Cherkashina Anna Evgenievna
master's student
Federal state budget
educational institution
higher education "Omsk
State Pedagogical University"
Omsk
The education system of any state is the most important tool for shaping the personality of a citizen. The influence of the state on the education system is undeniable.
In the 19th century, the education system in Russia took on new forms. The need for education for a wide range of the country's population is becoming a necessity. For this purpose, in 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created, to which the entire system of public education was subordinate, except for educational institutions for women, which were subordinate to the department of Empress Maria Feodorovna.
The Main Directorate of Schools was created under the Ministry. Members of the Main Directorate of Schools in 1804 developed the legislative act “Preliminary Rules for Public Education.” According to the Rules, the following documents were published:
- “Charter of Universities of the Russian Empire”
- “Charter of educational institutions subordinate to universities.”
In accordance with these documents, education was declared free and classless (with the exception of serfs). Continuity was also established between different types of educational institutions:
Parish schools - one year of study;
District schools - two years of study;
Gymnasiums in the provinces - four years of study;
Universities.
Ideally, this meant that any person, having completed all levels of education, could receive a higher university education. But the reform did not provide for the education of children of serfs and women in gymnasiums and universities.
The country was divided into 6 educational districts, headed by universities. In each district, trustees were appointed from among the members of the Main Directorate of Schools, who monitored the affairs of the district assigned to it, received reports on the activities of educational institutions, was responsible for the organization of the university and carried out the educational policy of the state. In each district at the university, School Committees were created, which supervised the activities of educational institutions in their district.
“The purpose of every educational system was to prepare students for higher education and to provide a complete education to those who were unable or unwilling to receive further education.”
Education in parish schools had a dual purpose: firstly, it prepared for entry into district schools and, secondly, it gave children basic knowledge. Here they taught reading, writing, counting, the basics of natural history, hygiene and the Law of God. We also studied the book “A Brief Instruction on Rural Home Economics.” All classes were taught by one teacher, who was the parish priest. There were no special textbooks and each teacher taught children at his own discretion.
After the Decembrist uprising in the country, the results of the reform were reviewed. Education was required to turn towards strengthening patriarchal foundations. Therefore, in 1826, the Committee for the Organization of Educational Institutions was created, which decided to prohibit arbitrary education.
In 1828, the Committee adopted a new document: “Charter of gymnasiums and district and parish schools.” According to this document, continuity between institutions was abolished. Now each institution had to provide a complete education.
Parochial schools were intended for the children of peasants, townspeople and artisans. According to the members of the Committee, each class was assigned its own level of education, necessary for them due to the duties they performed. For the first time, people started talking about the importance of educational work in schools.
At the beginning of the second half of the 19th century, an event occurred, the reform of 1861, which brought with it not only the abolition of serfdom, but also generated great public interest in the issues of upbringing and education of the younger generation. In addition, the abolition of serfdom brought with it the problem of unfair division of schools along class and gender lines.
In 1861, a special commission presented a “Project for the general structure of public schools,” which provided for the emergence of new educational institutions. At the same time, parish and district schools were preserved. Public schools, pro-gymnasiums and gymnasiums began to open, which, in turn, were divided into philological and real.
By 1864, a new charter for high schools was developed and adopted. This document proclaimed the classless education of all children, regardless of the profession or beliefs of their parents. The main thing is that parents are able to pay for tuition. Only children of low-income parents could be exempt from fees, but their number in a general education institution was regulated - no more than 10%.
The “Regulations on Public Schools”, adopted in 1864, declared that schools were classless and gave the right to open primary schools to zemstvos, local governments, public organizations and individuals, who themselves decided on the issue of paying for education.
“The purpose of public schools is “to establish religious and moral concepts among the people and to disseminate initial useful knowledge.” Subjects of teaching: The Law of God, reading (civil and ecclesiastical books), writing, four operations of arithmetic, church singing."
The progymnasium was the initial stage of the gymnasium. It involved a four-year course of study. The reform was supposed to transfer district schools and two-year parish schools to the status of pro-gymnasium.
The charter of 1864 created two types of secondary schools: a classical gymnasium and a real gymnasium. In turn, the classical gymnasium was divided into classical gymnasiums with the study of two ancient languages and classical gymnasiums with the study of one ancient language, most often it was Latin. Studying at these institutions made it possible to continue studying at the university. In real gymnasiums, ancient languages were not taught and their completion did not allow continuing studies at the university, but opened up the opportunity to enter technical and agricultural higher education institutions.
In classical gymnasiums, mathematics and natural science courses were reduced; in real gymnasiums, the natural science course was increased, drawing was introduced, and two new foreign languages were additionally taught. At the request of the management and students, courses in singing, music, gymnastics, and dancing were introduced. The training involved a seven-year course.
The new charter attached great importance to the personal example of the teacher in the upbringing and training of the younger generation; Corporal punishment was abolished. The teacher was also allowed to independently draw up curriculum and select textbooks from a list approved by the Ministry of Public Education.
There was no continuity between public schools and gymnasiums, thus children of the lower classes did not have the opportunity to receive a full classical education. Their access to higher educational institutions was completely blocked.
Another important achievement of the reforms of 1864 was the establishment of all-class women's schools. In 1870, women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums began to appear. They were all-class, but paid.
“The main subjects were: the Law of God, the Russian language, arithmetic with an application to bookkeeping and the basics of geometry, general and Russian geography and history, the most important concepts from natural history and physics with information on housekeeping and hygiene, French and German languages, music, singing dancing" .
Since 1872, private women's gymnasiums appeared, training in which was carried out according to programs approved by the Ministry of Public Education, and the level of training was close to that of men's gymnasiums. To obtain a certificate, exams were taken in men's gymnasiums.
In 1866, the Ministry of Public Education was headed by Count Dmitry Andreevich Tolstoy. He had very conservative views on the education system as a whole. Under his leadership, the Ministry limited the freedoms of universities and introduced strict control over school programs. Being at the same time the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Governing Synod, he opposed the opening of zemstvo schools and strongly welcomed parochial schools, the level of education in which was an order of magnitude lower. Simultaneously with the strengthening of the influence of the church on schools in 1869, D.A. Tolstoy introduces the position of inspector of public schools in every province of the Russian Empire. And in 1874, the positions of directors of public schools appeared. Thus, control over the activities of public school teachers was strengthened.
The next innovations came into force in 1871. Thanks to the project of publicists Mikhail Nikiforovich Katkov and Pavel Mikhailovich Leontyev, the division of gymnasiums into classical and real ones disappeared. The teaching program was completely revised. Now in gymnasiums more than 40% of the teaching time was devoted to the study of ancient languages. More school hours were allocated for the study of mathematics, physics, and mathematical geography. Natural science and chemistry were no longer taught at all, and the number of hours spent on drawing, drawing, penmanship and history was significantly reduced.
According to the reform of 1871, former real gymnasiums were renamed into real schools with a vocational bias. The training was six years, but it was also expected to study in an additional seventh grade, where it was possible to additionally study in the mechanical-technical, chemical-technical and general education departments. Studying at a real school did not allow continuing studies at universities, but it satisfied the needs of industry for qualified engineering personnel.
On March 16, 1882, the post of Minister of Public Education was occupied by Ivan Davydovich Delyanov. In 1884, under his direct leadership, a new project for the reconstruction of parochial schools was published, proposed by another prominent political figure of the second half of the 19th century - Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev. The purpose of this innovation was to return under the control of the church all parochial schools, which were seized from the church in the 1870s. The “Rules on Parish Schools” stipulated that parochial schools “have the goal of establishing among the people the Orthodox teaching of Christian faith and morality and imparting initial useful knowledge.” Parish schools were supposed to locally replace ministerial schools and zemstvo schools.
And in 1887, a new document of the Ministry of Public Education was issued - “On the reduction in the number of students in gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums
and changing the composition thereof” was the title of I.D.’s report. Delyanov, which was published on June 18 (July 1), 1887. The report received a rather sad title - “Circular about cooks’ children.” In it, the Minister of Public Education, Count Ivan Davydovich Delyanov, called for measures to be taken in educational institutions “from enrolling in them the children of coachmen, footmen, cooks, laundresses, small shopkeepers and similar people, whose children, with the exception of those gifted with genius abilities, should not strive at all.” to secondary and higher education."
Also in 1887, in the gymnasium and pre-gymnasium of the Russian Empire, by order of the Minister of Education, the admission of Jews was limited, and preparatory classes at the gymnasiums were closed. Thus, the words of the minister about limiting education for the lower classes were put into effect.
But not everything was so sad. The Ministry of Public Education, under pressure from liberal public circles, periodically relaxed pressure and supervision on schools. However, there was an increasing tendency to move away from the materialistic tendencies that reigned in society towards classical and familiar forms of education. The Ministry fully supported the creation of parochial schools, including financial support. So, since 1896, 3 million 279 thousand rubles have been allocated from the state treasury annually for the development of the system of parochial schools and the maintenance of teachers. Thus, the parochial school actually becomes a state school.
The difference between a zemstvo school and a parochial school was expressed in the content of education. In parochial schools, teachers were primarily priests. The curriculum was dominated by such subjects as the Law of God, church singing, and reading church books - up to 46% of the teaching time was allocated to this. While in zemstvo schools, without rejecting the religious component, the teaching of geography, history, and natural sciences expanded.
The last quarter of the 19th century is characterized by the beginning of the struggle for public schools between zemstvos and the government. The government sought to place the maintenance of schools on the shoulders of the zemstvos, but at the same time wanted to completely control the educational process. The zemstvos strived for a school independent from the government.
During the same period, the pedagogical community itself began to show greater activity. Various pedagogical committees and societies promoting education are formed. One of the main activities of these societies was the development of new teaching aids. Although there was no shortage of educational literature, not all textbooks were written by professional teachers.
