DYSLEXIA: WAYS TO IDENTIFY AND OVERCOME
( COURSE WORK )
speech therapy
Introduction……………………………………………………………………...p. 3
Chapter I. Written speech
1.1. The concept of “written speech”……………………………………………………………p. 4
1.2. Psychophysiological mechanisms of reading………………………...p. 6
Chapter II. Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder
reading process
2.1. Definition and symptoms of dyslexia………………………….p. eleven
2.2. Studying the state of reading……………………………………..p. 16
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….p. 25
Bibliography…….……………………………………………………pp. 26
Introduction
The problem of written speech disorders among secondary school students is one of the most relevant problems of modern speech therapy.
Reading disorders are one of the common forms of speech pathology in school-age children.
By now, a certain concept has emerged of the interpretation of written speech as a complex mental activity of a person, necessary for him in everyday life. The works of Luria A.R., Kornev A.N., Lalaeva R.I., Levina R.E. are devoted to the problem of written speech. and other specialists.
As object research is reading, which is subject to direct study in this work.
Subject research is to study the specifics of reading disorders.
Target course work - to determine methods for identifying reading disorders and ways to overcome these disorders in secondary school students.
The implementation of the set goal is achieved by solving the following tasks :
Give a general idea of writing;
Consider the psychophysiological mechanisms of reading;
Consider the specifics of reading disorders;
Determine methods for identifying reading disorders;
Determine the directions of correctional work to eliminate reading disorders.
Chapter I . Written speech
1.1. The concept of “written speech”
Written speech is one of the forms of language existence, opposed to oral speech. This is a secondary, later in time form of the existence of language. For various forms of language activity, both oral and written speech can be primary (for example, folklore and fiction). If oral speech separated man from the animal world, then writing should be considered the greatest of all inventions created by mankind. Written speech not only revolutionized the methods of accumulating, transmitting and processing information, but it changed man himself, especially his ability to think abstractly.
The concept of “written speech” includes reading and writing as equal components. “Writing is a symbolic system for recording speech, which allows, with the help of graphic elements, to fix speech in time and transmit it over a distance.” Any writing system is characterized by a constant composition of characters.
Russian writing refers to alphabetic writing systems. The alphabet marked the transition to symbols of higher orders and determined progress in the development of abstract thinking, making it possible to make speech and thinking objects of knowledge.
Both oral and written forms of speech are a type of temporary connections of the second signaling system, but, unlike oral, written speech is formed only under conditions of purposeful learning, i.e. its mechanisms develop during the period of learning to read and write and are improved during all further education. As a result of reflexive repetition, a dynamic stereotype of a word is formed in the unity of acoustic, optical and kinesthetic stimuli. Mastering written language is the establishment of new connections between the audible and spoken word, the visible and written word, because The writing process is ensured by the coordinated work of four analyzers: speech-motor, speech-auditory, visual and motor.
The shortest unit of speech, in accordance with this, can be conditionally represented as follows:
A.R. Luria defined reading as a special form of impressive speech, and writing as a special form of expressive speech, noting that writing (in any of its forms) begins with a certain plan, the preservation of which helps to inhibit all extraneous tendencies (running ahead, repetitions, etc.). ).
1.2. Psychophysiological mechanisms of reading
Modern ideas about higher mental functions are based on the teachings of A. R. Luria, L. S. Tsvetkova. and others who became the founders of the systematic study of neurophysiological mechanisms of the psyche. According to the theory developed by these researchers, any higher mental function is a complex system, the work of which is ensured by a number of interconnected brain areas.
A. R. Luria identified three blocks formed by special structures of the brain and performing all mental functions at different levels. The first block provides regulation of tone and wakefulness. The second block receives, processes and stores information. The third block implements programming, regulation and control of mental activity. It was A.R. Luria who first described the functional writing system in his works. Taking into account the psychophysiological, psychological and social proximity and inseparability of writing and reading skills, we can identify the components of a functional reading system:
Selective activation;
Processing of visual information;
Processing of auditory-verbal information;
Processing of kinesthetic information;
Processing of visual-spatial information;
Serial organization of movements serving reading (oculomotor and articulatory);
Programming, regulation and control of reading operations.
Selective activation as a component of the functional reading system, it is part of the block regulating tone and wakefulness and is determined by the work of the stem and subcortical formations of the brain. These departments create the optimal tone of the cortex, its energy base necessary for purposeful activity. The structures of the first block, which have a nonspecific effect on the cortical centers, also maintain a state of readiness for a reaction, that is, they perform the function of attention. When the structures of the first functional block are dysfunctional, the general dynamic characteristics of any activity deteriorate: its speed decreases, performance decreases, and exhaustion quickly sets in.
