The reign of Sargon. Sargon's early years

Sargon - king of Akkad, king of Akkad and Sumer (c. 2316 - 2261 BC), founder of the Akkad dynasty. Sargon ruled for 55 years.

Sargon himself never named his father. A late Akkadian poem, known to science as the Legend of Sargon, reports that his homeland was Azupiranu (“Saffron Town” or “Town of Crocuses”) on the Euphrates. Its location is unknown, but it is believed that it was located on the middle reaches of this river, that is, within present-day Syria. In any case, Sargon, judging by his name, was an Eastern Semitic. According to legend, Sargon came from the lower classes of the people; it was believed that he was the adopted son of a water-carrier and was a gardener and cup-bearer for the Kish king Ur-Zababa. The low origin of Sargon subsequently became a common place in cuneiform historical writings. In view of such insistence of tradition, we have little right to doubt that Sargon really came from the people (actually from the members of the staff of the royal temple household), or that there was something in his activities or the accompanying historical situation that allowed such an opinion to be formed about him.

Foundation of the kingdom

After the defeat of Kishu Lugalzagesi, Sargon founded his own kingdom. The beginning of Sargon's reign dates back to the 2nd year of the reign of Uruinimgina - lugal (the 3rd year of his total reign as ensi and as lugal) and to the 20th year of the reign of Lugalzagesi (c. 2316 BC).

In choosing the capital for his state, Sargon decided not to live in any of the traditional northern centers like Kish, Akshak or Mari, but chose a city without traditions, almost unknown, perhaps located in the nome of Sippar. The city was called Akkad. According to him, the region of Ki-Uri has since been called Akkad, and the East Semitic language - Akkadian.

Victory over Lugalzagesi

At the beginning, Sargon extended his power to Upper Mesopotamia. In the 3rd year of his reign (c. 2313 BC), Sargon undertook a campaign to the west, that is, to Syria. En Ebla (a city-state inhabited by Western Semites and exercising hegemony in these places) probably recognized the power of Sargon and opened the way for him to the Mediterranean Sea.

In the 5th year (c. 2311 BC), Sargon began military operations against Lugalzagesi and quickly defeated his army and the armies of the ensi under his control. Lugalzagesi was apparently executed and the walls of Uruk were torn down.

Sargon's Army

This success of Sargon is explained by the fact that he apparently relied on a more or less voluntary militia. Sargon contrasted the traditional tactics of skirmishes between small heavily armed detachments that fought in close formation with the tactics of large masses of lightly armed, mobile warriors acting in chains or scattered.

The Sumerian Lugali, due to the lack in Sumer of sufficiently flexible and elastic types of wood for bows, completely abandoned small arms; Sargon, on the contrary, attached great importance to archers, who were able to shower clumsy squads of shield-bearers and spear-bearers with a cloud of arrows from afar and frustrate them without reaching hand-to-hand combat.

Obviously, either Sargon had access to thickets of yew (or hazel) in the foothills of Asia Minor or Iran, or in his time a compound or glued bow made of horn, wood and sinew was invented.

In addition to the people's militia, Sargon had a standing army of 5,400 soldiers, fed at the expense of the king.

Subjugation of the south of the country

In the 6th year of Sargon's reign (c. 2310 BC), a coalition of southern ensi led by the "man from Ur" came out against him. Having defeated the army of Ur, Sargon moved against Umma and Lagash. Having captured Umma, Sargon occupied the temporary capital of Lagash, the city of E-Ninmar, and subjugated the entire territory of Lagash, reaching the Persian Gulf (Lower Sea).

Ensi Umma Mes-e was captured, the fate of the rulers of Lagash and Ur is unknown. The walls of all three cities were torn down. Summing up, Sargon says that if you count this campaign, he fought in 34 battles.

Hike to Asia Minor

In the 11th year of his reign (c. 2305 BC), Sargon undertook a second campaign to the northwest. Moving along the Euphrates, Sargon conquered Tuttul (now Hit), the large city of Mari, the country of Yarimutu (the location is not clear), the country of Ebla and reached the Cedar Forest (that is, the Amanus Mountains) and the Silver Mountains (that is, the mountains of Asia Minor Taurus).

A later tradition, in particular, the epic song “King of Battle,” says that Semitic merchants from the city of Kanesh in Asia approached Sargon with a complaint about the oppression inflicted by the ruler of Purshakhanda (Puruskhand) Nur-Dagan. In response to this, Sargon “crossed the Sunset Sea” and conquered and united the “Sunset Land.”

How much of this is genuine historical fact and where one should look for “Sunset Land” is unclear. However, archaeological data do not confirm such a long-standing penetration of Akkadian traders into the depths of the Asia Minor Peninsula.

More reliable is the Hittite tradition, which believed that Sargon crossed only the Euphrates, a little below the exit of this river from the mountainous region.

Trek to Elam

After Sargon expanded and strengthened his kingdom in the north, west and south, he undertook a campaign in Elam, where at that time there were several small nomes, states, among which the most significant were Elam proper (or Adamdun) led by the king (sharru ) Luhkhishshan and ensi (ishshakku) Sanamsimurru and Varakhse with the ruler (shakkanaku) Sidgau.

The campaign ended successfully, Sargon took the cities of Urua, Avan and Susa, the ruler and judge Varakhse Sidgau, king Lukhishshan, ensi of Elam Sanamsimurru, ensi of the city of Khukhnur (probably modern Malamir) Zina, ensi of the Gunilahi region, along with other significant persons were captured . Construction timber is mentioned among the spoils. However, Elam was apparently not simply turned into a region of the Akkadian state; it is obvious that all the captive rulers recognized the power of Sargon and were left in place by him.

It is believed that after a campaign in the northern regions of Elam, Sargon conquered the countries of Kutium (Kutia) and Lullubum (Lullubei).

Unfortunately, the inscriptions during the reign of Sargon do not contain direct information about his campaign in the named countries. This is evidenced by indirect data. Sargon also waged war with the country of Simurrum (a city-state on the Lower Zab River), as indicated by the subsidized formula “the year when Sargon went to Simurrum.”

Arrangement of the state

Under Sargon, the temple farms were merged with the royal ones. Sargon's state was the first attempt to create a centralized despotism, in which the low-born royal bureaucracy supplanted the old patrimonial aristocracy, and the self-government bodies of city-states (council, people's assembly) were turned into lower-level administration. Sargon again rebuilt the city of Kish, and in addition to the unconventional title “King of Akkad” and the title of the southern hegemons “King of the Country”, he also accepted the title of the northern hegemons “king of multitudes (shar kishshatim)”, so they now began to translate the Sumerian title “lugal Kish” into Akkadian .