In general, the network of educational institutions in the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century was quite diverse. Chekhov Nikolai Vladimirovich, a prominent teacher of the 19th-20th centuries, identified more than seventeen types of one-class and two-class schools, which were administered not only by the Ministry of Public Education, but also by various departments. “And all these 17 types often represented huge differences from each other in terms of tasks, conditions, and methods of support and actual management. They also differed in the organization of the training part, and therefore in the actual programs of their course.”
References
- Gurkina N.K. History of education in Russia (X-XX centuries): Textbook. allowance/SPbGUAP. St. Petersburg, 2001. 64 With.
- Dzhurinsky A.N. History of pedagogy: Proc. aid for students pedagogical universities. - M.: Humanite. ed. VLADOS center, 2000. - 432 pp.
- Latyshina D.I. History of pedagogy (History of education and pedagogical thought): Proc. allowance. - M: Gardariki, 2006. - 603 pp.
- Lipnik V.N. School reforms in Russia/Bibliothek zhurnal. "Bulletin of Education of Russia". M.: Pro-Press, 2002, no. 3-9.
- Medynsky E.N. Public education in the USSR. M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR, 1952. - 259 p.
- Piskunov A.I. History of pedagogy. Part 2. Since the 17th century. to the middle XX century: Textbook for pedagogical universities / Ed. Academician of RAO A.I. Piskunova. - M.: Sphere shopping center, 1997. - 304 p.
- Rules about parochial schools. // " Government Gazette". July 25 (August 6) 1884, No. 164, p. 1.
- Collection of resolutions on Ministry of Public Education. Volume ten. Reign of Emperor Alexander III. 1885-1888. St. Petersburg, 1894 p.
- Chekhov N.V. Types of Russian school in their historical development. M., Publishing house "Mir". - 1923., 150 p.
Lecture 14
Education and pedagogical thought in Russia in the 19th century
Plan
1. Development of the state education system in Russia in the 19th century.
1.1.The first period in the development of education.
1.2.The second period of development of education.
1.3. The third period of development of education.
2. Development of domestic pedagogical thought in the 19th century.
2.1. Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov.
2.2. Nikolai Fedorovich Bunakov.
2.3. Vasily Yakovlevich Stoyunin.
2.4. Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov.
2.5. Sergei Alexandrovich Rachinsky.
Literature
Dzhurinsky A.N.. History of education and pedagogical thought: Textbook for universities. - M.: Vlados, 2003
History of pedagogy and education / Ed. A.M. Piskunova. – M., 2001.
Konstantinov N.A., E.N. Medynsky, M.F. Shabaeva. History of pedagogy. – M.: Education, 1982.
Latyshina D.I.. History of pedagogy (History of education and pedagogical thought): Textbook. - M.: Gardariki, 2007.
Development of the state education system in Russia in the 19th century.
In the 19th century Russia continues to create an education system focused on the best Western traditions. Domestic pedagogy is developing on the basis of Western pedagogical ideas. At the same time, from the second quarter of the 19th century. Serious attempts are being made to identify and substantiate the original features of Russian pedagogy and to reveal its unique character. In the process of development and reform of education in the 19th century. Three periods can be distinguished: from the beginning of the century to 1824, 1825 - early 1860s, 1860-1890.
Beginning of the 19th century celebrated in Russia liberal reforms of Emperor Alexander I. The government paid close attention to the development of education in the Empire. Among other ministries established by the emperor in 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created, which led the reform aimed at creating a public education system in Russia. In the “Preliminary Rules of Public Education” (1803), and then in the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities” (1804), it was stated that “for the moral education of citizens, according to the responsibilities of each state, four types of schools are determined, namely: 1) parish, 2) district, 3) provincial, or gymnasiums, 4) universities.” The basic principles of public education were proclaimed to be classless, free and accessible to all. According to the “Charter...” Russia was divided into six educational districts according to the number of universities. In addition to the already existing Moscow, Vilna and Dorpat, in 1804–1805. Universities were opened in Kazan and Kharkov and the main pedagogical institute in St. Petersburg, which in 1819 was transformed into a university. The charter introduced strict dependence of the links of public education: parish schools were subordinate to the superintendent of the district school, district schools to the director of the gymnasium, gymnasiums to the rector of the university, and the university to the trustee of the educational district.
Parish schools assumed an elementary level of education with a duration of one year, they were opened one per parish (administrative church unit) in each city or village. The curriculum of parish schools included the law of God and moral teaching, reading, writing, the first operations of arithmetic, as well as reading some sections from the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” classes were held for nine hours a week. District schools opened in district and provincial cities, had a training period of two years and provided in-depth training to children who graduated from parish schools. Organized earlier during the reform of the late 18th century. small schools were transformed into district schools, and new ones were created. The content of education in district schools was represented by the law of God, the study of the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” Russian grammar, general and Russian geography, general and Russian history, arithmetic, the basics of geometry, physics and natural history, the basic rules of technology related to the economy region and its industry, drawing. There were only two teachers teaching at the school; the intensive program did not provide the opportunity for deep mastery of knowledge in many subjects.
Gymnasiums opened in provincial cities, the course of study in them was four years, they represented the middle stage of education, following the district school. The gymnasium curriculum included a wide range of subjects: Latin, French and German, history, geography, statistics, natural history, experimental physics, theoretical and applied mathematics, philosophy, fine and commercial sciences, drawing, technology, music, gymnastics, and dancing. In addition, logic and grammar were added in grade I, psychology and “moral teaching” in grade II, aesthetics and rhetoric in grade III, and legal and political sciences in grade IV. Graduates who graduated from the gymnasium could enter the university. By 1811, the imbalance and overload of the content of gymnasium education became obvious; political economy, philosophy, and commercial sciences were excluded from it, the natural science course was shortened, but under the influence of German traditions, the teaching of the law of God and the Greek language was introduced.
Universities autonomy was granted, which included the right to elect a rector, deans and appoint professors, and an elected university court. The higher school carried out the functions of administrative management of educational institutions included in the district; professors were sent to schools for inspection. In general, the reform stimulated the creation of a large number of new educational institutions and the spread of education.
In 1810, Alexander I signed the “Resolution on the Lyceum”, which gave rise to the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum - an institution for children of the highest nobility, combining secondary and higher levels of education. Later, following the model of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, other educational institutions of this kind began to open. By the 1820s Odessa and Yaroslavl lyceums and the Nizhyn Gymnasium of Higher Sciences (later the Lyceum) were opened.
In 1817, the Ministry of Public Education was transformed into the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Education. In 1819, the plans of schools and gymnasiums were changed, compulsory reading of the Holy Scripture was introduced, philosophy, statistics, natural law, ethics, etc. were removed. Under Prince A.N. Golitsyn, who became the Minister of Public Education and Spiritual Affairs in 1817, based his education on religious principles. The goal of mental development was proclaimed to be the combination of faith and knowledge; in educational institutions of all levels, great attention was paid to the study of the dogmas of the Holy Scriptures. These changes, to a certain extent, represented a government reaction to “Western freethinking,” the penetration of which into Russia sharply increased after the war of 1812–1814, as well as to the ever-increasing reform and revolutionary ferment of society, the autocratic-serf foundations of which were experiencing an acute crisis. In 1819, tuition fees were introduced in gymnasiums, parish and district schools, changes were made to the curriculum of primary schools, “reading from the Holy Scriptures” was introduced, and the teaching of natural science was prohibited. University autonomy has suffered significantly.
Thus, in the first quarter of the 19th century V. As a result of reforms, a state education system was created in Russia, the basis of which was the relationship of continuity between educational institutions at all levels.
Start second period in the development of education in the 19th century associated with the reign Nicholas I(reigned 1825–1855), during whose reign the education system and school policy underwent important changes. The new emperor sought to develop a “uniform” school policy that would be aimed at strengthening social stability. Count Lieven was appointed Minister of Education, who implemented a similar course in the new “Charter on Primary and Secondary Schools” (1828), which outlined ways to reform education. The “Charter...” confirmed the existing four-level education system and proclaimed the principle - “each class has its own level of education.” In accordance with this, parish schools were intended for the lower classes, district schools - for the children of merchants, artisans and other “urban inhabitants”, gymnasiums - for the children of nobles and officials. School life took place under the strict supervision of the authorities and the police. Misdemeanors were subject to all sorts of penalties, including the rod, expulsion from school, and for teachers, dismissal from service.
In 1833, S.S. became the Minister of Education. Uvarov (1786–1855), who remained in this post until 1849 and pursued a conservative school policy. Uvarov put forward three principles of upbringing and education: “Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality,” which corresponded to state policy and the idea of national revival. In 1832–1842 The education system has expanded noticeably, with the number of students in various public educational institutions increasing from 69,300 to 99,800.
Thus, as a result of reforms in the second quarter of the 19th century. each type of school acquired a complete character and was intended to serve the population of a certain class. The successive connection between educational institutions, introduced in 1804, was abolished, and access for children of the tax-paying class to secondary and higher schools was difficult. Parochial schools, designed for boys and girls from the “lowest estates,” were not supposed to prepare them for district schools. District schools, intended for the children of merchants, artisans, townspeople and other city residents not classified as nobility, have now become three-year educational institutions. They studied the law of God, sacred and church history, the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry (before stereometry) without proof, geography, abbreviated general and Russian history, calligraphy, drawing and drawing. The teaching of physics and natural sciences was stopped, and mathematics had to be taught dogmatically. In order to distract children of unprivileged urban classes from entering gymnasiums, it was allowed to open additional courses at district schools, where those who wished to continue their studies could obtain any profession.
During this period, various ministries actively participated in the development of secondary education. Thus, in 1839, the Ministry of Finance opened real classes at some gymnasiums and district schools; The Ministry of Law creates high school courses in jurisprudence, the Ministry of State Property organizes advanced secondary schools. In the gymnasiums subordinate to the Ministry of Education, a course was taken towards classical education, but in 1849–1851. a reorganization of gymnasiums took place, according to which three types of gymnasiums were established: with two ancient languages (classical), with teaching natural science and law, and with teaching law. In 1835, the Ministry of Education issued a series of documents defining a new order of functioning of universities, which significantly reduced their autonomy. In 1834, a university opened in Kyiv, but due to unrest in Poland, Vilna University was closed in 1830. Changes also occurred in the field of professional education: in 1828, the Technological Institute was created in St. Petersburg, in 1832 - the Institute of Civil Engineers; The Mining and Forestry Institutes were reorganized. In general, in the 1830-1850s. Lower and secondary agricultural, technical and commercial educational institutions were opened throughout Russia.