The block for receiving, processing and storing information implements the following functional components of reading: processing of visual and visual-spatial, auditory-verbal and kinesthetic information. The second block includes the posterior sections of the cerebral cortex: the occipital, parietal and temporal regions of the left and right hemispheres. A distinctive feature of the second block, compared to the first, is its hierarchical structure, which is expressed in the presence of primary, secondary and tertiary fields.
Primary fields, being projection fields, receive information of a strictly defined modality and are symmetrically located in both the left and right hemispheres of the brain. Above them are built secondary, gnostic, fields that process the information received in more detail. These fields are also closely related to certain analyzers, but are presented asymmetrically in different hemispheres, which is associated with the characteristics of the left- and right-hemisphere information processing strategy. It is known that the left hemisphere is characterized by an analytical strategy for processing information. Traditionally, the left hemisphere is considered “speech,” that is, responsible for speech processes. The right hemisphere is more responsible for the synthesis of received information; it is characterized by a holistic information processing strategy. It is primarily responsible for processing visual and visuospatial information. The tertiary fields of the second block represent an area of overlap of the cortical sections of various analyzers. The function of tertiary fields is to organize the joint activity of various analytical systems, to process and synthesize multimodal information, including providing visual-spatial analysis and synthesis.
Processing of visual information carried out by the occipital parts of the brain hemispheres. The projection fields of the left and right hemispheres receive primary information coming from the visual analyzer. Gnostic fields are responsible for the analysis, processing and storage of this information, and these operations are distributed unevenly between the left and right hemispheres of the brain. This is due to the information processing characteristics characteristic of each hemisphere. The right hemisphere, having an integral, holistic strategy for processing information, selects significant features and synthesizes a holistic image, and then identifies the emerging image and standard images, that is, it carries out global perception. For visual field dysfunction right hemisphere one-sided spatial agnosia, fragmentation of perception, and impaired recognition of individual characteristics of an object occur. The left hemisphere uses analytical methods of processing information, identifies and analyzes all the details in the object of perception (their size, shape, etc.), correlates them with existing schemes, and classifies the object. Disturbances in the visual lobe of the left hemisphere lead to the ignoring of individual elements and the inability to establish a hierarchy of selected features.
Recognition of visual stimuli depends not only on the external properties of the perceived object, but also on the internal ones: verbalized stimuli are recognized predominantly by the left hemisphere, non-speech, difficult to verbalize - by the right hemisphere. Accurate visual perception can only be ensured by the joint activity of the left and right hemispheres.
Processing of auditory-verbal information carried out by the temporal region of the cerebral cortex. Its primary fields receive all auditory information, which is then processed by the secondary, gnostic fields of the left hemisphere - Wernicke's area. The processes of phonemic perception, as well as auditory-verbal memory, are associated with the work of the gnostic zones of the temporal region. Dysfunction of the primary fields of the temporal zone of the brain leads to varying degrees of severity of physical hearing impairment, up to complete deafness if they are affected bilaterally. Dysfunction of secondary fields, without affecting the physical characteristics of hearing, causes a violation of the differentiation of phonemes according to oppositional characteristics (voiced-voiced, hard-soft). The left hemisphere is primarily responsible for performing these speech operations, but the right hemisphere also makes its own specific contribution to this process, creating opportunities for analyzing the rhythmic-intonation and melodic characteristics of speech.
Phonemic analysis of speech sounds is impossible without their pronunciation, since it is based on the establishment of acoustic-articulatory connections. Processing of kinesthetic information occurs in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex. The primary and secondary fields of the parietal lobe provide the afferent basis for any movement. Damage to the gnostic fields of the kinesthetic analyzer leads to impaired precision of movements. If the disorder extends to speech movements, then errors in the choice of articulatory structures and confusion of similar articles occur.
Visuospatial information processed by the tertiary fields of the second functional block, which are areas of overlap between the parietal and occipital regions. These fields integrate the activities of the kinesthetic and visual analyzers. This component of the functional reading system provides orientation on the plane of the page, compliance with the sequence of reading words, lines, etc. In addition, visual-spatial analysis underlies the differentiation of letters as graphic objects.