Under Sargon, trade flourished. He introduced uniform measures of area, weight, etc. throughout his country, and took care of maintaining land and waterways.

According to legend, ships from Melachi (India) ascended the river under him to the pier of the city of Akkad, and elephants and monkeys could be seen among the strange goods here. However, this flourishing trade did not last long.

Worship of the gods

Sargon well understood the need for a religious justification for his power, so it is natural that he relied not only on the cult of Aba, the god of the city of Akkad (perhaps his ancestral god) and the cult of Zababa, the god of Kish, but also on the general Sumerian cult of Enlil in Nippur.

He built several statues in his temple and probably richly endowed the temple, trying to attract the priesthood to his side.

He gave his daughter, bearing the Sumerian name En-hedu-Ana (lit. “Priestess of the abundance of heaven”), as a priestess - en (entu in Akkadian) to the moon god Nanna in Ur; Since then it has become a tradition for the king's eldest daughter to be Nanna's entu.

The later assertions of the moralizing Babylonian priestly chronicles that Sargon treated the gods with disdain are undoubtedly tendentious, as is the assertion that Sargon destroyed Babylon in order to build a suburb of his capital from its bricks; the city of Babylon had absolutely no significance at that time.

Revolts of the nobility and dependent territories

Sargon's state was not strong. Already at the end of his reign, unrest began among the family aristocracy. Ensi Kazallu Kashtambila rebelled against the rule of Sargon. Sargon suppressed this rebellion, captured Kazalla and destroyed it.

Then, according to legend, “the elders (that is, the nobility) of the whole country rebelled against him and besieged him in Akkad,” and Sargon, in his old age, had to run and hide in a ditch, although he later defeated the rebels.

Hostile tribes from Subartu (that is, Northern Mesopotamia and Assyria) launched attacks on Akkad. During a successful campaign, Sargon conquered Subartu and sent the captured booty to Akkad.

At the very end of Sargon's reign, famine broke out in southern Mesopotamia, causing a new uprising of the entire country. The chroniclers attribute this famine to the wrath of the god Marduk for Sargon's destruction of Babylon. Sargon died before he could conquer this rebellion.

Formation of a centralized state:

1) The founder of the Akkadian kingdom - Sargon (2316-2261) - Sharrum-ken, “true king”)

2) took power as a result of a palace coup, subjugated Kish, Upi-Akshak, took the titles “lugal Kish”, “lugal Starny”, “lugal Akkad”.

3) war with Lugalzaggesi, victory over 50 rulers, after 34 battles with Ur, Umma and Lagash, expanded the state to the Persian Gulf

4) trips to the northwest: the conquest of Mari, Ebla to the “cedar forest” and “Silver Mountains”, i.e. to the Amana and Taurus mountain ranges

5) at the end of Sargon’s reign he conquered Subartu (SM)

6) raids into Elam (east of the Tigris and Euphrates valley)

Economic development, commodity-money relations and trade:

1) creation of a common irrigation network in southern Mesopotamia and middle Mesopotamia

2) construction of roads, harbors

3) introduction of a national system of weights and measures

Socio-political development:

1) assertion of the power of the despot king in the fight against the tribal aristocracy, based on the advice of elders

2) the formation of a service aristocracy - the support of royal power

3) the tsarist bureaucracy replaces local “ensis” in a number of cities

4) transition of the temple economy passes into the hands of the ruler

5) additional benefits to the priesthood

6) property stratification in the community, the emergence of wealthy and impoverished community members

7) fermentation among the “elders”, rebellion in the communal army, Subartu and Babylon were deposited

Mid-3rd millennium BC was marked by the vigorous settlement of Mesopotamia by cattle-breeding Semitic tribes, who had previously penetrated into Sumer in considerable numbers. Their settlements in the north began to actively borrow the achievements of the Sumerian civilization, approaching it in terms of development (however, a similar process apparently took place in Elam, neighboring Sumer, located to the east of it). At the end of the 24th century, he became a representative and exponent of the active offensive policy of the Semitic tribes. Sargon (Sargon the Ancient, or Akkadian). According to legend, he was an illegitimate baby caught in a basket in the river and raised by strangers (a frequent legendary-mythological plot known in the history of many nations). Having entered the service of the ruler of Kish, Sargon quickly advanced, and after the death of Kish he carved out his own state and began to successfully fight with his neighbors. Then Sargon proclaimed himself the lugal of the new city of Akkad, which he built in the north of Sumer.

Having entered into a long war with Lugalzagesi, Sargon successfully brought it to the end, united Sumer and Akkad under his rule and became the ruler of a large state, consisting of many dozens of regional divisions of the former city-states. The army he created played a large role in Sargon’s successes: hardly not for the first time in history, a large fighting force of professional warriors (5,400 people) found themselves in the hands of this particular conqueror, each of whom received an allotment for his service and lived off the income from it. It is not surprising that after the creation of a unified state, Sargon managed to subjugate neighboring Elam and made a number of successful campaigns to the north and northwest.

The emergence of a large centralized state led to the concentration of all power in the hands of its ruler. Temples with their priests, households and service personnel, as well as the royal farms that arose in parallel with them and largely based on the same model, through which allotments were allocated to soldiers and other employees, were the basis of the economic power of the center. Rent-tax from community members, tribute from conquered neighbors and duties of the population were the basis for the normal functioning of the structure as a whole. At the same time, the strengthening of the role of the state economy and the influx of tribute from outside objectively contributed to the growth of prestigious consumption at the top, which resulted in a noticeable process of privatization. Initially, it was revealed at the top level and was realized in the form of individual accumulation of property - both as a result of wars and during the exchange operations of tamkars. An important role was played by the influx of captured foreigners, turned into slaves, whose labor was used almost free of charge.

The founder of the Akkadian kingdom was Sargon (Sharrumken), whose name translates as “true king.” It is believed that he was not a man of royal or even aristocratic origin. He does not name his father, and the legends surrounding his name and later documents call Sargon either a gardener, or the adopted son of a water carrier, or a servant of the ruler of Kish. Sargon probably seized power as a result of a palace coup, taking advantage of the defeat of the Kish ruler in the war with Lugalzagesi.

Having subjugated Kish, Upi-Akshak and other northern cities, the new king took all the highest titles: “lugal of Kish”, “lugal of the Country”, as well as “lugal of Akkad” - the new capital, which he built between the Tigris and Euphrates and which gave the name to the entire state .