From the beginning of the 1830s. In the villages where state and appanage peasants lived, the department of state property and the appanage department created primary schools. Their task was to teach peasant children to read and write and to train clerks and accountants for institutions that governed the peasants. In these schools, much attention was paid to developing good handwriting in students and mastering their mental arithmetic. Schools existed at the expense of public fees from peasants; by 1858, 2975 of them had been created. Schools for state peasants were managed by the Academic Committee of the Ministry of State Property, in which for about a quarter of a century (1832–1862) a prominent public figure worked as a senior member of the Committee on Public Education activist, writer, outstanding teacher and educator V.F. Odoevsky (1804–1868). He provided pedagogical supervision of the educational activities of rural schools of state peasants.
The number of schools intended for the people until 1861 was so small that the peasant population and low-class townspeople remained almost entirely illiterate. The most common in rural areas were literacy schools with a training period of one to two years. They were created by the peasants themselves at their own expense. The teachers here were literate sextons of the local church, retired soldiers or former servants, but these schools turned out to be viable, in some places they could be found even at the beginning of the 20th century.
Education of the younger generation in the 19th century. characterized by attention to the activities of foreign teachers and the adoption of measures to protect domestic education. A decree of Nicholas I, issued in 1831, required increased supervision of private educational institutions and foreign teachers. Foreign teachers and mentors with certificates from Russian universities and additional positive characteristics were allowed to engage in teaching activities. In Russia, a system of secondary pedagogical education was emerging, mainly for women, which provided serious competition to foreign teachers in the field of family education.
At first 1860s. begins third period in the development of domestic education, characterized by the preparation of a new reform. At this time, enormous political transformations took place in Russia, which significantly influenced the moral climate in society. Leading public figures of that time considered the abolition of serfdom (1861) as the most important condition for the moral development of the people and the country, a necessary prerequisite for the struggle for further progress. The idea of the unity and equality of all people, the dignity of every human person, the need for an attentive and humane attitude towards its needs and demands began to take root in the consciousness of the Russian people. Liberation of the individual from class, household, family, and religious shackles becomes the main task of the generation of intelligentsia of the 1860s.
The reforms of this period gave rise to an extremely broad democratic movement, a powerful spiritual upsurge of Russian society, the desire of leading figures of that time to actively participate in the renewal of Russian reality, to direct its development in accordance with their ideas and ideals, and gave rise to hope for the quick and complete destruction of “past times.” At that time, Russia was literally exhausted under the burden of increased hopes aroused by the peasant reform and the transformations that were expected to follow it. “Everyone was waiting, everyone was saying: the golden age is not behind us, but ahead,” wrote M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. Education was recognized as the most important means of liberation and personal development. Faith in the power of enlightenment was characteristic of all those who longed for the renewal of Russian society. The idea of the need to defend the interests of the masses, especially peasants, and of fulfilling their “duty” to the people, spread widely. This debt could be paid primarily in the form of spreading education and culture among the masses. This is related to the participation of wide circles of the intelligentsia in cultural and educational work, the creation of Sunday schools, the emergence of special publishing houses, the development of pedagogical journalism, etc.
In the 1860s. For the first time in Russian history, institutions and organizations appeared whose activities were aimed at disseminating knowledge among the masses. On the initiative of the advanced intelligentsia, mainly student youth, in the middle of the 19th century. arose Sunday schools - educational schools for adult peasants, artisans, etc. The first public libraries and reading rooms were created - free public libraries for working people. People's readings began to be held, which were one of the most common forms of popularization of general educational, professional and applied knowledge.
Since the 1860s There is a flourishing of Russian national pedagogy, whose representatives made a worthy contribution to the development of world pedagogical thought and brought primary education to a new level of development. Following the naturalists, scientific societies began to organize in the field of the humanities. One of the first in this area was the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Society (1869), which united a wide range of scientists and public educators whose goal was to promote the scientific development of pedagogical problems. Among the active participants of the society were K.D. Ushinsky, N.Kh. Wessel, P.F. Kapterev and other prominent teachers. Members of the society organized branches in other cities, supervised pedagogical courses, and gave lectures in various audiences. In 1871, the St. Petersburg Society for Promoting the Primary Education of Preschool Children was created. The result of his activities were courses for training teachers in families and kindergartens, lectures on preschool education, etc. The St. Petersburg society marked the beginning of the spread of similar societies throughout Russia.
Teachers' congresses played a special role in the development of pedagogical thought and in improving methods of education and training. The first teachers' congress took place in 1867 in the Aleksandrovsky district of the Ekaterinoslav province. In 1870, a congress of teachers was held in Simferopol; K.D. took part in its work. Ushinsky. The congress at the All-Russian Polytechnic Exhibition in 1872 brought together about 700 participants, before whom prominent teachers and methodologists spoke. In the post-reform period, more attention began to be paid to teacher education. 4-6 week pedagogical advanced training courses for primary school teachers have become widespread. K.D. Ushinsky developed a plan for training primary school teachers. All zemstvo teacher seminaries and schools worked according to this plan. He also expressed the idea of creating pedagogical faculties at universities. All this stimulated attention to improving teacher education. In general, the most significant development of school and pedagogy in Russia was in the 19th century. occurred in its second half and was the result of large-scale reform.
In 1860, the “Regulations on women's schools of the department of the Ministry of Public Education” were adopted, according to which two types of women's schools were established: first-class schools (six years of study) and second-class (three years). In first-class schools, the law of God, the Russian language, grammar, literature, arithmetic, geography, general and Russian history, the beginnings of natural history and physics, penmanship, and handicrafts were studied.
In 1864, the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” were approved, in which elementary schools of all departments, city and rural schools maintained at the expense of the treasury, societies and private individuals were included in primary education. In elementary schools, the law of God, reading from civil and ecclesiastical books, writing, the four arithmetic operations and, where possible, church singing were taught. All teaching was to be conducted in Russian. The duration of training was not specified in the Regulations. In fact, in the best zemstvo and city schools it was three years, in many others - two years. All primary public schools, which were previously under the jurisdiction of various departments, were subordinated to the Ministry of Public Education, but an exception was made for primary schools opened by the clergy: they remained under the jurisdiction of the Holy Synod. In general, the reform of primary education in accordance with the Regulations of 1864, which meant its non-estate character, gave the right to open primary schools to local governments (zemstvos), allowed women to teach, and established collegial school management bodies.
In the same year, the “Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions” was published, according to which zemstvos could open primary schools and maintain them economically. During the first ten years of their existence, zemstvos created a significant network of primary rural schools. In some zemstvos, the training of public teachers was organized in zemstvo teachers' schools, courses and congresses of teachers were held, and school libraries were established. However, the rights of zemstvos were limited and were limited primarily to resolving financial and economic issues; zemstvos did not have the right to interfere in the educational process and the activities of schools. Zemstvo schools were among the ministerial schools and were officially called “primary public schools in the provinces, which are subject to the Regulations on Zemstvo Institutions.” They were more popular among the population than other primary schools. It was zemstvo schools that played a big role in spreading education among peasants. Zemstvos, thanks to good wages, could invite teachers with special pedagogical education to work. When opportunities arose in zemstvo schools, the range of subjects studied by children expanded, most often by including real knowledge. The zemstvo took care of the development of applied knowledge in schools. For this purpose, craft classes were organized at some schools, nurseries and beekeepers were established, agriculture was practiced, and lower agricultural schools and practical farms were organized. Teachers who expanded the official curriculum sought to provide a comprehensive education for their students, as well as the use of new, more effective teaching methods. Zemstvo schools could rightfully be considered educational institutions offering a high level of primary education.
In 1864, the “Charter of Gymnasiums and Pro-Gymnasiums” was approved, which proclaims the principle of universal education and non-class school. According to the charter, two types of gymnasiums were established: classical - with the teaching of Latin and Greek and real - without ancient languages, training in them was designed for seven years. In a real gymnasium, in comparison with a classical one, exact and natural subjects were taught to a greater extent: mathematics, natural science, astronomy, physics, and drawing. The organization of pro-gymnasiums was envisaged - incomplete secondary schools with a 4-year period of study corresponding to the first four grades of the gymnasium. As a rule, they opened in small county towns.
In 1863, a new university Charter was adopted, presupposing the relative independence of universities and approving the status of other higher educational institutions - the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, the Mining Institute, the Institute of Railways, the Petrovsko-Razumovskaya Agricultural Academy, etc. The rights to elect a rector were returned to universities, vice-rectors, deans and professors, the development of scientific research was stimulated, and the staff of the teaching staff was increased.
In the 1870-1880s. After the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Alexander II, educational reforms began to be reactionary in nature. The new Charter of Primary Schools, adopted in 1874, provided for increased control by ministerial inspectors in individual educational institutions. The government began to slow down the opening of zemstvo and city schools. The creation of parochial schools was encouraged. By the 1880s In connection with the assassination of Alexander II, the reaction in school policy intensified. The regulations of 1874 were in effect without changes until the revolution of 1917 and, according to N.A. Konstantinov, was a big brake on the development of primary education. The supervision of the clergy over the way of thinking and behavior of public teachers and the spirit of teaching in primary schools increased.