Serial organization of movements, programming, regulation and control of reading represent the functions of the third block, which includes the anterior parts of the brain. These structures also have a hierarchical organization. The primary zones of the block are the place of output of motor impulses, the programs of which are created by secondary zones located above the primary ones. The tertiary zones of this block provide control of complex forms of activity and general regulation of behavior.
Programming, regulation and serial organization of reading are manifested in articulatory and voluntary oculomotor movements. In the process of reading aloud, articulatory programs arise, then individual articulomes are combined into “sequential kinetic melodies,” giving reading aloud a smooth, holistic character. The eye movements that underlie the visual component of reading, that is, text tracing, also represent serially organized motor acts that successively replace each other.
Chapter II . Dyslexia is a partial specific disorder
reading process
The doctrine of writing disorders has existed for more than 100 years. The problem of written speech disorders has been studied and is being studied by such specialists as Luria A.R., Egorov T.G., Kashe G.A., Lalaeva R.I., Levina R.E., Spirova D.F., Ananyev B. G., Efimenkova L.N., Kornev A.N., Povalyaeva M.A., Sadovnikova I.N., Kovalenko O.M., Kozyreva L.M., Mazanova E.V., Misarenko G.G. , Paramonova L.G., Prishchepova I.V., Rossiyskaya E.N., Rusetskaya M.N. and others.
2.1. Definition and symptoms of dyslexia
Dyslexia is a partial disorder of the reading process, manifested in persistent and repeated reading errors due to the immaturity of the higher mental functions involved in the reading process.
This definition highlights the main signs of dyslexic errors, which makes it possible to differentiate dyslexia from other reading disorders:
1. Reading errors in dyslexia are persistent, and without special correction work they can persist in a child for many months and years. This allows us to differentiate dyslexic errors from reading errors, which act as regularities in the process of mastering reading and are observed in all children at the initial stages of mastering the skill of reading.
Reading errors, which naturally occur in all children when mastering the skill of reading, are not persistent and quickly disappear as they move from one stage of mastering the skill of reading to another.
2. Reading errors in dyslexia are specific. These are repeated, typical mistakes. This sign of dyslexic errors allows us to differentiate dyslexia from random, variable errors that can be observed during fatigue, due to inattention, and insufficient control processes when reading.
3. Reading errors in dyslexia are caused by the immaturity of higher mental functions that ensure the normal reading process. This sign of dyslexic errors makes it possible to distinguish dyslexia from reading errors that can be observed in children due to pedagogical neglect, incorrect teaching methods, and violations of elementary functions.
Thus, delayed acquisition of reading and reading errors can be observed in lazy children, with behavioral disorders, and pedagogically neglected, even in cases where they have sufficiently developed the higher mental functions necessary for mastering the skill of reading. In this case, the child has reading disorders of a nature other than dyslexia.
Reading errors can also occur with the wrong method of teaching reading (letter-by-letter reading, whole-word method, etc.). Thus, letter-by-letter reading, on the one hand, can manifest itself in a child as a result of improper teaching of reading in the family. And if the child does not have disorders of phonemic development, then in this case, letter-by-letter reading does not yet indicate the presence of dyslexia. But, on the other hand, letter-by-letter reading may be a sign of dyslexia if it is associated with immaturity of phonemic analysis and synthesis.
Reading errors can occur in children with poor vision due to inability to distinguish letters. If these errors are not associated with immaturity of visual-spatial functions, but are caused only by decreased vision, they are not classified as dyslexic errors and disappear when visual acuity impairment is corrected.
Thus, the presence of reading errors in itself does not indicate the presence of dyslexia. We are talking about dyslexia only when reading errors are caused by underdevelopment of higher mental functions.
Dyslexia manifests itself in a slowdown in the process of mastering reading, in a slow pace of reading (bradylexia), in impaired eye movement along a line during the reading process, in persistent and repeated errors when reading.
The number and nature of errors varies depending on the severity of dyslexia in the child, the stage of mastering reading skills, and the complexity of the speech material being read (syllables, words, sentences, text). The more severe the dyslexia, the more complex the speech material being read, the more numerous and varied the reading errors. At the initial stages of mastering reading, reading errors are more diverse; errors in the technical side of the reading process predominate; understanding of what is being read is impaired for the second time. At subsequent stages of reading skill formation, errors become less diverse and more specific.
With dyslexia, the following groups of errors are noted:
1. Failure to assimilate letters, inaccurate correlation of sounds and letters, which manifests itself in substitutions and mixtures of sounds when reading. With dyslexia, a different nature of substitutions and mixtures can be observed: a) replacements and mixtures of phonetically similar sounds (voiced and voiceless, for example TEVOCHKA, LOBATA); affricates and sounds included in their composition (for example, DADVANTIK); b) replacing graphically similar letters (X-Zh, P-N, etc.); c) undifferentiated, variable substitutions (F-M-L, etc.).