The next stage of Sargon's aggressive policy was the war with Lugalzagesi and his allies, which ended with his victory over 50 rulers. However, even after this, some large Sumerian cities (Ur, Umma, Lagash) continued to resist the Akkadian conqueror, and only after 34 battles Sargon was able to wash his victorious weapon in the waters of the Persian Gulf.

With the conquest of Sumer, the Akkadians undertook a series of successful campaigns in a northwestern direction: Mari, Ebla and other territories were conquered up to the “Cedar Forest” and “Silver Mountains”, that is, to the Aman and Taurus mountain ranges. And at the end of Sargon’s reign, the country of Subartu (Northern Mesopotamia) also came under the rule of Akkad. Raids were carried out beyond the eastern limits of the Tigris and Euphrates valley - into Elam.

The result of the 55-year reign of Sargon (2316-2261 BC) was the unification under the rule of one ruler of all Mesopotamia and the creation of the largest power at that time in Western Asia, centered in Akkad. The formation of a single centralized state had serious consequences for the economy, and above all for the main branch of the economy - agriculture. The creation of a large irrigation network throughout Southern and Central Mesopotamia, the construction of roads and harbors, the introduction of a national system of weights and measures led to the development of commodity-money relations, sea, river and land trade in the state (with the islands and coasts of the Persian Gulf, India, nomads western steppes and the highlanders of Elam).

The establishment of the autocracy of the despot king took place in the struggle with the clan aristocracy, which relied on the councils of elders. On the other hand, the social support of the royal power was formed - the serving nobility, the bureaucracy, and partly the priesthood. During the time of the Sargonids, the temple economy passed into the hands of the ruler, the priesthood was given additional benefits and material benefits, and special attention was paid to traditional cults in Ur and Nippur. In turn, the priests glorify the king and create a favorable legendary tradition that explains his rise to the patronage of the goddess Ishtar. The new service nobility, which makes up the royal bureaucracy, also becomes the tsar’s support. Its representatives (officials, scribes) are placed at the head of some cities in Mesopotamia, replacing the former hereditary "ensi". The community is experiencing a process of property stratification. Along with wealthy community members who have occupied prominent positions in local government, the poor and landless are appearing, whose lot is becoming hired work. If at the beginning of his conquests Sargon relied on the community militia, which increased their political role and enriched them through spoils, then later he created a permanent army, giving the soldiers land plots from the royal land fund for their service. During the wars, due to the prisoners, the number of slaves in the royal, temple and private farms increased.

The result of the political development of Akkad in the XXIV-XXIII centuries. BC e. the emergence of despotism, represented by the powerful power of the king (“sharrum”),

Akkadian power under the successors of Sargon. The evolution of royal power during the reign of Naram-Suen.

However, the power created by Sargon and the despotic power itself faced a number of difficulties. Already at the end of his reign, fermentation began among the “elders” (tribal aristocracy), a rebellion broke out in the army (apparently in the community militia), some regions (Subartu) and cities (Babylon, etc.) fell away.

Sargon's successor, Rimush, took decisive measures aimed at destroying the separatism of the family aristocracy of Sumer. Three campaigns were organized against the rebellious rulers of the cities, accompanied by fierce battles and reprisals. The third campaign against a strong coalition of cities - Umma, Adab, Lagash - was especially important. Their “ensi” were killed or captured, about 13,000 people were killed in Umma and Dera alone.

With such a scale of punitive operations and the precariousness of the internal political situation, it was difficult to organize military campaigns in foreign countries, moreover, some of them (for example, Ebla) sharply intensified, and Rimush limited himself to only two campaigns against Elam.

In domestic politics, Rimush, like Sargon, tried to enlist the support of the priesthood by bringing abundant gifts to the temples of Nippur, Lagash, and Ur. But the opposing side turned out to be stronger, and as a result of the conspiracy, the king died at the hands of his entourage, who killed him with stone seals. Rimush's brother Manishtush also had to suppress a number of uprisings. Along with this, he made two trips to Elam. One of the trips was undertaken by sea to the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf.

In order to strengthen the royal power, Manishtushu introduces taxes on the temple economy, expands the royal land fund, buying up communal lands, which lays the foundations of the royal farming system. At the same time, he seeks support from the priests, increasing the size of the plots and the number of slaves for the temple staff, bringing rich gifts to the temples, exempting some of them from tax duties.

After the violent death of this king, the famous Naram-Suen (2236-2200 BC) reigned in Akkad. Having suppressed another outbreak of discontent within the state, Naram-Suen takes measures that strengthen his despotic power. Instead of the former hereditary "ensis" from among the aristocracy, he places his sons, representatives of the tsarist bureaucracy, in a number of cities, and reduces the "ensis" to the position of officials. Reliance on the priesthood becomes the leading line of his internal policy. He and his sons-vicars build temples, members of the royal family are part of the temple staff, and priests are given numerous benefits. In response, the priesthood agrees to recognize Naram-Suen as the “god of Akkad”, the determinative of the deity is placed before the name of the king.

Naram-Suen's foreign policy is very active. He undertakes successful campaigns to the northwest, where he deals a decisive blow to the kingdom of Ebla, to the north - to Subartu and the upper reaches of the Tigris, to the east - to Elam and the countries of the Persian Gulf coast, to the Zagros Mountains - against the Lullubi tribe. His victories are recorded in numerous inscriptions found in the upper reaches of the Tigris and in Susa. The Susa Naram-Suen Stele, an outstanding work of art, depicts the king’s triumph in the war with the Lullubeys. The title “king of the four countries of the world” solemnly crowned the foreign policy successes of the Akkadian king.

However, the last years of Naram-Suen's reign were overshadowed by conflicts with part of the priesthood, dissatisfied with the introduction of the royal cult, as well as the famine that gripped the country, the destruction of the irrigation network, which were probably a consequence of the invasion of Mesopotamia by the mountain tribes of the Kutians (Gutians).

The once powerful Akkadian kingdom had difficulty fighting off steppe nomads from the west, Elamite raids from the east, and the ever deeper penetration of the Gutians into Mesopotamia.

1) three campaigns against the rebel rulers (against Umma, Adab, Lagash)

2) two trips to Elam

3) an attempt to enlist the support of the priesthood, death at the hands of the conspirators

Manishtushu

1) two trips to Elam

2) suppression of a number of uprisings

3) introduction of taxes from the temple economy

4) expansion of the royal land fund

5) seeking support from the priesthood

Naram-Suen (2236-2200)

1) Domestic policy:

Suppressing outbursts of discontent

Governors in the cities are the sons of Naram-Suen

Relegation of "ensies" to the level of officials

The leading line of policy is reliance on the priesthood

Recognition of Naram-Suen as the “god of Akkad”

2) Foreign policy:

Successful trips to the NW (Ebla)

On the N (Subartu, upper reaches of the Tigris)

On B (Elam, Gulf countries)

To the Zagros Mountains (Lullubei)

Susa “Stele of Naram-Suen”, title of “king of the four countries of the world”

3) end of reign - decline in irrigation, conflicts with the priesthood, famine

Invasion of the Kutians.