Reactionary politics of the 1870-1880s. had a strong influence on the activities of zemstvos in the field of public education. In the last quarter of the 19th century. three times fewer zemstvo schools were opened than in the previous 10 years. At the same time, in these schools the content of primary education was significantly expanded; through explanatory reading, students were provided with basic information on natural history, geography and Russian history. During this period, primary public schools with a three-year course of study could no longer meet the needs of industry and agriculture; a need arose to organize primary advanced schools. In this regard, two-year public schools were created with a five-year training period: in the first three years, training was considered the first class and corresponded to the course of a one-class public school; The fourth and fifth years were the second grade of study, in which they taught the Russian language, arithmetic (fractions, progressions, the triple rule, percentages), visual geometry, and basic information on natural science, physics, geography and Russian history. Two-year public schools became dead-end educational institutions that did not provide the opportunity to continue general education in secondary schools, since the curricula and programs of these schools did not have continuity. A higher level of education was expected in primary urban schools.
Most of the district schools created under the Charter of 1828 were transformed in the 1870s. to city schools. These schools had a six-year course of study, their goal was to provide children of non-noble origin with advanced primary education and some applied knowledge. The city schools taught the law of God, Russian language and literature, arithmetic, algebra, geography, history, natural science (information from botany, zoology, human anatomy and physiology), drawing, drawing, and singing. City schools were also dead-end schools, since they did not have continuity with secondary schools. Various courses were organized at many two-year city schools: bookkeeping, accounting, pedagogical, drawing, etc.
In 1870, by the “Regulations on women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education,” women's schools of the first and second categories were transformed into women's gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums. From 1872 to 1876, higher women's courses were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, already in the 1880s. these courses were closed and resumed their activities only at the beginning of the twentieth century. Until the revolution of 1917, higher education for women in Russian higher educational institutions was impossible.
In 1871, a new Charter of gymnasiums was published, according to which all male gymnasiums were transformed into classical ones. Education in them was built around humanitarian subjects - ancient languages, literature, grammar, etc. In 1872, the Charter of real schools - secondary schools with a 6-7-year period of study - was published. In the last classes of the school, specialized training was expected in the commercial, mechanical-technical or general departments. In 1888, real schools, with the liquidation of professionally oriented departments, became general educational institutions.
The new University Charter adopted in 1884 significantly reduced the rights to self-government of higher education, abolished various informal associations and communities, and placed the activities of the teaching staff under the control of the Ministry of Public Education.
Thus, by the end of the 19th century. As a result of the reforms carried out by the state in the field of education, a national state system of public education was created, the number of schools and the number of students increased significantly. Prerequisites have emerged for the implementation of the idea of universal primary education.
2. Development of domestic pedagogical thought in the 19th century. In the 19th century There was a process of formation of domestic pedagogical science, the formation of various pedagogical directions and theories. During this period, the contribution of social thought to the development of educational ideas turned out to be significant.
Pedagogical activity of the famous Russian surgeon, professor of medicine Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov(1810–1881) was not limited to teaching in higher education. In the 1850s he was appointed trustee of the Odessa and then the Kyiv educational districts. N.I. Pirogov, in his pedagogical writings, put forward the idea of educational education, saw the goal of education as preparing a highly moral person with a broad intellectual outlook for life, opposed early specialization in teaching children and insisted on primary general education training. The scientist expressed the idea of the need to create a network of educational institutions in Russia to educate women. Among the methods of educational influence, the teacher singled out example, persuasion, encouragement, punishment, and had a negative attitude towards corporal punishment, which existed in contemporary schools. N.I. Pirogov advocated expanding the network of primary schools, supported the autonomy of universities, and developed issues of teaching methods in higher education.
Teacher and educator Nikolai Fedorovich Bunakov(1837–1904) was a theorist and practitioner of public schools, created a number of textbooks for primary schools. He saw the main task of primary school education in the harmonious development of the physical, mental and moral powers of children. To do this, in his opinion, it is necessary to strengthen the real component of the content of children's education.
Educator, public figure, teacher Vasily Yakovlevich Stoyunin(1826–1888) created works on the history of pedagogy and education: “The development of pedagogical ideas in Russia in the 19th century,” “Education of a Russian woman,” “From the history of education in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century,” “Our family and hers.” historical destinies." In raising a child, he called for focusing on the high ideals and true morality inherent in the Russian people; he believed that in teaching practice there is a strong influence of Western methods and this negatively affects the teaching of Russian history, native language and literature. One of the prominent places in the theoretical and practical heritage of the teacher is occupied by the issue of women's education.
According to V.Ya. Stoyunin, his contemporary family lacks an educated and morally pure mother who could understand the new, better aspirations of her children. “From the very first days, the Mariinsky Women's Gymnasium in St. Petersburg discovered how strong the need was in poor families to educate their daughters on an equal basis with their sons. She was the first call of all urban classes for the education of women and future mothers of families, and, consequently, for the moral elevation of the Russian family, without which one could not expect improvement in public morality,” the teacher wrote about the importance of education for women. With the abolition of serfdom, it would seem that hopes should have arisen for the resumption of spiritual development in family relationships and the improvement of society as a whole. It was at that time that V.Ya. Stoyunin wrote about the possibility of the rebirth of the Russian family under new conditions, noting that education should not be one-sided, closed only within the family. He ardently defended the closest connection between the family and the school, with the teacher, experience, observations, conclusions of which “would bring life into the family educational work, so that it would not be a soulless, machine-like matter, but a living and reasonable one.”
Teacher Vasily Vasilievich Rozanov(1856–1919) advocated the need to create a truly Russian national school based on the cultural traditions of the people. At the same time, he was far from a narrow national interpretation of the role of the school and defended the idea of a harmonious combination of the universal, national and individual in the formation of personality.
Biologist, public figure, teacher and educator Sergei Alexandrovich Rachinsky(1833–1902) created a religious and pedagogical concept of a rural public school, based on deeply national traditions of Orthodox spirituality. At the same time, Rachinsky’s religiosity did not contradict his natural scientific research. S.A. Rachinsky believed that moral education is a priority for the Russian people, therefore in rural schools it is necessary to lay the foundations of a holistic and harmonious worldview based on the values of Christianity and humanism. The teacher considered it unacceptable to give too much information in a rural school; in his opinion, the center of education should be the imparting of practical knowledge to schoolchildren.
Related information.
Project work
Prepared by:
Natalia Maksimchuk
Yuri Kolesnikov
Vladislav Vileyto
Margarita Krupenya
Head of work
Teacher-methodologist
Tatyana Anufrieva
First half XIX century
Education system
At the beginning of the 19th century, this system underwent a radical restructuring. The secondary school program was expanded and complicated, and education was extended to 7 years (sequentially in four types of educational institutions - parish school, district and main and main schools and gymnasium). With certain reservations, those created in the second half of the century can be classified as general educational ones. missionary schools for children of non-Russian peoples of the Volga region (Tatars, Chuvash, etc.), where translators, teachers and lower Orthodox clergy were trained. The main form of education for the tax-paying population continued to be literacy schools. A network of closed educational institutions was created for noble children. (Corps of Pages, late 50s; “Educational Society of Noble Maidens” at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute), 1764; Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, 1811, etc.). These educational institutions received the greatest financial support from the government. For comparison: the Smolny Institute alone received 100 thousand rubles a year, while all public schools of the entire province received only 10 thousand rubles, and part of this money was intended for the needs of hospitals, almshouses, etc. Professional art schools appeared closed schools, which did not accept children of serfs (Ballet School at the Moscow Orphanage, 1773; Academy of Arts, 1757, which provided professional training in the field of painting, sculpture and architecture, etc.). By the end of the 18th century, there were 550 educational institutions in the country with a student population of about 60-70 thousand.
Although the creation of a system of public schools and other general education schools was an important contribution to the formation of the Russian secular school, proclaimed “all-class”, it in fact remained an appendage of the class education system. This situation reflected the attitude of the authorities towards the dissemination of knowledge among the lower classes. “The mob should not be educated,” Catherine wrote to the Moscow Governor-General P.S. Saltykov, “since she will know as much as you and I, she will not obey us to the extent that she obeys now.” This situation did not change until the beginning of the 20th century.
Significant progress has been made in the field of higher education.
At the beginning of the 19th century. 5 universities were founded - Dorpat (Tartu), Kazan, Kharkov, etc. The increased number of schools made the problem of training teachers urgent, of whom there was a catastrophic shortage (for each district school, for example, there were an average of 2 teachers teaching 7-8 subjects every). The St. Petersburg Main Public School for the training of public school teachers, opened in 1782, was transformed into the Pedagogical Institute. Pedagogical institutes were created at all universities.
Home education
If we determine the effectiveness of the educational system by the number of bright students, then the system of home education and upbringing has proven itself best in Russia. Each family created its own educational structure as a result of creative communication between parents, teachers and the child. However, this arbitrary design had a rigid frame.
Governess - home tutor - tutor
Here is the triad that makes up the system of home education and upbringing.
A foreign governess was usually invited to a child of 5-6 (sometimes 3-4) years old and settled next to the nursery. In order to instill good manners in the child, the governess ate with the child, walked, and played with him. And I studied with him - in a foreign language. For the time being, they learned their native language without programs and teachers. By the age of 10-12, the child had the opportunity to read books from the home library in two or three languages.
And then it was time to invite a home tutor. This is where the real pedagogical creativity of parents began. The governess was represented by letters of recommendation, previous work experience, and knowledge of a foreign language was confirmed by foreign origin. Where did you train to become a home tutor? Nowhere! Just like today. Who was invited to be a mentor? Yes, anyone, to the extent of the foresight and ingenuity of the parents.
If a child mastered the house with a governess, then with a home tutor he mastered the world. The home tutor was a friend, confidant, patron, travel companion, play partner, role model, and positive example for the child. That is, everyone. He could be an eccentric, but he could not help but be a personality, and the lack of a teaching diploma did not bother anyone.
In Russian literature of the 19th century, home tutors were depicted much more often than, say, gymnasium teachers. Memoirs indicate that in the last century, almost every person from a wealthy family had at least one good mentor who left behind a kind and grateful memory. Thus, A. S. Griboedov, who did not forget to mention home teachers in his comedy, was raised by the encyclopedist I. B. Petrosilius, who served in the university library.
