PUNCTUATION
Basics of Russian punctuation.
Punctuation is a set of rules about the placement of punctuation marks.
The purpose of punctuation is to provide the reader with a correct understanding of the meaning of what is written. Since the correct understanding of the text depends primarily on its semantic division (into sentences and their various parts), the basis of punctuation is the semantic division of speech. So, for example, in the following text: Night. The subject sleeps nervously and excitedly. Sleep is sometimes light, sometimes heavy. He shudders every now and then. He dreams that he is lying on a sandbank of the sea(Garin-Mikhailovsky) - sentences are demarcated using dots; in addition, with the help of commas, homogeneous predicates (3rd sentence) and the main and subordinate parts of a complex sentence (last sentence) are separated from each other.
Often the semantic division of speech corresponds to its grammatical division, and in oral speech its intonation division; in other words, semantic division is expressed grammatically and intonationally. In this case (and it is typical), we can talk about the coincidence of semantic, grammatical and intonation bases for placing punctuation marks, or about the structural-semantic basis of punctuation. The example above represents just such a case: each of the sentences, separated by periods, has its own grammatical basis, towards the end of each of them (except for the first one-word one) the voice is lowered, and between them there are end-of-sentence pauses; in the third sentence, the homogeneity of the predicates is expressed both by the repeated conjunction this... that, and by enumerative intonation; finally, in the last sentence, the presence of a subordinate clause is evidenced by both its special grammatical basis and the conjunction that, although its intonation isolation is not clearly demonstrated.
However, there are cases when the three indicated grounds: semantic, grammatical, intonation - may not coincide. Thus, often the semantic and grammatical division of speech does not coincide with its intonational division. For example: in a sentence The boat deftly swerved under the bow of the incoming steamer and, jumping out onto the unsteady surface of the sea, danced along the shallow waves(Garin-Mikhailovsky) the participial phrase is distinguished by commas in meaning and grammatically as isolated from the second of the homogeneous predicates, that is, the first comma is placed after the conjunction and; the intonation division (pause) passes before this union. Often the main and subordinate parts with the conjunction are not differentiated intonationally what (They say he will arrive soon). And on the contrary, whole sentences are often intonationally divided from a semantic and grammatical point of view; for example, there is almost always a pause between fairly common subject and predicate (Two-story merchant houses from the middle of the last century || stretched sadly along the entire embankment) and between the prepositive, a fairly common circumstance, and the rest of the sentence (At the sixth hour of a clear May morning \\ Maya went out into the garden), etc. under. In all such cases, as the above examples show, punctuation marks are placed (or not placed) depending on the semantic and grammatical division (or lack thereof) and regardless of intonation division (or lack thereof).
On the other hand, there are often cases when the semantic division does not find support in the grammatical one, that is, the grammatical division is not expressed in special forms. In these cases, the only basis for placing punctuation marks is semantic division; the corresponding grammatical and intonation division is suggested by punctuation marks. So, for example, a segment of speech, the sun is shining, the birds are singing, can be presented grammatically and intonationally as two independent sentences ( The sun is shining. The birds are singing) and as a complex sentence ( The sun is shining, the birds are singing). Thus, the grammatical and intonational division of a given segment of speech depends on its semantic interpretation, expressed by punctuation marks. (The exception is a recording of oral speech from a voice - a dictation - when intonation can suggest to the writer, although not always (see above), the semantic division of speech.) Ultimately, both homogeneous and heterogeneous definitions, sometimes introductory words and members of the sentence (He may be at school and He may be at school) and other constructions.
Finally, there are also cases when the semantic (and intonational) division contradicts the grammatical one. For example: She reminded me to take a basin and a shaving brush. And boot cream. And a brush (Panova). From the point of view of grammatical combination, both boot cream and brush are homogeneous additions, however, the author separates them out in meaning and intonation into independent sentences and expresses this punctuationally.
Thus, in all the cases considered, the basis for placing punctuation marks is precisely the semantic division of speech, which may coincide with grammatical and intonation divisions, but may not coincide with one of them and even contradict it.
Punctuation marks and their functions.
The following punctuation marks are used in Russian punctuation: period, question mark, exclamation mark, ellipsis, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, parentheses, quotation marks. The function of a punctuation mark is also performed by paragraph indentation, or a red line.
Punctuation marks perform two main functions: 1) separation, 2) emphasis. Some of the punctuation marks serve only for separation (separating punctuation marks); these are single punctuation marks: period, semicolon, exclamation and question marks, ellipsis, colon; This also includes paragraph indentation. With the help of these signs, sentences, predicative parts of some complex sentences, sometimes homogeneous members and other constructions are separated from each other.