The Kutii were a tribal union led by elected leaders. They imposed tribute on M. and took the population captive. The Kutians preferred to stay on the territory of their country and govern M. with the help of governors. One of these governors was Gudea, possibly exercising power over all of Sumer ca. 20 years in the second half. 22c. The political defeat of Akkad weakened the despotic Power of the king. Under Gudea, Lagash had extensive trade relations with the north. M. Syria, India and other countries. For about a hundred years, the Kuti held water. Dominion over the country. Resistance to the conquerors, led by Utukhengal, matured.

In 2109 Kuti was defeated by Utuhengal. However, he soon died and the founder of the 3rd dynasty of Ur came to power - Ur-Nammu. The dynasty ruled the unified Sumerian state from the end of the 22nd to the end of the 21st centuries.

100 great commanders of antiquity Shishov Alexey Vasilievich

Sargon I the Ancient (Akkadian)

Conqueror of Sumer, Elam, Cedar Forest and Silver Mountains

Sargon I the Ancient

The country of the Sumerians, as history shows, arose almost simultaneously with the Egyptian civilization. They were a people of uncertain ethnic origin, about which researchers still debate to this day. The Sumerians migrated south through Asia Minor (or perhaps the Caucasus Mountains) and settled in the naturally fertile southern part of Mesopotamia.

Sumer, as such, was not a single kingdom: it was made up of independent city-states - Kish, Umma, Larsa, Ur, Lagash, Babylon, Borsippa and others, which were constantly at war with each other. The most powerful of them, such as Lagash and Umma, sought hegemony among their neighbors. It was possible to achieve it only with an armed hand.

A feature of the internal structure of Sumer was that the power of the priests was much stronger than the power of the military leaders. But even among the priesthood there was no unity that could turn the Sumerian city-states into a single whole, with centralized secular and religious power. But such a situation, even in the Ancient world, could not last historically for long.

The fragmentation of Sumer logically led to the fact that its unifier became the conqueror, the first crown-bearing commander known to us (thanks to the first written sources), undoubtedly a great one, from the time of three millennia BC. This was King Sargon I the Ancient (or Sargon of Akkad). It is in his name that a portrait gallery of military leaders of the Ancient World opens, who “surgically,” that is, by conquest, redrew the known political map of that long-gone era.

Sargon was not a Sumerian by origin and very little is known about him as a person. He was a man of humble origin. Having become a ruler, he called himself Sharrum-ken, which meant “the king is true.” According to one legend, the goddess Ishtar fell in love with Sargon and made him king of Akkad. In any case, at the very beginning of his campaigns of conquest he declared himself the protege of this goddess on earth.

The Akkadians were the northern neighbors of Sumer, living between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This once warlike nomadic people settled on the fertile Mesopotamian land, adopting much of the land use from the Sumerians.

Initially, the two ancient peoples lived in peace. However, the internecine strife of the Sumerian lugals (military leaders of city-states) led to the fact that the Akkadian military leader Sargon set out to create his own power. To strengthen his personal power in Akkad, he conquers the strongest city in this area - Kish and after that calls himself “King of Kish” and “King of Akkad”.

Having strengthened himself in the north of Sumer, Sargon shows remarkable abilities. A few years later he had under his command a strong army of 5,400 soldiers, who were entirely dependent on the ruler of Akkad. They were maintained at the expense of the state (royal) treasury. According to King Sargon the Ancient himself, his army “dined at his table” every day.

A feature of the actions of Akkadian warriors in battle was that their main weapon was long-range bows with arrows tipped with copper. This made it possible to hit enemies within a few hundred steps. Sumerian warriors, at best, could throw a throwing spear a dozen or two steps.

Either Sargon had access to yew (or hazel) thickets in the foothills of Asia Minor or modern Iran (war bows were made from yew wood), or in his time a composite, or glued, meadow of horn, wood and sinew had already been invented. A good bow was a formidable weapon that had an accurate range of 200 meters or more; it could fire 5–6 rounds per minute with a supply of arrows in the quiver of 30 to 50; at close range the arrow pierced a thick board.

The “shooting” army of Sargon the Ancient defeated all the squads of the Sumerian city-states that tried to stop his campaigns of conquest on the battlefields. Apparently, the Sumerian warriors suffered defeat even before they had time to engage the enemy hand-to-hand.

In a short time, the Akkadians conquered the entire south of Sumer. They captured and devastated such large city-states as Uruk, Ur, Lagash and Umma. The warriors of the invincible Sargon “washed their weapons in the sea” - that is, in the waters of the Persian Gulf.

The loudest victory of the commander Sargon was the defeat of the Lugal army of the city of Umma Zaggisi (Lugalzaggisi), who refused to become related to him through a dynastic marriage. The self-confident Lugal was captured and led in copper shackles in the solemn procession of the Akkadian victors through the “gate of the god Enlil” in the city of Nippur. Then he was executed, not without a certain victorious triumph.

Later, the Akkadian army made a series of new conquests - to Asia Minor (to the “Silver Mountains”) and Elam. The Elamite troops were defeated by the warlike Sharrun-ken, who captured many cities by force. Apparently, these campaigns were of a predatory nature and were carried out for the sake of obtaining military booty - valuables, property and captives who became slaves.

One of the deciphered rock inscriptions indicates that the king-commander Sargon of Akkad made bold campaigns to the west, where the country of Amur was located. Their victorious result was the following:

"Endil gave him the Upper Country of Maer (or Mari), Yarmuti and Ibdu, down to the Gedr Forests and the Silver Mountains."

The country of Maer (Mari) was located west of the Euphrates River, Yarmuti was located in the northern part of Palestine. In ancient times the mountains of Lebanon were called the “Cedar Forest”, and the Taurus Mountains were called the “Silver Mountains”. This suggests that King Sargon I invaded the lands of Syria and Palestine. Other inscriptions say that he established himself (or attempted to do so) for a time on the shores of the Syrian Mediterranean.

One of the rock inscriptions says that King Sargon “traversed the sea of the west, was in the west for three years, conquered and united the countries, placing his statues in the west, transferred his captives by sea and by land.”

