawn along natural boundaries taking into account the terrain, mainly along a mountain watershed and river beds.

geometric border crosses the area without taking into account its relief (bypassing populated areas).

Geographic line passes through certain geographical coordinates (may coincide with a parallel or meridian). Geographic boundaries drawn along parallels and meridians are found in Africa and America, where they were established by the metropolitan states for the colonies.

Economic boundaries.

The largest role among them is played by contact boundaries, which connect Russia with neighboring countries via transport routes. They are divided into connecting, having a large role in Russian foreign trade (western borders of Russia), and integration.

An example of an integration border is the border with Belarus, with which ties are strengthened, goods are freely transported, and people move.

Many borders with former republics of the USSR "transparent", i.e. unguarded, poorly secured by customs institutions, are the former administrative borders with Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

At the same time, they highlight barrier borders, through which economic ties are difficult either due to natural obstacles (high mountains), or due to state-established regimes (obstacles). There are barrier borders alienating and filtering.

Geopolitical boundaries take into account relations between countries. At the end of the 30s. XX century the western border of the USSR was confrontational. Troops were concentrated on both sides. Today, due to a number of conflicts, the border in the south can be called a conflict border.

From a legal point of view boundaries may be legitimate(legal, determined by government treaties) and conditional, which still need to be clarified by concluding the relevant agreements. Many borders of Russia are still conditional.

Historical boundaries- the boundaries within which the country once lay.

Based on the origin and duration of existence of state borders, they can be divided into two categories: antecedent and subsequent. Borders precede the eventual settlement and development of the regions they surround. An example of this type of border is the border between Canada and the United States, which was drawn along the 49th parallel in the period 1782-1846. and which divided very sparsely populated territories. Subsequent boundaries are the opposite of antecedent boundaries in the sense that they are drawn after the territory has been settled. An example here is the borders between European countries.

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Basic attributes and functions of the state

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3. An imaginary surface running along the state border line perpendicular to the earth’s surface serves border of the airspace of the relevant state.

Types of boundaries according to the method of their determination:

Orographic boundary- a line drawn along natural boundaries taking into account the terrain, mainly along a mountain watershed and river beds.

geometric border crosses the area without taking into account its relief (bypassing populated areas).

Economic boundaries.

An example of an integration border is the border with Belarus, with which ties are strengthened, goods are freely transported, and people move.

Many borders with former republics of the USSR "transparent", i.e. unguarded, poorly secured by customs institutions, are the former administrative borders with Ukraine and Kazakhstan.

Historical boundaries- the boundaries within which the country once lay.