A talented home tutor was I. A. Krylov, who lived for some time in the family of Prince Golitsyn. As F. F. Vigel recalled, “despite his laziness, out of boredom he suggested that Prince Golitsyn teach Russian to his younger sons and, consequently, to those studying with them. And in this matter he showed himself to be a master. The lessons were spent almost entirely in conversation; he knew how to arouse curiosity, loved questions and answered them as intelligently, as clearly as he wrote his fables. He was not content with the Russian language alone, but mixed in his instructions many moral teachings and explanations of various subjects from other sciences.”
Of the Russian home tutors, the most famous was V. A. Zhukovsky, who educated Emperor Alexander II. Before taking office, Zhukovsky presented Nicholas I with a “Teaching Plan”, in which he outlined the principles of the special system of upbringing and education of the future monarch he had created, as well as his pedagogical and political views. And having been accepted into the house, he first of all obliged the crowned parent to follow the approved plan.
In addition to the permanent mentor living in the house, parents often invited visiting teachers. “We take tramps into the house and with tickets,” Famusov lamented. At the end of the lesson, the teacher was given a ticket, which then served as a document for payment. Among the visiting teachers, Russian people predominated - students forced to give lessons to pay for their education, seminarians. They often came from educated families and had greater knowledge than many of their foreign colleagues. But famous people were not shy about giving paid lessons. Thus, the famous Dobuzhinsky gave drawing lessons to little Volodya Nabokov, and his mother, when she was a girl, was taught zoology by the famous scientist Shimkevich.
At the same time, the child could attend the gymnasium at the same time, but this does not mean that the parents refused a home tutor and tutors. Everyone had a problem.
Principles of home education
All successful examples of home education allow us to highlight its main principle - trust in the teacher, to whom parents partially transferred their educational rights, up to the right to “execute and pardon.”
Having trusted the home teacher, parents avoided openly interfering in the educational process and, with an emphatically respectful attitude towards the teacher, strengthened his authority in the eyes of their child. At the same time, the authority of the parents, who were not involved in the prosaic educational routine and acted as the highest court, also increased in the eyes of the child. Insincerity in the relationship between the family and the home “school” was completely excluded in this case - otherwise the tutor or mentor would not have been able to get along in the house. Usually he was treated as a member of the family and a participant in all its joys and worries. Knowledge of the family structure, the situation in the home, and the character of the student helped the “school” find and make the right pedagogical decisions.
In the middle of the 19th century, special methods of home education appeared that took into account accumulated experience. They included “educational conversations” and “educational walks”, during which it was possible to explain quite complex things in a relaxed manner - moral and philosophical ideas, logical categories, classifications of biological processes and much more. Conversations were recommended to be held regularly during specially designated class hours. They were supposed to serve to summarize what was learned and seen on walks, as well as to think out loud and develop speech. The experience of transferring knowledge through casual communication was also reflected in children's literature - in the genre of edifying conversation (teacher with student, father with son, etc.). “Conversations of a prudent mentor with well-bred pupils”, “Letters from a mother to her son about righteous honor and to her daughter about virtues befitting the female sex” were included in the few publications for youth in Russian at that time.
Teaching “jokingly” did not at all exclude systematic lessons (“classes”) and independent preparation for them. Usually, two or three more children living in the neighborhood were taken along with the student to take the course. In this small team, communication skills with peers were developed, and the spirit of competition had a good effect on the quality of education. Regular classes were supplemented by communication with a mentor while doing household chores or on walks, which were mandatory at any time of the year and in any weather.
Ideal Portrait of a Governess
A.P. Kern paints the ideal image of a governess in his memoirs: “At this very time, two governesses were discharged from England; mlle Benoit arrived in Bernovo at the end of 1808. My parents immediately placed us at her complete disposal. No one dared to interfere with her business, make any comments, disturb the peace of her studies with us and disturb her in the peaceful shelter in which we studied. We were placed in a room adjacent to her bedroom.
Mlle Benoit was a very serious, reserved girl of 47 years old, with a very pleasant, intelligent and kind appearance. She was always dressed in white and loved this color so much that she was delighted with the white hare fur and made a cloak of expensive silk material on it. Her feet were cold, and she always kept them on a bag of hot prune pits. She dressed herself and cleaned the room herself. When everything was ready, she opened the doors and invited us to her place for breakfast. We were served coffee, tea, eggs, bread and butter and honey. At lunch she always drank a glass of white wine after soup and the same after dinner and loved very black bread. After breakfast we walked around the garden, no matter what the weather, then sat down to study. We studied all the subjects, of course, in French and the Russian language for only six weeks during the vacations for which the student Marcinsky came from Moscow. Mlle Benoit was so able to induce us to study with a variety of activities, patient and clear interpretation, without even raising our voices, meek and even treatment and impeccable justice, that we studied, without any burden, the whole day, with the exception of walks and lunch hours, breakfast and dinner. We loved our lessons and activities (like knitting and sewing) near Mlle Benoit, because we loved and respected her and were in awe of her power over us, which excluded any other will. No one dared to say a word to us! She also took care of our toilet, grew our hair, and tied brown velvets around our heads, similar to our eyes. She took a lively part in everything that affected us and our families... At dusk, she made us lie down on the floor to straighten our backs, or ordered us to walk around the room and bow as we walked, sliding, or lay down on the bed and taught us standing by the bed, sing French romances. She talked about her students in London, about William Tell and Switzerland.”
Ideal home tutor Vasily Zhukovsky
“Teaching according to the proposed plan can only achieve complete success when nothing, in any case, violates the order established once and for all; when persons, and time, and everything surrounding the Grand Duke will be, without any restrictions, subordinated to those people to whom His Highness will be entrusted. The Emperor, having approved this plan, deigns to be its first executor.
The door of the study room must be inviolable during the lecture; no one should allow themselves to enter it during the time that the Grand Duke will devote to the lesson; There should be no exception to this rule for anyone. The Grand Duke will learn to value his time when he sees that others value it too and that the strictest accuracy is observed in the order of the hours. His Highness, in the continuation of his upbringing, should not respect anything beyond his duties. He must move forward with a constant and even step: unbreakable order is the main condition for this... Expressing the approval of the sovereign emperor should be the greatest reward for our pupil, and expressing His Majesty’s disapproval should be the most severe punishment. We must greatly value this important remedy. I dare to think that the sovereign emperor should never praise the Grand Duke for his diligence, but simply show his pleasure with affectionate treatment... the Grand Duke should get used to seeing in the performance of his duties a simple necessity that does not deserve any special approval; such a habit forms strength of character. Each individual good deed is very unimportant; Only long-term constancy in goodness deserves attention and praise. His Highness must learn to act without reward: the thought of his father must be his secret conscience... The same can be said about the expression of parental disapproval. His Highness must tremble at the thought of his father's reproach. The sovereign will always know about his minor offenses, but let it be a secret between his majesty and his mentors; let the pupil feel guilty and punish himself with his painful feelings. But experiencing the obvious anger of his father should be a unique opportunity for him in his life...”
From the “Teaching Plan” by Vasily Zhukovsky, 1826.
Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens
The Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens is the first closed-type, privileged female secondary educational institution in Russia for the daughters of nobles. Founded in 1764 at the Resurrection Smolny Convent in St. Petersburg. Education lasted from 6 to 16 years. Closed after 1917.
On July 22, 1835, the cathedral was “named the cathedral of all educational institutions.” This name was explained by the fact that, long before its completion, it found itself in the center of a large educational complex: in 1764, the newly founded Educational Society for Noble Maidens was located in the southern building of the monastery, and a year later, a “school for young girls of non-noble origin” was opened in the northern one. (Smolny Institute and Meshchanskoye School). Later, Catherine ordered the establishment of a community of nuns in Smolny, selecting from other monasteries twenty “old women of honest and good life” who could be used to serve the “noble” pupils. Finding such “old women” turned out to be not at all easy. From the Moscow and Smolensk monasteries, with difficulty, they recruited fourteen nuns, distinguished by the dignity that they “know how to read and write.” However, they too soon disappeared from the monastery. The educational institutions founded there existed until the Great October Revolution. Architectural monuments erected next to the monastery laid the foundation for women's education in Russia and thereby played an important role in the history of Russian education. Before their discovery, there were very few literate Russian women even among the nobility, and if one was found in another class, it would represent a “very strange phenomenon.”
The emergence of the Educational Society was influenced by French enlightenment writers. Catherine, approving the charter of the educational society, introduced a clause into it that deprived parents of the right to demand the child back before the end of the full twelve-year course of education. Only “maidens of the natural (hereditary) nobility and daughters of officials with military ranks no lower than colonels, and civil ranks no lower than state councilor” were accepted into the institute. Grown in artificial, greenhouse conditions to “decorate the family and society,” “Smolyankas” also replenished the court staff - from them the Empress chose her ladies-in-waiting and ladies-in-waiting.
The daughters of grooms, soldiers, sextons, lackeys and other “vile people” were taken to the Bourgeois School. These girls were prepared “for use in all women’s work and handicrafts, that is, sewing, weaving, knitting, cooking, washing, cleaning...”. However, graduates of the school also had their own “highest granted” privileges, similar to the advantages enjoyed by students of the Academy of Arts: if one of them married a serf, her husband received his freedom, and children born from their marriage were also considered free.
Throughout their existence, both educational institutions were under the patronage of the “highest persons”, who personally reviewed the lists of those admitted with all the information about them and their parents. Once the “daughter of a father known for his bad behavior” was crossed off the list; another time, the daughter of an exile. In 1808, the daughter of a “blackamoor chamberlain footman” was presented for admission to the school, about whom the list said: “Healthy, excluding the real color of the arapa.” The empress’s resolution read: “Do not take her.”