2. Letter by letter reading- violation of the fusion of sounds into syllables and words. With this method of reading, the letters are called alternately strung on top of each other (FRAME - P, A, M, A).
3. Distortions of the sound-syllable structure of a word. The most common reading errors of this group are: a) omissions of consonants in conjunction (BENCH - KAMEKA); b) omissions of consonants and vowels in the absence of a confluence (PAROVOS - PARVOZ); c) adding sounds (UNDER THE RAIN - UNDER THE RAIN); d) rearrangement of sounds (SHOVEL - LOTAP); e) omissions, rearrangements of syllables (KANAVA - KAVANA).
4. Reading comprehension impairment which can manifest itself both at the level of a single word and at the level of sentences and text. Impaired reading comprehension may be primary, but it may also be secondary. In the first case, a violation of reading comprehension is observed during technically correct reading, in the second case it is a consequence of incorrect reading.
5. Word substitutions(SWASHED - SLAMMED).
6. Agrammatisms when reading. Most often, errors in the agreement of noun and adjective, violations of case endings, changes in verb endings, etc. are observed. Agrammatisms in reading are detected, as a rule, at the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stage of mastering the skill of reading.
The ratio of reading errors largely depends on the stage of acquisition of reading skills. At the analytical stage of mastering reading (at the stage of mastering sound-letter notations, as well as at the stage of syllable-by-syllable reading), sound substitutions, disturbances in the fusion of sounds into syllables (letter-by-letter reading), and distortions of the sound-syllable structure of a word predominate. Reading comprehension disorders are most often secondary in nature, they are caused by technically incorrect reading. At the analytical-synthetic and synthetic stage of mastering the skill of reading, the dominant errors are distortions of the sound-syllable structure of the word, agrammatism, word substitutions, as well as violations of reading comprehension.
The course of dyslexia is regressive in nature with a gradual decrease in the number and types of errors, as well as the degree of dyslexia.
Dyslexia negatively affects the development of a child's personality. Failures of a student in mastering reading can contribute to the emergence and consolidation of character traits such as self-doubt, timidity, anxious suspiciousness or, conversely, aggressiveness, anger, and negativism. In some cases, these affective reactions are a consequence of dyslexia. In other cases, they are not directly related to dyslexia, but only accompany its course, being included in the general structure of neuropsychiatric diseases, for example, with some organic brain lesions.
2.2. Reading Status Study
There are many different techniques for examining reading in children, and they must be used strictly differentiated, depending on the child’s level of reading skills, the stage of its formation, and also in order of gradually increasing complexity, starting with the most basic. This will allow the speech therapist to determine what the child’s main difficulties are.
Children who have just started learning are offered reading individual letters. The speech therapist shows the child one letter of the split alphabet, and he names them. You can use font variations to complicate the task. Next, the speech therapist asks the child to find a specific letter among others. Letters for recognition should be named in such an order that they correspond to oppositional phonemes, for example: S-SH-CH-SHCH-Z-ZH-C, R-L, G-K, etc. It is imperative to pay attention to the rate of recoding by the child of a grapheme into a phoneme and vice versa, the persistence and instability of errors.
This test already allows the speech therapist to determine how automated the connection between the grapheme and the corresponding phoneme is, whether the child clearly perceives speech sounds by ear, whether he has phonemic or optical difficulties, or mnestic problems. This is determined by the nature of the errors made by the child: substitutions of letters based on phonemic or optical similarity, other substitution options, the length of time it takes to complete tests, or the impossibility of completing them.
Next, children should be offered reading syllables. The child must first read syllables that include the corresponding oppositional phonemes: SA-SHA, ZA-ZHA, TSA-CHA, RA-LA, etc. In addition to direct syllables, reverse syllables are also presented, as well as syllables with consonant clusters. The speech therapist pays attention to the possibility of merging sounds into a syllabic complex, especially in straight syllables, as well as to the child’s ability to differentiate sounds. This test allows the speech therapist to determine the formation of sound-letter synthesis and phonemic generalizations.
The next test in assessing reading skill is reading words. First, children should be offered the simplest words to read, and then more complex in syllabic and morphological composition. It is necessary to use all possible variants of monosyllable words: GHS (house, poppy), SGSS (bush, bow), SSGS (elephant, hail), SSG (two, seams), GSSS (Omsk), where S is a consonant, G is a vowel.