Other punctuation marks serve only for emphasis (emphasizing punctuation marks); These are double characters: brackets and quotation marks. With the help of these signs, introductory and intercalary phrases and sentences (brackets) and direct speech (quotes) are distinguished.
The third punctuation marks (comma and dash) are multifunctional, that is, they can act as both separating and highlighting, depending on the specific conditions in which they are used.
Thus, with the help of a comma, both parts of a complex sentence and homogeneous members can be separated from each other; with the help of a dash, in some cases, parts of complex sentences, homogeneous members from a generalizing word, some members of a sentence from others in some incomplete sentences and in other constructions are separated.
Using commas, various isolated phrases, addresses, and introductory words are highlighted; using a dash, introductory and intercalary sentences can be highlighted.
In some cases, as, for example, in sentences with direct speech, complex combinations of emphasizing and separating signs are used.
The indicated basic functions of punctuation marks (separation and emphasis) are often complicated by more private, meaning-distinguishing functions. Thus, sentence ending marks not only separate one sentence from another, but also express what a given sentence is in terms of the purpose of the statement or the degree of emotionality. Wed: He will not come. He will not come? He will not come! Indicative in this regard is the use of punctuation marks in non-union sentences, in which punctuation marks also carry a semantic load and signal the grammatical meaning of non-union sentences. So, for example, in the sentence He doesn't come, she waits enumeration relations are expressed in a sentence He doesn't come - she waits- negative relationships.
The main functions of all punctuation marks, as well as their semantic and distinctive functions, are described in the set of rules of Russian punctuation
Notes
See: Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. - M., 1956.
Any modern written text will be incorrect if it lacks graphic elements, which are commonly called punctuation marks. Without them, it is impossible to understand the boundaries of sentences and it is difficult to perceive the text itself, its topic and problem.
Punctuation marks, separates, and separates different parts of sentences. Each of the punctuation marks is necessary for the Russian language, otherwise there will be confusion in it, and people simply will not be able to understand the simplest things. As a result, complex and contradictory situations may arise.
In modern texts of a literary, scientific, business and journalistic nature, punctuation marks are certainly needed, among which are periods, commas, question and exclamation marks, colons, dashes, semicolons, ellipses, quotation marks, and parentheses. Moreover, each of these signs performs its own individual function.
The most commonly used characters in sentences are periods and commas. This is not difficult to prove, since without a period at the end of the sentence, it will be considered unfinished, and commas serve to separate and highlight parts of the sentence and its members.
Punctuation marks in sentences play the same role as in the text: without them, they can lose meaning or be distorted in the exact opposite direction. Therefore, when writing any texts, you need to arrange them very carefully, while being guided by the rules.
Placing a comma in a simple sentence is justified if it contains homogeneous members of the sentence - both main (subject and predicate) and secondary ones, and they should not be connected by conjunctions, that is, when there is a non-union connection or there are conjunctions, but they are repeated.
A simple sentence complicated by homogeneous members is characterized by the presence of a colon, if there is a generalizing word, and it is located before them. If it comes after, then you need to put a dash.
With the help of commas in a simple sentence, representing a participial phrase and circumstances, representing an adverbial phrase.
A simple sentence is also characterized by the use of a punctuation mark such as a dash. It usually separates one main member from another (subject from predicate), if they are a noun in the nominative case, verbs in the indefinite form, numerals.
the same as in simple. Most often, in complex sentences, both compound and complex, a comma is placed between simple ones.
A compound sentence consists of simple sentences connected by intonation and separated by commas. In sentences of this kind, in cases of rapid change of events, it is necessary to put a dash. In a complex sentence, the parts of which are very common, use a semicolon.
A complex sentence contains punctuation marks such as commas, with the help of which subordinate clauses are attached to the main part, and the connection is ensured by adding a subordinating conjunction or a conjunctive word.
A non-union complex sentence is characterized by an intonation connection, with its parts separated from each other by a comma or semicolon. But such a sentence may contain punctuation marks such as colons and dashes.
In a complex sentence with a non-union connection, the second part of which contains the reason, explanation and addition of what is written in the first, these parts are separated by a colon. Setting a dash is advisable if the second part shows a rapid change of events, the result is in contrast to what was discussed in the first part.
Punctuation marks divide our written speech and help us understand thoughts correctly.
The culture of speech has always been determined by its correctness. The very first step is knowledge of the principles of the Russian language.
Russian language norms
Norma (derived from the Latin norma - literally “square”, figurative meaning - “rule”) is a generally accepted mandatory order. All sections of the language are controlled in a certain way. Modern Russian language is guided by various rules. These are spelling and punctuation standards. They are orthoepic (phonetic) and phraseological, morphological and syntactic, stylistic.