Of course, the living conditions and education of students at the school were much worse than at the institute, although in Smolny the level of teaching was not always high. In addition to general education subjects, female institutes were taught music, dancing, drawing, and the presentation of theatrical plays. Performances in Smolny were prepared by the best dance masters, bandmasters and artists of the court theaters. The situation with teaching science was much worse. The commission of public schools noted that the students had “a very insufficient knowledge of foreign languages and especially their own Russian,” and since all subjects were taught in French, “which the girls are quite ignorant of,” the knowledge they received was very weak. Later they began to teach in their native language and the situation improved somewhat. But a real turning point came only in the middle of the nineteenth century, when the remarkable democratic teacher Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky was appointed inspector of classes at both institutions.
Having carried out a radical reform of education and training, Ushinsky attracted young, democratically minded teachers to teach at the institute and school, and under him, for the first time, the curricula in both institutions were equalized. The leading place in them was taken by the native language and literature. Ushinsky managed to achieve almost complete eradication of the traditional disdainful attitude of the “noble Smolyans” towards the “philistines”. Such democratization of Smolny, naturally, caused discontent in the “highest circles”. The head of the institute and conservative teachers began a campaign against Ushinsky, which ended with a denunciation accusing him of political unreliability. Outraged by the very fact of the denunciation, Ushinsky left Smolny. However, his stay there did not pass without a trace. “Thanks to the energy and talent of one person,” the historian notes, “in just three years, a huge educational institution, hitherto closed and routine, was completely renewed and began to live with a new, full life.” Some of its graduates now entered women's higher and pedagogical courses, and the women's medical institute.
The Smolny Institute was called upon, first of all, to instill in its students “unshakable devotion to the throne and reverent gratitude to their august patrons.” But perhaps we should not forget that, along with the ladies-in-waiting of empresses and favorites of emperors, his pupils included Radishchev’s wife, who followed her husband into exile and died there, the wives and sisters of the Decembrists, the mother of the hero of Plevna General Skobelev, herself in the Russian-Turkish who served in the infirmary during the war and was killed in Bulgaria, as well as the mothers and wives of other glorious sons of Russia.
The building of the Meshchansky School is still used for educational purposes - students from the Faculty of Geography and the Faculty of Applied Mathematics of Leningrad University study there.
The educational society for noble maidens was located in the monastery buildings much longer than the school. Only at the beginning of the next century did the architect Quarenghi erect a new building for him on the southern side of the monastery, on the site where there was a “workshop’s courtyard” with a minister’s infirmary, a bakery, sheds and other things.
The young ladies were taught not only languages and manners, but also patience. This is how former Smolensk student Anna Vladimirovna Suslova recalled her years of study:
In Smolny there was discipline, like in the army. Physically it was very difficult. My first impression of Smolny is cold. It's cold everywhere: in bedrooms, classrooms, and dining rooms. The temperature is no higher than plus 16 degrees. In the morning I had to wash my face with ice water up to my waist. This was observed by a class lady (a teacher assigned to a class). Then everyone got dressed and walked along the corridor to the church, which was located at the opposite end of the building. During prayer one should stand motionless, looking forward. You cannot turn your head or move from foot to foot. The festive service lasted a long time, and the girls sometimes fainted.
They were very careful about their posture. Girls dressed in dresses with whalebone inserted into them so that the waist would be cinched straight. God forbid you should stoop. A cool lady was always with us and watched our posture and hairstyle. You had to be completely licked so that not a single hair would hang. There must be one braid, two were not allowed. A black ribbon was woven into it. Any coquetry or desire to stand out was persecuted very strictly. They always walked in pairs, silently. You can't smile. For smiling, several points were immediately deducted for behavior.
Education was generally good. We learned languages largely thanks to the fact that we were not allowed to speak Russian. Only in German or French. Everywhere: in bedrooms, while relaxing, etc. taught us to cook, sew, embroider, dance, play a musical instrument. You could choose one of three: violin, piano or harp.
I didn't like it at Smolny. I was cold, coughing and spent half the time in the infirmary. It was difficult for me to maintain this regime. But I have developed enormous patience. It has been very useful to me in my life.
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum
On October 19, 1811, in Tsarskoye Selo near St. Petersburg, thirty boys sat down at their desks. They could consider themselves both schoolchildren and students: they were on average 12 years old, but after graduating from their educational institution they might not study anywhere else. This was the first year of the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum - a new educational institution for Russia, which remained the only one of its kind.
In this educational institution, according to the plan of Mikhail Speransky, the closest adviser to Tsar Alexander I, a small number of noble children were to study in order to then participate in the governance of Russia.
There were only thirty boys. Among them were representatives of noble families, such as Prince Alexander Gorchakov; there were children of tsarist officials, like Ivan Pushchin, and among them was the great-grandson of the famous “Blackamoor Peter the Great” - Abram Petrovich Hannibal - Alexander Pushkin.
Lyceum students were expected to study for 6 years. A strict daily routine, in which “classes” and walks, “dancing” and fencing alternated. It was impossible to go home - all the lyceum students lived in the Lyceum in small rooms, into which the large hall was divided by wooden partitions that did not reach the ceiling.
We studied many subjects: foreign languages, history, geography, mathematics, law (legal sciences), artillery and fortification (the science of military structures), physics. In senior courses, classes were conducted without a strict program - the approved charter defined only the sciences to be studied: knowledge was provided in the sections of moral, physical, mathematical, historical sciences, literature and languages. We studied seriously, but did not miss the opportunity to joke. Once during a lesson, a lyceum student Myasoedov described the sunrise in verse: “The ruddy king of nature flashed in the west (!).” Another lyceum student (Pushkin or Illichevsky, it is not known for sure) immediately continued:
"And the astonished nations
Don't know what to start:
Go to bed or get up."
Teachers were respected and loved. They understood their students well. Ivan Pushchin has preserved memories of his mathematics teacher Kartsov, who called Pushkin to the board and asked a problem. Pushkin shifted from foot to foot for a long time and kept writing some formulas in silence. Kartsov finally asked him: “What happened? What does X equal?” Pushkin, smiling, answered: “Zero!” - "Fine! In your class, Pushkin, everything ends in zero. Sit down in your seat and write poetry.”
Six years of study have flown by. Fifteen final exams were completed in 17 days. The Lyceum graduated on May 31, 1817. They will preserve the lyceum friendship and the memory of the “city of the Lyceum” for the rest of their lives. Every year on October 19, they will celebrate the Lyceum anniversary, remembering those who are no longer there... Nikolai Rzhevsky will be the first to leave (in 1817, shortly after graduation), the last will be Alexander Gorchakov (in 1883).
Gorchakov will become chancellor (highest official), Kuchelbecker - the Decembrist, Pushkin - the “sun of Russian poetry”.
Wherever fate throws us
And happiness wherever it leads,
We are still the same: the whole world is foreign to us;
Our Fatherland is Tsarskoe Selo.
The Lyceum was an educational institution that repeated in miniature the fate and character of many reforms and undertakings of the “beautiful days of Alexander”: brilliant promises, broad plans with complete ill-consideration of general tasks, goals and plans. Much attention was paid to the placement and external routine of the new educational institution; issues of the uniform of lyceum students were condemned by the emperor himself. However, the teaching plan was ill-conceived, the composition of professors was random, most of them did not even meet the requirements of a good gymnasium in terms of their training and teaching experience. And the Lyceum gave graduates the rights of having graduated from a higher educational institution. The future of the lyceum students was not clearly defined. According to the original plan, the younger brothers of Alexander I, Nikolai and Mikhail, were also to be educated at the Lyceum. This idea probably belonged to Speransky, who, like many progressive people of those years, was alarmed by the way the characters of the great princes developed, on whom the fate of millions of people in the future could depend. Growing up Nikolai and Mikhail Pavlovich became accustomed to the belief in the indifference and divine origin of their power and to the deep conviction that the art of management lies in the “sergeant-major science”...
These plans apparently provoked opposition from Empress Maria Feodorovna. The general offensive of the reaction before the War of 1812, expressed, in particular, in the fall of Speransky, led to the fact that the original plans were discarded, as a result of which Nicholas I ascended the throne in 1825 monstrously unprepared... The Lyceum was located in Tsarskoe Selo - the summer imperial residence , in the wing of the Catherine Palace. The location itself made it seem like a court educational institution. However, apparently not without the influence of Speransky, who hated court circles and sought to limit as much as possible their political role in the state and influence on the emperor, the first director of the Lyceum, V. F. Malinovsky, tried to protect his educational institution from the influence of the court through strict isolation: The Lyceum was isolated from the surrounding life , pupils were released outside its walls extremely reluctantly and only in special cases; visits to relatives were limited.
There was an undeniable positive side to the lyceum classes: it was that “lyceum spirit” that the lyceum students of the first – “Pushkin” – graduating class remembered for the rest of their lives and which very soon became the topic of numerous denunciations. It was this “spirit” that Nicholas I later diligently knocked out of the Lyceum.
When the Lyceum was created, it was assumed that the great princes - the younger brothers of Emperor Alexander I - would study there. Therefore, many sought to place their children in this, in modern terms, a prestigious (respected) educational institution. This is how Nathan Yakovlevich Eidelman, writer, historian, literary critic, writes about the first lyceum course.
“... Members of the royal family ultimately did not get into the Lyceum, but meanwhile, in the summer of 1811, a competition was formed, because there were much more applicants for thirty places. One (Gorchakov) will be helped by a sonorous title (prince - Rurikovich). Others have important positions held by relatives: Modest Korf’s father is a general, a prominent justice official; ten-year-old Arkady Martynov is still too young for the Lyceum, but he is the godson of Speransky himself, and his father is a writer, director of the department of public education; Ivan Malinovsky is fifteen years old, he is already called a “foreign board student,” but his father, Vasily Fedorovich, is appointed director of the Lyceum and wants to “test” the new institution on his own son...
... More and more - courtier parents, or retired, or low-ranking officials; there are no offspring of the richest families like the Stroganovs, Yusupovs, Sheremetevs... Aristocrats do not send their children to some kind of Lyceum (especially when they found out that the royal brothers are not assigned there): after all, they would have to study in the same class as equals and, maybe perhaps, to receive slaps on the head from small estates, low-ranking people, or (it’s scary to think!), say, from Vladimir Volkhovsky, the son of a poor hussar from the Poltava province; the boy goes to the Lyceum... as the first student at the Moscow University boarding school.