Sargon the Ancient, having conquered Sumer, did not choose any of its many cities as his capital and did not accept any of the honorary Sumerian titles. He called himself the king of Sumer and Akkad, building his own capital on the banks of the middle Euphrates, calling it Akkad. Soon this new Mesopotamian city became prosperous. Ships from Melachi (India) landed at its river pier, bringing such strange goods as monkeys and elephants.

The conqueror of Sumer disbanded the unreliable city squads of warrior-landowners. He stationed his standing army around the capital so that it could be quickly assembled. In the event of large campaigns, a militia was assembled from personally free citizens of the Sumerian country.

In the conquered country, Sargon of Akkad, who founded the Sargonid dynasty, took personal control of the huge economy of the Sumerian temples. It consisted of cultivated fields and farmers belonging to them. To prevent the temple priests from plotting dangerous intrigues against him, the king regularly provided them with generous gifts, including part of the spoils of war.

The population of Sumer, both temple priests and ordinary people, did not accept the new conquering ruler. According to legend, city residents often rebelled against him. There is a known case when, in his old age, King Sargon, during one such “outrage,” had to flee from the palace and hide in a ditch, although he later suppressed the rebellion.

While ruling Sumer, Sargon the Ancient tirelessly took care of his army. At that time, he had no rivals among his neighbors, and therefore the Semitic trading colonies in Asia Minor, in need of armed protection, often turned to him for military assistance. Naturally, for a good fee. The practical king of Sumer and Akkad did not refuse these requests from the Asia Minor merchants, knowing well all the benefits of such cooperation.

After the death of Sharrum-ken, the power of the Ancient World created by his conquests - the Akkadian state - began to disintegrate. The sons of Sargon I - Ramush and Manishtushu, who ruled one after another after their father, met with stubborn resistance from most of the population of Southern Sumer, Elam and other regions.

Suppressing the uprisings, King Ramush massacred entire cities, executed many thousands of Sumerian captives, and his soldiers committed robberies with impunity. Along the way, slaves were obtained, which were needed by the economy of the power founded by Sargon the Ancient.

From Mina's book Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow author Veremeev Yuri Georgievich

Ancient period The prehistory of mines dates back to the Bronze Age, when man learned to use metals in his activities. To smelt bronze, which in its simplest form is an alloy of tin and copper, people mined the corresponding ores. Initially they

From the book 100 great commanders of antiquity author Shishov Alexey Vasilievich

Sargon II Master of military intelligence who plundered Urartu, Jerusalem and Phenicia Sargon II with a sacrificial goat After the death of Tiglath-pileser III, his son-heir Shalmaneser V ascended the royal throne of Assyria. He began his reign by depriving the temple priests of great benefits,

From the book The Grail and the Swastika. Nazi religion author Pervushin Anton Ivanovich

The Ancient World What can you learn about the Ancient World from the books of Helena Blavatsky? In her opinion, the history of mankind began three hundred million years ago, when on the indestructible sacred land the astral matrix, woven from the purest energy, began to turn into a rough bisexual

For subsequent times, the personality of the founder of the kingdom of Akkad - Sharrumken (in modern historiography usually called Sargon the Ancient) - was shrouded in a fabulous haze of legends; Even now it is not easy for us to separate legend from history, although genuine inscriptions have come down from Sargon, unfortunately, they are rather sparse in content,” notes I.M. Dyakonov. There are separate mentions of this ruler in the “Tsar’s List”.

According to legend, Sargon's mother, a priestess by profession, secretly placed the newly born baby in a basket and sent it down the Euphrates. The point is that she was enigpum (entum) – “priestess of the sacred marriage.” And the whole tragedy of her situation was that the child was conceived not in the temple and not by God (whose role was actually played by the ruler of the city), but outside the temple and by a mortal man. The exposure of such a flagrant violation of immutable religious rules threatened the priestess with death, and she hastened to get rid of the dangerous “evidence.”

The basket was picked up by Akki, the water carrier and gardener of King Kish, who also adopted the baby. “The gardener taught his adopted son his craft, but when Sargon reached adolescence, the goddess of love Ishtar (Inanna. - V.G.). She liked him so much that she promised to show him her special favor, with the help of which he would go straight to the royal throne of Kish.” This is what the epic poems say about Sargon. But we know from more reliable sources that the man who calls himself Sharrumken had a very simple origin. During the reign of Ur-Zababa (Lugal of the IV dynasty of this city) in Kish, he served as the royal gardener and cup bearer. “We have hardly any right to doubt that either Sargon really came from the people (in fact, from the members of the staff of the royal-temple household), or there was something in his activities or in the historical situation that accompanied it that allowed such an opinion to be formed about him,” emphasizes THEM. Dyakonov. – Such an unexpected rise could have occurred in a critical situation of the collapse of kingdoms, a popular uprising or general unrest, but it is unlikely simply as a result of one of those palace coups, dozens of which the history of Mesopotamia knew before and after Sargon. Since, according to the “Royal List,” Sargon was a servant of Ur-Zababa, the king of Kish, it seems possible to connect his sudden rise with the defeat of Kish suffered by Lugalzagesi. In any case, for some time Sargon ruled simultaneously with Lugalzagesi from Umma.

Sargon’s real name is unknown, but he most likely adopted the name Sharrumken, which means “true king” in East Semitic, upon his accession to the throne. A late Akkadian poem, known as the Legend of Sargon, reports that his homeland was Azupiran ("Saffron Town" or "Town of Crocuses") on the Euphrates. Its exact location is unknown, but it is assumed that it was located somewhere in the middle reaches of this river (in modern Syria). In any case, Sargon, judging by his name, was an Eastern Semitic, and he rose to prominence in Kish, in northern Sumer.

“Many historians,” notes I.M. Dyakonov, - attach inordinate importance to the East Semitic origin of Sargon and believe that thereby a new one, namely Semitic (Akkadian. - V.G.) period in the history of Mesopotamia. This, however, is not the case; in Upper and northern Lower Mesopotamia... long before this, the East Semitic language apparently predominated; already the Akshaka dynasty and the II–IV dynasties of Kish were mainly Semitic-speaking; wrote in cuneiform in East Semitic before the reign of Sargon, for example, in Mari... and even in Ur... Sargon, naturally, brought his fellow northerners closer to himself, among whom there were many Semites, and therefore under him East Semitic began to come into wider official use ( Akkadian – V.G.) language; however, Sumerian continued to be used both in everyday life and in office work.”

Ill. 44. Bronze head of Sargon of Akkad.

III millennium BC n. e.

Having seized, by hook or by crook, the royal throne in Kish, Sargon managed to first capture Upper Mesopotamia - “to the Upper (Mediterranean) Sea”, and then “turned his gaze” to the south - to Lower Mesopotamia. But here a very powerful enemy tried to thwart his ambitious aspirations - Lugalzagesi, the king of Umma and the conqueror of most of the cities of Sumer.