For example, spelling norms regulate the choice of graphic spelling of a word. Punctuation determines the choice of punctuation marks, as well as their placement in the text.
Punctuation standards
A punctuation norm is a rule indicating the use or non-use of certain punctuation marks when writing. The study of punctuation norms determines mastery of the literary language. These principles determine the culture of speech as a whole. Correct use of punctuation should ensure mutual understanding between the writer and the reader of the written text.
The use of punctuation marks is fixed by the rules. The punctuation norm regulates the choice of sentence construction options. It also controls the speaker's speech. True, the assessment of “true - false” in relation to a punctuation norm largely depends on the subject. Russian punctuation is extremely flexible.
Punctuation meaning
It is not for nothing that the Russian language is called great and powerful. But it is not frozen and unchanging. Russian speech is saturated with neologisms and words that come from other languages. Likewise, punctuation norms are adopted in an attempt to reflect the process of integration. But we must never forget about respect for the language as a heritage, honed by the centuries-old history of our people.
There are only 10 punctuation marks. But in writing they help to express all the variety of shades of meaning in oral speech. The same sign can be used in different cases. And at the same time play a different role. 20 chapters outline the main patterns of punctuation marks that are studied at school. All rules are illustrated with clear examples. Give them special attention. If you remember the example, you will avoid mistakes.
Introduction: What is punctuation?
§1. Meaning of the term punctuation
§2. What punctuation marks are used in written speech in Russian?
§3. What role do punctuation marks play?Chapter 1. Signs of completeness and incompleteness of thought. Period, question mark, exclamation point. Ellipsis
Period, question and exclamation marks
Ellipsis at the end of a sentenceChapter 2. Signs of incompleteness of a statement. Comma, semicolon
§1. Comma
§2. SemicolonChapter 3. Sign of incompleteness of a statement. Colon
Why do you need a colon?
Colon in a simple sentence
Colon in a complex sentenceChapter 4. Sign of incompleteness of a statement. Dash
§1. Dash
§2. Double dashChapter 5. Double signs. Quotes. Brackets
§1. Quotes
§2. BracketsChapter 6. Punctuation of a simple sentence. Dash between subject and predicate
A dash is placed
There is no dashChapter 7. Punctuation of a simple sentence with a complex structure. Punctuation marks for homogeneous members
§1. Punctuation marks for homogeneous members without a generalizing word
§2. Punctuation marks for homogeneous members with a generalizing wordChapter 8. Punctuation of a simple sentence complicated by a separate definition
§1. Separating agreed definitions
§2. Separating inconsistent definitions
§3. Segregation of applicationsChapter 9. Punctuation of a simple sentence complicated by a separate circumstance
Circumstances are isolated
Circumstances are not isolatedChapter 10. Punctuation of a simple sentence, complicated by clarifying or explanatory members of the sentence.
§1. Clarification
§2. ExplanationChapter 11. Punctuation of a simple sentence complicated by introductory words, introductory sentences and inserted constructions
§1. Sentences with introductory words
§2. Sentences with introductory sentences
§3. Offers with plug-in structuresChapter 12. Punctuation when addressing
Addresses and their punctuation in writing
Chapter 13. Punctuation in comparative phrases
§1. Separate comparative turns with commas
§2. Turns with a conjunction: comparative and non-comparativeChapter 14. Punctuation in direct speech
§1. Punctuation of direct speech accompanied by the words of the author
§2. Dialogue punctuation
It is known that the sign that performs the function of a comma was invented in the third century BC by the philosopher of Ancient Greece Aristophanes of Byzantium. Already in those distant times, humanity felt the need to clarify written language. Aristophanes of Byzantium invented a system of signs that was not very similar to current punctuation marks. The system had special points that were placed, depending on the pronunciation of the phrase when reading, at the top, middle or bottom of the line. The dot in the middle of the line served as a comma and was called “comma”.
The sign we now use to denote a comma is derived from the fraction sign; it is also called the “straight slash”. This sign was used from the 13th to 17th centuries AD to indicate a pause. But the modern comma is a mini-copy of the forward slash.
How can you tell if a comma is used in a given sentence? In Russian, as in many other languages, a comma is a punctuation mark. In writing it is used for highlighting and isolation:
- circumstances;
- participial and participial phrases;
- definitions;
- appeals;
- interjections;
- clarifications, introductory words.
In addition, commas are also used for separation:
- between direct and indirect speech;
- between parts of a complex, complex and compound sentence;
- homogeneous members of the sentence.
The comma is a very interesting punctuation mark. This is proven by numerous funny and not so funny situations that actually happened. To prevent such situations from happening to you, take the trouble to learn some rules for placing commas in sentences.