Children are also offered various options for two-syllable words: with emphasis on the last and first syllable (moon, fly); with a consonant cluster (curtains, window); multi-letter (pass, was a friend). Then the reading of three syllables is studied: SGSSGSG (milk), SGSGSGSGS (hammer), SGSSSGSSG (gloves), SSGSSSGSG (sheet) and polysyllabic words.
Already at this stage, it is possible to use words with the same root, differing in morphological elements that perform a semantic distinguishing function (hand -hands, entered - came out). In the process of completing these tasks, you should invite the child to select a picture for the word read, show the corresponding object, draw it, explain the meaning or demonstrate the action. This test allows the speech therapist to evaluate the technical and semantic aspects of reading: whether the child reads syllables abruptly or smoothly, whether he reads letter by letter or whether he retains elements of letter-by-letter reading in consonant clusters or at the end of words (robe); whether he reads mechanically or consciously. Errors noted during the test may indicate the child’s lack of development of sound-syllable synthesis, morphological generalizations, syllable fusion skills, the skill of holistic perception of what is being read, insufficient visual perception, and lack of ability to correlate the word read with the meaning.
An additional breakdown could be a task to identify the skills of visual syllabification of words, which is one of the important conditions for the formation of the ability to navigate in any structure of a visually perceived word and, therefore, the basis for smooth syllable-by-syllable reading. The speech therapist suggests that the child divide printed words of different syllabic structures into syllables, focusing only on the vowel letter, which is the boundary of the syllable.
The next step in skill assessment is reading individual sentences. When using this technique, the method, correctness, expressiveness of reading, as well as the child’s understanding of what is read is examined. The analysis of the latter is carried out on the basis of the child’s selection of a picture for the phrase or the display of an object or action. For reading, you can also offer similar sentences that differ in lexical and grammatical format. For example: This is my chair - This is your chair - This is your table; Give Masha a book - Give Masha books; Zhenya drew a car - Zhenya drew a car.
To determine the formation of the initial elements of expressiveness in reading (the ability to use the correct intonation in accordance with final punctuation marks), children can be asked to read narrative, interrogative and exclamatory sentences of various linear lengths. Examples of such sentences:
A) Fine. Beauty! Where? An expressive reading of such sentences should not be complicated by technical difficulties.
b) How nice it is in spring! Are you happy with the gift? It was raining yesterday.
At the same stage, you can try to determine whether the child has lexical-grammatical prediction, which is an important component of reading. Here you should use elementary samples, including “unfinished sentences”:
1) I came to visit my grandmother....
I came to visit my grandmother.... (Grandson, granddaughter, sister.)
2) A girl is going to school... A girl is going to school...
3) Rocket let... Rocket let...
First, you should find out the understanding of such sentences in oral speech.
At a higher reading level, children are encouraged to reading specially selected texts . They must meet the following requirements:
2) correspond to the child’s knowledge and be accessible to him;
3) be small in volume;
4) express the communication of events to facilitate their understanding and retelling by the child;
5) include dialogues and direct speech, which will allow analysis of the formation of expressive reading;
The speech therapist records the features of the reading method (unproductive - elements of letter-by-letter reading, abrupt syllabic; productive - smooth syllabic, smooth syllabic with a holistic reading of individual words, reading whole words and groups of words), as well as its correctness. The speech therapist pays special attention to letter substitutions based on phonemic similarity, violations of the sound-syllable structure, grammatical errors, as indicators of the immaturity of phonemic, morphological and syntactic generalizations. Expressiveness is noted: does the child observe pauses, does he use correct intonation, does he make logical and psychological emphasis, does he read loudly and clearly enough.
To assess a child’s reading comprehension, the following types of tasks can be offered:
1) retell what you read;
2) arrange a series of plot pictures in accordance with the sequence of events in the read text and, as an option, retell the text based on them;
3) choose a story picture that corresponds to what you read from a number of those proposed;
4) answer questions. There are two types of questions:
Reflecting the plot of the story;
Revealing understanding of the meaning of what is read, which will allow you to determine the level of depth of understanding of the text by the child.
“Reading is a complex, complex activity consisting of a number of operations. Quite complete reading skill can be characterized by a combination of several of its parameters: method, speed, correctness, automation (the so-called “fluency”) and reading comprehension.” Goretsky V.G. and Tikunova L.I. highlight another parameter - expressiveness.