From the book by N. Ya. Eidelman
“Our union is wonderful...”
60-90s XIX century
School, education and printing
The fall of serfdom and liberal educational reforms caused serious changes in public education. In the 1860-90s, the literacy level of the population increased noticeably (on average 3 times), in the city more than in the countryside (2.5 times). According to the All-Russian Population Census of 1897, the average literacy rate in the Russian Empire was 21.1%, among men - 29.3%, among women - 13.1%. At the same time, slightly more than 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. Thus, the general level of education in Russia until the second half of the 19th century. determined by the elementary school.
In the 60s, the government carried out reforms in the field of education. “Regulations on primary public schools” 1864 allowed, in particular, the opening of primary schools by public organizations (city governments and rural zemstvos). This allowed a broad social movement for the creation of public schools (Moscow and St. Petersburg Literacy Committees and other public educational organizations) to implement the advanced pedagogical ideas of K. D. Ushinsky (1824 - 1870 / 71) and his students. Under public influence elementary education received significant impetus for further development. Along with parochial schools(teachers for whom were trained by church-teacher schools administered by the Synod) began to operate zemstvo three-year schools(at this time the most common type of primary school), taught by representatives of the zemstvo intelligentsia, as a rule, true ascetics, bearers of democratic culture. The education there was better: in addition to the usual subjects for a parochial school - writing, reading, the four rules of arithmetic and the law of God - geography, natural history, and history were studied here.
Average education simultaneously with the humanities classical gymnasiums(the number of students in which increased almost 3 times in the 60-80s) gave schools– since 1864 real(the curriculum included a large amount of knowledge in the exact and natural sciences) and since 1873 commercial(where they studied accounting, merchandising, etc.). During the reform period they opened women's gymnasiums, of which there were about 200 by the 90s; for the daughters of the Orthodox clergy there were about 60 diocesan schools. During the period of counter-reforms, the famous circular “on cooks’ children” of 1887 closed access to education to the poor.
In the pre-reform era, qualitative changes emerged in higher education. They were opened in Odessa and Tomsk new universities. Liberal university charter 1863, which granted autonomy to these educational institutions, led not only to an increase in the number of students (almost 3 times in the 60-90s), but also to the democratization of their composition, although unevenly (in 1897, at the St. Petersburg University, the share of children of nobles and officials amounted to about 2/3, and in Kharkov - less than 40%). The country's universities began to concentrate the best scientific personnel (A. M. Butlerov, D. I. Mendeleev, K. A. Timiryazev, etc.), scientific work revived and the educational level of graduates increased. The first shoots appeared higher women's education – higher women's courses that trained doctors and teachers (Alarchinsky in St. Petersburg and Lubyansky in Moscow, 1869; courses of Professor V.I. Guerrier in Moscow, 1872; Bestuzhevsky (named after their director, historian, Professor K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin) in Petersburg, 1878, etc.).
Understanding the shortcomings of the existing education system, representatives of the progressive public contributed to the formation in Russia extracurricular education: free education began in 1859 Sunday schools, the program of which was broader than in state schools, and included an introduction to the basics of physics, chemistry, natural history, etc. The government also in a number of cases initiated extracurricular education. Thus, starting in 1871, there were carried out arousing widespread interest folk readings, in which historical, military and religious-moral themes predominated.
In the 70-90s the number almost tripled periodicals in Russian (up to 1 thousand titles in 1900). The type of “thick” magazine finally took shape, publishing literary, artistic, journalistic, critical, scientific materials and having a significant influence on social and cultural life (“Sovremennik”, “Russian Word”, “Bulletin of Europe”). Book publishing grew even more rapidly (in the 1860s-90s from 1800 to 11500 titles per year). All this was possible, since the printing base in Russia over the three post-reform decades grew more than three times (in 1864 there were about 300 printing houses, in 1894 there were already more than a thousand). Among the publishers, the leading place was occupied by the private firms of M. O. Wolf, F. F. Pavlenkov, I. D. Sytin, which produced educational, popular science, and fiction literature, including cheap editions of Russian classics. The number of bookstores increased 6 times (to 3 thousand at the end of the 90s). In cities and villages, the number of libraries and readers opened by public institutions and local governments increased. In 1862, the first Public Library was opened in Moscow (now the Russian State Library). The main role in the development of cultural and educational institutions belonged to the intelligentsia, including the zemstvo.
End XIX century
Education and enlightenment
The education system in Russia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries still included three levels: primary (parochial schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools) and higher school (universities, institutes). According to 1913 data, literacy among the subjects of the Russian Empire (with the exception of children under 8 years old) averaged 38-39%.
To a large extent, the development of public education was associated with the activities of the democratic public. The authorities' policy in this area does not seem consistent. Thus, in 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law “On the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire” for consideration by the Second State Duma, but this project never received the force of law.
The growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. The number of students at many universities has increased significantly - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.5 thousand in 1907. Private higher educational institutions became widespread (P. F. Lesgaft’s Free Higher School, V. M. Bekhterev’s Psychoneurological Institute, etc.). Shanyavsky University, which operated in 1908-18 at the expense of the liberal public education figure A.L. Shanyavsky (1837-1905) and provided higher and secondary education, played an important role in the democratization of higher education. The university accepted persons of both sexes, regardless of nationality and political views.
Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - work courses(for example, the Prechistenskys in Moscow, among whose teachers were such outstanding scientists as I.M. Sechenov, V.I. Picheta, etc.), educational workers' societies and people's houses- original clubs with a library, assembly hall, tea and trading shop (Ligovsky People's House of Countess S.V. Panina in St. Petersburg).
The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. The circulation of the mass literary, artistic and popular science “thin” magazine “Niva” (1894-1916) by 1900 increased from 9 to 235 thousand copies. In terms of the number of books published, Russia ranked third in the world (after Germany and Japan).
The largest book publishers A. S. Suvorin (1835-1912) in St. Petersburg and I. D. Sytin (1851-1934) in Moscow contributed to introducing people to literature by publishing books at affordable prices (“Cheap Library” by Suvorin, “Library for Self-Education” Sytin). From 1899 to 1913, the publishing partnership “Znanie” operated in St. Petersburg.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
“Architectural ensemble of Smolny” N. Semennikov Leningrad. "Art" 1980
“History of Russian Culture” T. Balakin Moscow. "Spectrum-5" 1994
“I explore the world” N. Chudakov Moscow. "AST" 1996
“Russian language” by R. Pankov/L. Grishkovskaya Kaunas. "Shviesa" 2002
N.A. Konstantinov, E.N. Medynsky, M.F. Shabaeva
At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, the most important world historical events took place. V.I. Lenin called this time the era of bourgeois-democratic movements in general, “bourgeois-national ones in particular,” the era of “the rapid breakdown of outlived feudal-absolutist institutions.”
The Patriotic War of 1812, which saved Europe from the rule of Napoleon, the rise of the national liberation movement in the West under the influence of this war, events in Spain, the uprising in Greece, the action of the noble Decembrist revolutionaries against the autocratic serfdom system - this is a short list of these most important world historical events. events.
In all European countries at this time there was a struggle of advanced forces against feudalism for the establishment of a more progressive bourgeois system at that time.
Creation of a state school system in Russia.
Due to historical conditions that required the breakdown of feudal-absolutist institutions, “monarchs flirted with liberalism.” In Russia, the tsarist government, forced under the influence of the emerging crisis of serfdom to make concessions to public opinion, carried out an educational reform.
The accession of Alexander I was accompanied by the replacement of the outdated system of public administration - collegiums - with ministries that were more in line with the requirements of the time. While reorganizing the state apparatus, the government retained, however, the foundations of the autocratic-serf system. It only renovated its external façade.
Among other ministries organized by the tsarist government in 1802, the Ministry of Public Education was created. The name of this body of the tsarist bureaucratic apparatus “people’s” was suggested to the government by advanced Russian people, who naively hoped to direct the activities of the government bureaucracy to satisfy the public interests in the field of education. Of course, the Ministry of Education, hypocritically called the people's ministry, carried out, like all other ministries, the class interests of the feudal landowners and their stronghold - the autocratic government.
In 1803, the “Preliminary Rules for Public Education” were published, and then, in 1804, the “Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinate to Universities.” Leading figures of Russian culture were also involved in their development. These documents formalized a new school education system consisting of four types of educational institutions: parish school, district school, gymnasium and university. It was more consistent with the emerging process of development of capitalist relations than the previous system.
According to the adopted charter, Russia was divided into six educational districts: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov, Vilna and Dorpat. Universities were placed at the head of each educational district.
By this time, there were three universities in Russia: in Moscow, Dorpat (now Tartu) and Vilno - and universities were to open in St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kharkov. Along with scientific and educational functions, universities were also assigned administrative and pedagogical functions. They were supposed to manage all educational institutions in their district, in connection with which school committees were created under the university councils and university professors were supposed to serve as methodologists and inspectors (“visitors”).
A strict bureaucratic dependence of the lower levels of the public education system on the higher ones was established: parish schools were subordinate to the superintendent of the district school, district schools to the director of the gymnasium, gymnasiums to the rector of the university, and the university to the trustee of the educational district.
Parish schools with a one-year course of study could be established in all parishes of cities and villages. The purpose of parish schools was, firstly, to prepare students for district schools, and secondly, to give children of the lower strata of the population religious education and reading, writing and arithmetic skills. The government did not allocate funds for these schools, so they hardly developed.
The curriculum of parish schools included the following educational subjects: the law of God and moral teaching, reading, writing, the first operations of arithmetic, as well as reading some sections from the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” which since 1786 has been used in public schools as an official manual, designed to instill a sense of devotion to the autocracy. School classes were supposed to be held 9 hours a week.