“The confrontation between Lugalzagesi and Sargon,” writes V.V. Emelyanov, is the first serious fork in the history of Southern Mesopotamia. Here we are faced with the situation of choosing a path, and this path runs in opposite directions. Documents that have come down from the time of Lugalzagesi allow us to conclude that his “political program” is traditional. Having conquered the Southern Mesopotamia, the Ummian king moved to the military center of the Sumerians Uruk, achieved that he was elected Lugal in Nippur, and put his power at the service of the communal oligarchy. If If Sargon had not appeared on his path, one would have expected the traditional Sumerian desire to distinguish his city from among others, the hierarchy of “center” - “province”, “senior city” - “junior city”, redistribution of benefits in favor of community authorities and the highest temple priesthood... That is, even having captured the entire territory of Mesopotamia, Lugalzagesi would not have been able to do anything to unite the country and ensure coordinated unity in the work of local irrigation systems. As a result, dissatisfied people would arise, and internecine wars between city rulers and demands to return would begin in a new circle country into conditions of original justice."

A completely different path was prepared for Mesopotamia under Sargon... Sargon’s political and ideological innovations boiled down to the following:

1. Replacement of the new oligarchy with officials appointed by the tsar, creating conditions for the reproduction of the tsarist bureaucracy.

2. Creation of a mass army recruited from free communal farmers.

3. Favoring the development of trade and usury, patronage of people of these professions.

4. Consolidation of priestly and royal power by promoting one’s relatives and associates to the highest priestly positions in Sumerian temples, as well as through the use of temple land.

5. Introduction of a unified system of weights and measures (in silver and barley grain) and attempts to introduce a unified calendar.

6. In the field of art, a hitherto unprecedented genre appears - a sculptural portrait of a ruler, which indicates a tendency towards glorifying the personality of the king in the era of the Sargonids.

And according to I.M. Dyakonov, “the victory of Akkad for Mesopotamia meant centralism, the strengthening of the political and economic unity of the country, the rational use of irrigation systems, the subordination of temple farms to the royal economy, the destruction of the traditional oligarchy associated with local communities and temples, and the promotion of a new nobility from the leaders of the royal army to the forefront and the tsarist bureaucracy."

However, on the way to these radical transformations stood Lugalzagesi, the ruler of Southern Mesopotamia and the patron of traditional orders, personified by the old aristocracy and the old priesthood. It was not for nothing that he managed to assemble a huge army for the decisive clash with Sargon of Akkad, uniting militia detachments and squads of professional warriors from 50 city-states led by their ensi (rulers).

The outcome of this struggle, the reward for victory in which would be dominance over the entire Mesopotamia, was decided by the military organization and tactics of the troops of both rivals. The army of the Sumerian "nomes" consisted of three types of troops: light infantry armed with javelins, clubs and maces; heavily armed infantry with helmets, large shields and long spears; chariots drawn by four donkeys. These soldiers went into battle in close formation, moving only forward and could not change formation and maneuver during the battle. Sargon's armed forces are a completely different matter. The basis of his army was made up of numerous light infantry, operating in loose formation and divided into archers, spearmen and warriors armed with axes. In battles against the lumbering, heavily armed Sumerian infantry of Lugalzagesi, Sargon's troops constantly gained the upper hand. Uruk, Ur, Lagash and finally Umma were captured. Its unlucky ruler was captured by the northerners, put in chains in a cage and sent to Nippur for the amusement of the public. “The power of the Sumerian king should end where it began - in sacred Nippur. Therefore, Lugalzagesi, in copper shackles, was led through the Nippur “gate of Enlil,” after which he was deprived of power and was brought to trial by Enlil himself, or rather by his priests, who most likely sentenced the Ummian hegemon to death.”

It is significant that in choosing a capital for his rapidly growing kingdom, Sargon decided not to live in any of the old northern centers like Kish, Akshak or Mari, but found a run-down city without traditions, almost unknown, somewhere within the "nome" of Sippar. The city was called Akkad. According to him, the entire north of Mesopotamia began to be called Akkad, and the East Semitic language - Akkadian. Unfortunately, the ruins of this city have not yet been found.

Sargon was a very ambitious ruler. After conquering Sumer, he made an important symbolic gesture: he washed his sword in the “Lower Sea,” that is, in the Persian Gulf. Cuneiform texts report that Sargon reigned for 55 years (2316–2261 BC) and fought 34 major and successful battles. Over the years, he made many victorious campaigns to the west - to the region

Syria and Asia Minor and to the east - to the region of Elam (Southwestern Iran). After the victory over Lugalzagesi, the power of the Akkadian monarch extended from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf, from the Iranian mountains to the Arabian Desert. It was the largest state that existed in Mesopotamia until then. It is not for nothing that many modern researchers call the power of Sargon of Akkad empire.

The former gardener, having become the “ruler of half the world,” could have satisfied his ambition by accepting the prestigious title “Lugal (king) of Kisha,” which was common in Sumerian practice. But this was clearly not enough for Sargon. Lugalzagesi, defeated by the Akkadian army, had previously introduced a new title - “King of the Country”. True, in reality these were only claims of the self-confident ruler of a relatively small state in the south of Mesopotamia, claims that were never realized. However, Lugalzagesi's political plans soon became the real program of action of Sargon, who for the first time united power over all of Mesopotamia in one hand. And this fact was immediately reflected in the royal title. The ruler of Sumer and Akkad appropriated to himself the pompous title “Lord of the Four Directions of the World,” which was previously applied only to the gods.

And yet the biggest innovation of this monarch was his establishment of the actual superiority of the Semites (Akkadians) over the Sumerians. Akkadian governors were sent to all the major Sumerian "nomes", and Akkadian became the official language for office work. But the traditional religious orders and institutions of Sumer were invariably respected: for example, Sargon’s daughter became a priestess of Nanna, the moon god in Ur, and the monarch himself called himself “the anointed priest of the god Anu” and “the great ensi of Enlil.”

Having strengthened his power in Mesopotamia and significantly increased the size of his army, Sargon carried out several large military campaigns in two directions: across the Tigris, towards Iran and also along the Euphrates, into Syria. True, in the east he met fierce resistance from the combined forces of the four rulers of Southwestern Iran, led by the king of Avan. In the end, the enemies were completely defeated, a number of cities were devastated by the victors. After this, many rulers and kings of Elam and neighboring regions expressed a desire to recognize themselves as vassals of Akkad.