Commas are placed either in pairs or alone. Single commas divide a whole sentence into parts, separating these parts by marking their boundaries. For example, in a complex sentence you need to separate two simple parts, or in a simple sentence - homogeneous members of the sentence used in listing. Paired or double commas highlight an independent part of it, marking boundaries on both sides. Usually, introductory words, adverbial and participial phrases, and appeals are highlighted on both sides if they are in the middle of the sentence and if all the necessary conditions for this are met. Understanding where commas are placed is quite difficult. But you can simplify this by remembering a few simple rules.
First rule
The main thing is to understand the meaning of the sentence. After all, punctuation marks are placed in sentences precisely to convey the correct meaning. When a comma is placed in the wrong place in a sentence, the meaning is distorted. For example: “In the evening I entertained my brother, who was sick, by reading aloud”; “Masha, with whom I quarreled yesterday, ran towards me with a cheerful face.”
Second rule
It is important to remember which conjunctions are preceded by a comma. Such conjunctions include: since, because, where, what, when, which and many others. For example: “I’ll stop by when I’m free”; "He said he'd be late."
Third rule
To highlight an independent part of a sentence, you need to read the sentence without this part. If the meaning of the sentence is clear, then the removed part is independent. Participial phrases, introductory sentences and words must be highlighted with commas. For example: “I recently learned that my neighbor, returning from London, fell ill.” Remove the adverbial phrase “returning from London” from the sentence; its meaning will remain virtually unchanged. That is, the meaning of the sentence is preserved - “I recently found out that my neighbor got sick.”
But this does not always happen with participle phrases; there are sentences in which the participle adjoins the predicate, and in meaning it becomes very similar to an adverb. In such cases, single gerunds are separated by commas. For example, Griboyedov’s phrase: “Why, sir, are you crying? Live your life laughing." If you remove a gerund from a sentence, it will become incomprehensible, so there is no need to put a comma.
Regarding introductory words, they are always separated by commas on both sides. There are a lot of them: of course, fortunately, firstly, by the way, imagine, by the way, etc. It’s not difficult to find them in a sentence, you just have to try to remove them from the sentence.
Fourth rule
Addresses are always separated by commas in sentences. When it is in the middle or at the end of a sentence, it is not very easy to identify. For example: “Alas, Margarita, but you are wrong. Because I was there too. And I saw everything. And you, Lida, I saw among those people who sang in the choir.”
Fifth rule
In what cases is a comma used in comparative phrases? Almost all of them! It is very easy to find a comparative phrase in a sentence using conjunctions: exactly, as, as if, that, as, rather than, than, and so on. But there are exceptions. Comparative phrases are not highlighted if they are stable figures of speech or phraseological units. For example: it pours like a bucket, it cuts like clockwork.
Sixth rule
A comma is placed between homogeneous members, but not always. A comma is necessary for the conjunctions a, yes, but, but, however.
Also, a comma is needed between homogeneous members that are connected by repeating conjunctions (and ... and, or ... or, not that ... not that, either ... or).
There is no need to place a comma between homogeneous terms that are connected by single conjunctions yes, and, either, or.
Also, repeating conjunctions before homogeneous members of a sentence will help determine where commas are placed. Complexity is created only by homogeneous and heterogeneous definitions. A comma must be placed between homogeneous definitions. For example: “an interesting, exciting film.” For heterogeneous definitions, a comma is not needed. For example: "exciting Hollywood action movie." The word "exciting" is an expression of impression, and "Hollywood" in turn means the film belongs to the place where it was made.
Seventh rule
Coordinating conjunctions in complex sentences must be preceded by a comma. These are such conjunctions: and, yes, or, either, yes and. The main thing is to correctly determine where one sentence ends and another begins. To do this, you need to find the subjects and predicate in each sentence or divide a complex sentence according to its meaning.
Eighth rule
A comma is always placed before contrastive conjunctions: but, yes, and.
Ninth Rule
When is a comma used in sentences with a participial phrase? Understanding this rule is somewhat more difficult than with the adverbial phrase. It is important to remember that participles are separated by commas only when they come after the word they define. The rule being defined is the word from which the question is asked to the participial phrase. For example: “a friend (what?) who was delighted at my arrival.” It is worth understanding the difference: “a pear grown in the garden” – “a pear grown in the garden.”
Tenth Rule
Affirmative, interrogative, negative words and interjections are separated by commas. An interjection is always followed by a comma. For example: “Life, alas, is not an eternal gift.” But we should distinguish the interjection from the particles oh, ah, well, which are used to enhance the shade, and the particle o, which is used when addressing. For example: “Oh, what are you!”; "Oh field, field!"
Commas must be treated very carefully, because a misspelled word can be mistaken for a typo, and missing a comma, as linguists say, can greatly distort the meaning of the written text.