District schools with a two-year period of study were created one at a time in provincial and district cities, and if funds were available, in larger numbers. In cities, small schools were transformed into district schools.
The purpose of the district schools was, firstly, to prepare students for admission to the gymnasium, and secondly, to impart to the children of the unprivileged free classes “the necessary knowledge, consistent with their state and industry.”
The curriculum of district schools included the law of God, the study of the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” Russian grammar, and where the population uses another language, in addition to this, the grammar of the local language, general and Russian geography, general and Russian history, arithmetic, basic rules of geometry, basic rules of physics and natural history, basic rules of technology related to the economy of the region and its industry, drawing - a total of 15 academic subjects. Such multi-subjects created an unbearable burden for students. All subjects were taught by two teachers; their weekly workload was 28 hours. Each teacher was required to teach 7-8 subjects.
District schools were better funded than small schools. While small schools were supported by donations collected by orders of public charity, district schools were partially supported by the state budget, as well as by local fees, by taxing the population. This had a positive effect on the growth in the number of district schools.
Gymnasiums were established in each provincial city on the basis of the main public schools, and where they did not exist, new secondary schools should be opened. The course of study at the gymnasium lasted four years. The purpose of the gymnasiums, intended for nobles and officials, was, firstly, preparation for the university, and secondly, teaching science to those who “wish to acquire the information necessary for a well-bred person.”
The gymnasium curriculum was extremely extensive and encyclopedic. It included Latin, German and French, geography and history, general and Russian state statistics, an initial course in philosophical (metaphysics, logic, moral teaching) and fine sciences (literature, theory of poetry, aesthetics), mathematics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry) , physics, natural history (mineralogy, botany, zoology), commercial theory, technology and drawing.
The gymnasium proposed to have eight teachers and an art teacher, with a workload of 16 to 20 weekly hours. Each teacher taught a cycle of subjects: philosophical and fine sciences, physical and mathematical disciplines, economic sciences. This created better conditions for the educational work of secondary school teachers for the privileged population compared to district schools designed for ordinary people.
There was no God's law in the gymnasium curriculum. This was the result of the influence of advanced Russian people on the charter of 1804. At the same time, the Russian language was not supposed to be taught in gymnasiums, which is explained by the disdain for the Russian people that was inherent in the bureaucracy.
Just as in the charter of public schools of 1786, the teaching of academic subjects was recommended to be connected with life. Thus, a mathematics and physics teacher had to take students on walks, show them mills and various machines located at local enterprises. The natural history teacher collected minerals, herbs, and soil samples with the students, explaining to the students their “properties and distinctive features.”
For the purpose of visual teaching, it was recommended that high schools have a library, geographical maps and atlases, globes, “a collection of natural things from all three kingdoms of nature,” drawings and models of machines, geometric and geodetic instruments, and visual aids for physics lessons.
Gymnasiums were placed in better material conditions compared to district and especially parish schools serving the masses. The state took full responsibility for the maintenance of the gymnasiums. Young men of noble origin who graduated from gymnasiums had broad rights to occupy various government positions. Tax-paying people could be approved as teachers (in primary and secondary schools) after graduating from high school only by decision of the Senate.
Universities constituted the highest level of the public education system; those who had knowledge in the scope of a gymnasium course entered them. By making concessions to the scientists who participated in drawing up the statutes, the tsarist government gave the universities some autonomy. Universities were governed by elected councils; professors also elected rector and deans. They were allowed to create scientific societies, have printing houses, publish newspapers, magazines, educational and scientific literature. Professors were recommended to use humane measures towards students. Students could create various societies, circles, and organize friendly gatherings.
But the main task of universities was to train officials for all branches of public service, including in the field of education. Although the availability of school for all classes was proclaimed and it was not mentioned that belonging to the serf class was an obstacle to enrolling in school, a class-based system of public education was actually created. At the same time, this system also had some features characteristic of a bourgeois school: continuity of school programs, free education at all levels, formal accessibility of schools for children belonging to free classes. But the government tried in every possible way to ensure that the newly created system did not violate the foundations of the class-serf system. Thus, some time after the publication of the charter, the minister explained that it was not permitted to admit children of serfs to the gymnasium.
MAIN TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION AND
In the development of enlightenment and education in the 19th century, three main trends can be distinguished. First– attention to the problems of universal primary education . Second– formation of engineering and technical intelligentsia, opening of the first engineering universities in Europe. Third– women’s struggle to obtain vocational education. Let's look at how these problems were solved in Europe and Russia.
Once upon a time in the early Middle Ages, Charlemagne dreamed of the primary education of his subjects so that they could read the Bible. The next surge of educational enthusiasm was associated with the Renaissance and the Reformation. However, in European countries the issue of legislating the right to receive compulsory primary education was never discussed until the 19th century.
The rapid development of capitalist production in England led entrepreneurs to the conclusion that it was necessary to broaden the horizons and educate workers. It was cheaper to engage in mass training of workers than to renew a broken fleet of machinery or pay for benefits for work-related injuries. It was in England that, since the 30s of the 19th century, they gradually began to involve all children employed in production in compulsory education. For example, all working children under 14 years of age were required to attend factory schools organized by the owners for 2 hours a day. England became the first country in Europe to pass a law on compulsory primary education in 1870. However, from 1870 to 1880, primary schools in England were run by local authorities, who did not always bear the costs of organizing education. It was not until 1880 that primary education was declared unconditionally compulsory for all Englishmen aged 5 to 13, regardless of the wishes of local authorities. Since 1892, primary education in England has been free.
In France, attention to the problems of public education was drawn during the Great Revolution. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789 proclaimed the organization of public education for all citizens.
The 19th century in France began to be called the century of the public school. In 1883, a law was passed requiring every community to maintain at least one primary school.
In Germany, Holland, and Switzerland, Protestantism was, of course, an effective factor in the development of public education.
In the German lands, Prussia was an example to follow in solving the problem of public education; there, already in 1794, in accordance with land law, the principle of compulsory school attendance was proclaimed. The defeat of Prussia in the fight against Napoleon awakened in the national spirit an interest in education as a factor, including military victories. In 1819, Prussia passed a law on compulsory primary education., according to which parents who did not send their children to school faced punishment. In addressing issues of public education for 19th century Germany typical attention to school infrastructure issues. Massive training of the teaching corps is underway. Discussing the military victories of Prussia over Austria (1866) and France (1870), Europeans were convinced that the basis for these victories was created by the Prussian teacher.
It should be borne in mind that in the 19th century the “educational boom” was accompanied by high interest in pedagogical science. Switzerland is becoming a kind of pedagogical center of Europe, where at the end of the 18th century a school was created in the city of Burgsdorf. A famous man worked there teacher Pestalozzi(1746-1822). His developments of educational methods for the poorest sections of society attracted the attention of all Europeans.
A characteristic feature of the development of schooling in Europe in the 19th century was the general tendency to remove religious education from the walls of the school. Schools declared their religious neutrality. It seems to us that this phenomenon once again clearly demonstrates the bourgeois development of Europe in the 19th century. Labor migration is making the working class multi-religious. Traditional religious education and the tasks of obtaining a general education, dictated by international production, come into conflict. It was in the 19th century that the separation of religious and secular education gradually took place. This does not mean a refusal, much less a ban, of religious education. It continues to exist, but only outside schools, and, what is very important, by the free choice of students and their parents. The first examples of secular schools were created in England, Holland, France and the USA.
The pan-European tendency to pay attention to the problem of public education was also evident in Russian history of the 19th century. Already in the first half of the century, it was impossible not to notice the new bourgeois relations that were being formed in the depths of the traditional national economy. The developing trade exchange between individual regions of the country required improved means of communication, transport, and waterways, and at the same time new demands were placed on workers. Meanwhile, the state of literacy of the people was causing serious concern. At the beginning of the 19th century, in the Russian outback there was only 2.7% of the literate population, and in the cities - just over 9%. Note that Russia was still an agricultural country, and the urban population did not exceed 4%. Russia's cultural backwardness hampered the country's economic development. Life dictated the need for comprehensive measures to develop public education. To organize such activities in August In 1802, for the first time in the history of Russia, the Ministry of Public Education was created. In 1804, Alexander 1 approved the “Preliminary Rules of Public Education” presented by the Ministry, on the basis of which the “Charter of Educational Institutions” was promulgated. According to the Charter of 1804, public education itself was to be carried out parish schools, which were the first stage of the general education system. One-year parish schools were created at churches, both in cities and villages. In state-owned villages and towns, they were in charge of the priest, and in the landowners' estates - the owner of the estate himself. Funds for the development of parish schools had to be allocated by the population itself. As can be seen, the very organization of the business contained obstacles to its development. It was not enough to announce the opening of an educational institution (the ministry received such reports, for example, only in 1810 from the Novgorod diocese 110), it was necessary to find money, premises, show the will to achieve the goal, etc., but this is how times it wasn’t. The results of work on public education in Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century were not encouraging. In 1825, in the country, in 686 county towns, in which over 4 million people lived, there were 1,095 simple schools, while there were 12,179 taverns and drinking houses.
The Charter of 1804 calls district schools the second stage of public education in Russia. They were created in district and provincial cities and were intended for children of the third estate - artisans, merchants, and townspeople. Schools received annual support from the government.
Thus, schools of the first and second stages provided primary school education.
For the first time, people started talking about legislatively establishing the right to compulsory primary education for free citizens of Russia during the preparation of Alexander II’s school reform project of 1864. However, the half-hearted reforms of Alexander II did not allow these plans to be implemented. The Russian primary school gradually transformed throughout the 19th century. It was removed from the ecclesiastical department and subordinated to secular school councils, which included both representatives of state power, estates, and zemstvo leaders. The duration of education in primary school was determined to be three years, and further education in secondary educational institutions (gymnasiums) involved passing an exam according to the primary school program. Despite the secular nature of the subordination of primary schools, Orthodox education in them, the study of the Law of God remained the core of the moral education of students.