The most important component that makes up the reading technique and affects its other aspects is way of reading. There are five main ways of reading: 1) letter by letter; 2) abrupt syllabic; 3) smooth syllabic; 4) smooth syllabic with a holistic reading of individual words; 5) reading whole words and groups of words. The first two methods refer to unproductive. They are highly undesirable. The last three ways are productive.
Studying correct reading involves identifying the presence or absence of reading errors. Reading without errors is called correct. Error analysis includes their qualitative and quantitative interpretation.
Under reading speed is understood as the pace of reading at which one understands the text (in grade 1) and the main idea of the text (in grades 2-4).
Study reading comprehension possible in several ways: retelling the text read, answering questions about the content of individual parts and the entire text as a whole, as well as explaining the meanings of individual words of the text. Goretsky V.G. and Tikunova L.I. The content of each text, selected by them to test their reading technique, is answered by questions aimed at determining their understanding of the content of individual parts and the entire text, the meaning of words, and the ability to determine the main idea. But the developers do not provide any indication of how many incorrect answers indicate insufficient understanding and how many indicate a complete misunderstanding of what was read. This may be due to the fact that after the texts there are a different number of questions (from 1 to 6) and their level of difficulty is also different.
Reading expressiveness- this is the ability to recognize in time the punctuation mark in front of the text and tune in to the intonation suggested by this sign.
The final judgment about the level of reading skill can be made only on the basis of the totality of data for each of the components, when correlating data on the semantic and technical aspects of reading and taking into account the leading role of the first.
There is a certain relationship between the level of development of reading skills, oral speech and visual functions of children. This dictates the need to include in correctional work to eliminate dyslexia not only traditional speech therapy techniques for the formation of all components of oral speech, but also the development of students’ visual functions.
There are two main areas of correctional work to eliminate reading disorders in primary schoolchildren:
Elimination of dyslexia, caused mainly by immaturity of oral speech;
Elimination of dyslexia, caused primarily by immature visual functions.
Let us consider the goals, objectives and main content of these areas of work.
Correction of dyslexia caused primarily by immaturity of oral speech
Children's mastery of certain reading operations is influenced by disorders of phonemic perception, sound analysis and synthesis, lexico-grammatical structure of speech and coherent monologue speech.
Purpose work aimed at eliminating dyslexia caused by immaturity of speech components is the development and correction of all aspects of oral speech. In order to properly organize correctional education that is adequate to the structure of the defect, the speech therapist needs to clearly know what kind of speech disorders the child has.
Basic tasks correction of dyslexia caused by FFN:
Formation of accurate differentiation of phonemes of the Russian language;
Formation of complete ideas about the sound composition of a word;
Consolidating the skills of sound-syllable analysis and synthesis of speech units;
Correction of sound pronunciation defects.
Elimination of dyslexia caused by systemic underdevelopment of speech in younger schoolchildren, in addition to the correction of phonetic-phonemic processes, should address the following tasks:
Quantitative and qualitative enrichment of the child’s active vocabulary;
Development of inflection skills;
Clarification of the meanings of syntactic structures;
Development of skills in constructing a coherent statement.
The named tasks are implemented in the system of traditional speech therapy classes and constitute their main content. The content of speech therapy work aimed at solving each problem was developed and covered in the works of O. E. Gribova, L. N. Efimenkova, G. G. Misarenko, G. A. Kashe, R. I. Lalaeva, A. K. Markova , N.V. Serebryakova, T.B. Filicheva, G.V. Chirkina, A.V. Yastrebova and others.
Correction of dyslexia caused primarily by immature visual functions
Purpose Corrective pedagogical work with such students is to teach the child ways to process visual material that would allow him to effectively perceive visual information of varying degrees of complexity and provide the conditions for successful mastery of the visual components of reading.
The objectives of the work to eliminate this type of dyslexia are the development and correction of the gnostic and motor components of students’ vision. Therefore, the proposed methodology includes two main blocks. The first block involves the development and correction of gnostic visual functions. The object of the correctional influence of the second block is the motor functions of vision. The sequence of work on visual functions is determined individually for each child and depends on the greatest severity of violations of the gnostic or motor functions of vision.
The tasks of each block are selected according to the principle of increasing complexity: according to the complication of the task instructions and according to the complication of the visual stimuli used in the tasks.
At each stage, correctional and developmental tasks are solved first using picture material that is well known to the child, and only then letter material (letters, syllables, words, sentences) is introduced into the work. In addition, the picture material offered to children for performing exercises also gradually becomes more complex: from color realistic to black and white and then to silhouette and contour, which is a preparation for the perception of letters and numbers.