Ill. 45. Troops of the Sumerian city-states (infantry and chariots).

Reconstruction drawing by a contemporary artist

Then the campaign began to the northwest - to Syria and Lebanon. Mari, Ibla and Yarmuti, as well as the countries of the Cedar Forest and Silver Mountain, submitted to Sargon, although not without a struggle. The first three cities were definitely in Northern Syria, the "Cedar Forest" in Lebanon, and the "Silver Mountain" in the Taurus Mountains (Turkey). From these names alone it can be assumed that Sargon provided himself with reserves of wood and silver, which were now easily floated on rafts and boats down the Euphrates - to Akkad and Sumer. Akkadian troops carried out successful raids into Kurdistan and along the Persian Gulf coast, all the way to Oman.

The glorious reign of Sargon of Akkad lasted at least 55 years, until 2261 BC. e. And, as a rather late Babylonian chronicle tells us, “in his old age all the lands rebelled against him and besieged him in Akkad.” But the old lion still had sharp teeth and claws: “he came out of the gates of the city and broke them; he swept them off the face of the earth and destroyed their huge army.”

The events that darkened the last years of the life of Sargon the Ancient manifested themselves in their entirety after his death: a general uprising of those dissatisfied with the new order began in both Sumer and Elam. Sargon's son and heir, Rimush, brutally dealt with the rebels and restored relative order within the Akkadian Empire. But danger awaited him in the ninth year of his reign (2261–2252 BC) inside his own home. “His servants,” says one Babylonian source, “killed him with their clay tablets.” This is a true paradox: a baked clay tablet with cuneiform writing - a source of knowledge - can, it turns out, sometimes turn into a deadly weapon.

Rimush was succeeded on the throne by Manishtusa, his twin brother. One of the most striking events of his reign (2252–2238 BC) was a military expedition to the Persian Gulf region. It is described in the sources in the following words: “Manishtusu, king of Kish, when he conquered Anshan and Shirikum (regions in Northwestern Iran. - V.G.), he crossed the Lower Sea (Persian Gulf. - V.G.). The kings of the cities on the other side of the sea, 32 of them, gathered together for battle. He defeated them and subjugated their cities; he overthrew their rulers and captured the entire country down to the silver mines. The mountains behind the Lower Sea - their stones he took with him, made his own statue and handed it to Enlil.

But here all the northern and eastern tribes and peoples rebelled: the Lul-Lubeys, the Kutians (Gutians), the Hurrians, the Elamites. All passes in the mountains leading from Turkey, Armenia and Azerbaijan to Mesopotamia were cut. The “bronze roads” (that is, the routes for delivering bronze ingots and products made from it) turned out to be tightly closed. The Akkadians had two ways out of this acute situation: either fight with the tribes in the north and forcefully pave the way to sources of tin and copper, or send an expedition for metal to Oman and southeast Iran. Manishtusu's son, Naram-suen ("Beloved by the god Sin"), preferred the war in the north and soon achieved success in it. To his title “King of Akkad,” he hastened to add such loud epithets as “Lord of the Four Directions of the World” and “King of the Universe.” In addition, his name was preceded in the inscriptions by the sign of a star - an ideogram for denoting a god (Sumerian "dingir", Akkadian "ilu").

Ill. 46. Stele of Naram-suen depicting his victory over the Lullubeys.

Limestone. Susa

Naram-suen was a man of the same breed as his grandfather Sargon, and, like him, for a long time became the hero of many legends and traditions. His long, 36-year reign (2252–2216 BC) was almost entirely filled with military campaigns, all of which took place on the periphery of Mesopotamia. In the west, Naram-suen defeated the cities of Arman (Aleppo?) and Ibla (Ebla) and occupied the “Cedar Mountain” (Lebanon). In the north, a successful operation was carried out against the Hurrian Namar. To establish his prestige in this troubled region, the Akkadian monarch ordered the construction of his summer residence at Tell Brak, a key point in the heart of the Khabur River valley, which controlled all the roads leading to Jezira. In the extreme south of the “empire,” Magan (Oman) rebelled, and Naram-suen immediately rushed there, pacified the rebels and personally captured the local king Mandanna. However, he directed his main blow against the powerful Lullubey highlanders. The Akkadian victories over them are immortalized by a rock relief at Darband-i-Gavr (Iran) and a masterpiece of Mesopotamian monumental sculpture - the famous “Stela of Susa”. On it, Naram-suen, armed with a bow and arrows, wearing the horned tiara of a god on his head, is depicted climbing a steep mountain over the corpses of defeated enemies. His infantry, shown on a much smaller scale, follows directly behind him.

There is no doubt that Naram-suen was the last great monarch of the Akkadian dynasty. But before he could breathe his last breath, pressure on the external borders of the empire began to become threatening. While the talented grandson of Sargon was on the throne of Akkad, relations between Mesopotamia and Elam were peaceful and friendly. However, already under Naram-suen’s successor, Sharkali-sharra, the king of Elam, Puzur-Inshu-shinak, declared his country independent, abandoned the Akkadian language in favor of Elamite, and accepted the title “King of the Universe.” And the ruler of Akkad, whose name, ironically, meant “King of all kings,” was powerless to prevent this, since he was engaged in suppressing rebellions in Sumer and wars with the Lullubeys, Gutians and nomads of Syria. Soon Shar-kali-sharri himself became a victim of a palace conspiracy, and the Akkadian Empire disappeared from the historical scene as quickly as it had once appeared. Anarchy and unrest struck literally all of Mesopotamia. Following the example of Uruk, several Sumerian "nomes" declared their full sovereignty. Puzur-Inshushinak made a lightning rush to Mesopotamia from Elam and reached the immediate vicinity of the capital city of Akkad. The Lullubeys also perked up. However, ultimately, it was not the Elamites or Lullubei, but the Gutians who established their dominance in the country. The last Akkadian kings became mere puppets under the new masters, and for almost a hundred years the Sumerians and Akkadians had to obey the leaders of the nomadic Kutians, who bore such strange names for Mesopotamians as Inimagabesh or Jarlagab.

The rise and fall of the Akkadian Empire clearly demonstrates to us the mechanism of the emergence and death of all subsequent major Mesopotamian powers: rapid expansion is followed by endless rebellions, palace coups, constant wars on the borders and, in the end, the final mortal blow inflicted by the highlanders - now the Gutians, tomorrow - Elamites, Medes or Persians.