Basic tasks development and correction of gnostic visual functions:
Development of voluntary visual attention;
Development of visual analysis and synthesis skills;
Development of visual memory.
Basic tasks development and correction of visual motor functions:
Development and correction of precise tracking eye movements;
Formation of strategies for scanning the perceptual field;
Formation of visual-spatial representations;
Development of hand-eye coordination.
Conclusion
The goal of the course work was achieved by solving the assigned problems. The author of the work did the following:
Gave a general idea of writing;
Considered the psychophysiological mechanisms of reading;
Considered the specifics of reading disorders;
Defined methods for identifying reading disorders;
Identified the directions of correctional work to eliminate reading disorders.
The problem of studying the state of written speech among secondary school students requires further research. To do this, the author of the work needs to study new theoretical sources and have a desire to continue research activities in this direction.
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Speech is divided into two main types, opposed to each other, and in some respects comparable. This is oral and They diverged in their historical development, therefore they reveal different principles of organization of linguistic means. General literary linguistic means, combining such types as oral and written speech, are the basis for the formation and functioning of synonymous series. The book-written and oral-conversational means separating them are used in full in their type, and the opposite is accessed with certain restrictions.
Orality
Orality is the main factor that unites the various varieties into which it is divided. The properties of written speech are realized in varieties of the book-written type. Of course, shape is not the only factor in unification. But in the oral-conversational type it is precisely this that predetermines the formation and functioning of specific linguistic means that distinguish oral speech from written speech. The properties of speech are related to the nature of its generation. Let's look at it in more detail.
Differences in the production of spoken and written language
The difference in forms is based on a deep psychophysiological difference. Psychologists have found that the mechanisms of generation and perception of oral and written speech are not the same. When generating written speech, there is always time to think about the formal plan of the statement, due to which the degree of its structure is high.
Accordingly, when reading, you can always stop, think more deeply about what is written, and accompany it with your personal associations. This allows both the writer and the reader to transfer the necessary information from RAM to long-term memory. Not so with speaking and listening. The sounding, historically primary oral speech has its own characteristics. The properties of speech in this case are determined by the fact that it represents a certain flow, which only when it is produced can be interrupted by the speaker in accordance with his intentions to complete or suspend information. The listener, in his reception, must follow the speaker in time, and he does not always have the opportunity to stop where he needs to think more deeply. Therefore, it acts primarily when oral speech is perceived. The properties of speech in this case are that it is spontaneous, one-time, it cannot be repeated again in the form in which it was already spoken.
Automation
When studying a foreign language during preparation for a lesson, you can prepare each sentence in advance, but during the lesson itself this will not work: the task of spontaneous production requires re-producing speech portions in a smooth speech flow. The characteristic of oral speech is that it cannot be completely prepared; it is produced largely automatically. If the speaker controls it too much, it will lose the quality of spontaneity and naturalness. Control over oneself is fully possible only in slow educational speech, which with its unnatural pace betrays its unoriginal character.
Voiceover of written text
What should be distinguished from produced spontaneous oral speech is the simple voicing of written text, carried out by announcers, artists, and sometimes speakers. Such voicing does not change anything in the text, and although it sounds, it remains the same as it was written. At the same time, the characteristics of written speech and all its properties are preserved. From orality, only an intonation contour and possible phonetic expressiveness appear in it. That is, the acoustic properties of speech sounds change. An interesting observation was made by E. A. Bryzgunova, who compared the actors’ dubbing of the same text: they were different. This means that as soon as the spoken element of speech appears, in this case intonation, discrepancies arise due to individualization.
Individuality
Oral coherent speech is always individual. For writing, this is not a common quality of all varieties. Only artistic speech and partly the speech of non-strict newspaper genres are individual. Each speaker has his own manner, which characterizes a person as a person from the point of view of his psychological, social, even professional characteristics and general culture. This applies not only to parliament, for example, the speech of each deputy highlights his personal qualities and intellectual capabilities, and gives his social portrait. Oral, coherent speech often means more to the listener than the information contained in the speech, for the sake of which the speech takes place.
Features of oral speech
If we turn to the factors of division operating in the oral-conversational type, it turns out that in addition to those operating in the book-written type, there are some additional ones. Some properties of oral speech are common to the entire oral-conversational type and are characteristic of it in contrast to the book-written type, dividing the modern Russian literary language into two parts. Others take part in identifying varieties of the oral-conversational type itself. Let's list these additional factors. Such properties of speech are addressed, situational, speech type (use of monologues and dialogues).