A civilization based on agriculture and metalworking in a country like Mesopotamia requires at least two conditions for its existence: clear cooperation between various ethnic and socio-political groups within the country itself and a friendly or at least neutral attitude towards it from the outside. her neighbors. Unfortunately, the Mesopotamians did not have either the first or the second for any long time. Both in Sumer and Akkad there was never any internal agreement or unity of all layers and groups of the population, which, as a rule, was mixed and heterogeneous. On the other hand, the wealth accumulated in the prosperous cities of the Mesopotamian plain always attracted both the poor shepherds of the foothills and the nomadic tribes of the steppes. Therefore, both of them did not miss an opportunity for predatory raids on Mesopotamia.

The Mesopotamians, in turn, had to conquer and subjugate the mountain and steppe tribes in order to provide trade routes for the delivery of vital goods - wood, metals, building stone, gold and silver. In this endless war on two fronts, the kings of Akkad, like later the kings of Ur, Babylon and Assyria, used only naked force, and, sooner or later, the empires collapsed. The death of Shar-kali-sharri (2176 BC) practically meant the end of the Akkadian period. But short as this period was, it had a profound and lasting impact on the entire history of Mesopotamia. The narrow geographical horizon of Sumer was noticeably expanded. The Semitic language of the Akkadians gained a wider audience. And the first two historical peoples of Mesopotamia (Sumerians and Akkadians) were closely intertwined with each other in a single destiny. The Sumerian-Akkadian culture and its main support - cuneiform writing - were adopted not only by the population of Northern Mesopotamia, but also by the distant Hurrians, Lul-Lubei and Elamites. Iran (Elam), Bahrain (Dilmun), Oman (Magan) and the entire Persian Gulf basin found themselves under the powerful influence of the high and vibrant civilization of Mesopotamia.

Politically, this period united small, autonomous city-states and ushered in the era of large, centralized kingdoms. As for the socio-economic sphere, the Akkadian reforms led to the destruction of the old fundamental principles of the existence of the Sumerian temple city and to the creation of large royal estates, the intensification of trade and craft activities, the development of private initiative and the collapse of the traditional communal aristocracy. It is interesting that even the “Sumerian coup” of the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e., which followed a short time after the Akkadian period, was not able to completely restore the old “new” orders. In many ways, the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur followed the already beaten paths that Sargon the Ancient and his dynasty had paved for them.

Unification of Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) under the rule of Akkad. Sargon the Ancient. XXIV-XXII centuries BC e.

With the conquest of Sumer, the Akkadians undertook a series of successful campaigns in a northwestern direction: Mari, Ebla and other territories were conquered up to the Aman and Taurus mountain ranges. And at the end of Sargon’s reign, the country of Subartu (Northern Mesopotamia) also came under the rule of Akkad. Raids were carried out beyond the eastern limits of the Tigris and Euphrates valley - into Elam.

The establishment of the autocracy of the despot king took place in the struggle with the clan aristocracy, which relied on the councils of elders. On the other hand, the social support of the royal power was formed - the serving nobility, the bureaucracy, and partly the priesthood. During the time of the Sargonids, the temple economy passed into the hands of the ruler, the priesthood was given additional benefits and material benefits, and special attention was paid to traditional cults in Ur and Nippur. In turn, the priests glorify the king and create a favorable legendary tradition that explains his rise to the patronage of the goddess Ishtar. The new service nobility, which makes up the royal bureaucracy, also becomes the tsar’s support. Its representatives (officials, scribes) are placed at the head of some cities in Mesopotamia, replacing the former hereditary "ensi". The community is experiencing a process of property stratification. Along with wealthy community members who have occupied prominent positions in local government, the poor and landless appear, whose lot is wage work. If at the beginning of his conquests Sargon relied on the community militia, which increased their political role and enriched them through spoils, then later he created a permanent army, giving the soldiers land plots from the royal land fund for their service. During the wars, at the expense of prisoners, the number of slaves in the royal, temple and private farms increased.

The result of the political development of Akkad in the XXIV-XXIII centuries. BC e. the emergence of despotism, represented by the powerful power of the king (“sharrum”), appeared. However, the power created by Sargon and the despotic power itself faced a number of difficulties. Already at the end of his reign, fermentation began among the “elders” (tribal aristocracy), a rebellion broke out in the army (apparently in the community militia), some regions (Subartu) and cities (Babylon, etc.) fell away.

After the death of Sargon, his successors came to power, one of them was the famous Na-ram-Suen (2236-2200 BC). Having suppressed another outbreak of discontent within the state, Naram-Suen takes measures that strengthen his despotic power. Reliance on the priesthood becomes the leading line of his internal policy. He and his sons-vicars build temples, members of the royal family are part of the temple staff, and priests are given numerous benefits. In response, the priesthood agrees to recognize Naram-Suen as the “god of Akkad”, the determinative of the deity is placed before the name of the king.

Naram-Suen's foreign policy is very active. He undertakes successful campaigns to the northwest, where he deals a decisive blow to the kingdom of Ebla, to the north - to Subartu and the upper reaches of the Tigris, to the east - to Elam and the countries of the Persian Gulf coast, to the Zagros Mountains - against the Lullubey tribe. His victories are recorded in numerous inscriptions found in the upper reaches of the Tigris and in Susa. The Susa Naram-Suen Stele, an outstanding work of art, depicts the king’s triumph in the war. The title “king of the four countries of the world” solemnly crowned the foreign policy successes of the Akkadian king.

The once powerful Akkadian kingdom had difficulty fighting off steppe nomads from the west, Elamite raids from the east, and the ever deeper penetration of the Gutians into Mesopotamia.

Under the blows of the Gutians, the Akkadian kingdom fell into decay, losing its power over the Sumerian cities, which sought to restore independence. Social and political contradictions have intensified. The conquerors destroyed many temples and cities of Mesopotamia, the population was taken captive and subjected to heavy tribute.

The Kutia conquerors were a tribal union led by leaders elected for a certain period of time; they were at a lower stage of social development than the Mesopotamia they conquered. The Kutians preferred to be within their country and the region of Arrapha, and ruled Mesopotamia with the help of governors and military leaders from among the Sumerians and Akkadians.

For about a hundred years, the Kutians maintained political dominance over the country. The stratification of property in their own environment influenced the merger of the nobility of the conquerors with the nobility of the conquered Sumer and Akkad, which strengthened their dominance and made it even harder for the masses. Resistance to the conquerors matured, which was led by Uruk with the support of Ur, where the simple fisherman Utuhengal came to power.

In 2109 BC. e. the Kutians were defeated by Utukhengal. However, he soon died, and hegemony over liberated Mesopotamia passed to the king of Ur, Ur-Nammu. He became the founder of the famous III Dynasty of Ur, which ruled the united Sumerian-Akkadian kingdom (late 22nd - early 20th century BC)