Addressability of oral speech
Oral speech is always addressed directly to the listener, who perceives it simultaneously with its production by the addressee here and now. Various technical tricks, such as a delayed and then reproduced recording, may not be taken into account, since they do not deprive the communicative act of the main thing: immediate perception, where time synchrony is important. The addressee of the speech can be: a) individual; b) collective; c) massive.
These three types of addressing of oral literary speech, coinciding with the action of other factors of its membership (all these factors, including addressing, are unidirectional), are involved in distinguishing three types of oral literary speech (oral-spoken type of literary language): 1) oral-conversational; 2) oral scientific; 3) radio and television.
Addressability of written speech
Here the targeting is not direct: paper serves as an intermediary between the author of the text and the reader, and it allows you to delay reading as much as you like, i.e., eliminate the factor of physical time, while speech itself is endowed with the qualities of spontaneity and reusability. Unlike oral speech, the proverb “The word is not a sparrow, if it flies out, you won’t catch it,” does not apply to it. Such indirect addressing cannot be a factor of division.
Situational
The basic properties of speech also include situationality. It is inherent in the conversational type, where the situation makes up for the verbally unexpressed meaning, any understatements and inaccuracies. It is usually considered an exclusive quality of spoken language, but, strictly speaking, it is constantly being discovered. This is shown, for example, by the analysis of poetic speech, when a biographical commentary is required for an accurate understanding and feeling of the poem. In general, comments of this kind, providing a work of art of any genre, make it possible to enrich the perception and understanding of the author’s intention. Added to the situationality is the common apperception base of the speaker and the listener, the commonality of their knowledge and life experience. All this allows for verbal hints and ensures immediate understanding. Partially situational nature is also characteristic of collectively addressed speech. For example, a teacher knows what his audience is like, what they know and can do, and what they are interested in. Situationalism is not characteristic of mass-addressed texts. Thus, it acts as a factor in isolating colloquial speech and as an incomplete factor characterizing oral scientific speech. Naturally, situationality cannot be characteristic of any type of written type.
Using monologues and dialogues in writing
As for the relationship between monologue and dialogue types, this property of both written and oral types appears differently when dividing a literary language into varieties. In the book-written type it does not play the role of a division factor, but in the oral-conversational type it is such a factor. This is due to the different ratio of monologue and dialogue in written and oral varieties. In the book-written type, scientific speech is usually monologue, but signs of dialogism can also be seen in it. Although one may not agree with this: if they exist, they are not direct, but rather indirect in nature. Business speech can be expressed in a monologue, but single (usually) sentences expressing an instruction, request, instruction, order, etc. and containing the verbal form of the incentive (imperative) mood are close in form and organization to a dialogue line. Newspaper articles are usually monologue, but may contain elements of dialogue that imitate questions to the reader and his intended answers, while direct dialogue occurs in the genres of interviews, correspondence with readers, answers to questions, etc. In literary speech, dialogue is a means of communication heroes, while the author's speech takes on a monologue form. But there are genres that are completely dialogical. We are, of course, talking about plays and dramaturgy as an art form. In general, it turns out that as a factor of division, dialogue and monologue appear indistinctly, but quite clearly show the increase in dialogicity from left to right.
Monologues and dialogues in oral speech
In the oral-conversational type, the relationship is fundamentally different. It is determined by the fact that dialogical and monological, as a consequence, have different organizations, namely: monologue is a segment-by-segment syntax, dialogue is short conversational remarks of a rigid, specifically conversational syntactic structure. Of course, written dialogue also has its own syntactic features compared to a monologue, which is a space for the implementation of numerous syntactic models, the entire wealth of written speech. But here the differences between the dialogical and monological types do not entail such fundamental differences in syntax, where specifically conversational models take shape in the space of dialogue. In general, dialogicity in the oral-conversational type decreases from right to left. And it comes to a minimum in oral scientific speech. The equality of dialogue and monologue allows, among other factors of division, to distinguish oral speech as an independent variety, separated on this basis from radio, television and oral scientific speech.
The Russian literary language exists in two forms - oral and written.
Oral speech- this is spoken speech, it uses a system of phonetic and prosodic means of expression, it is created in the process of conversation. It is characterized by verbal improvisation and some linguistic features: freedom in the choice of vocabulary, the use of simple sentences, the use of incentive, interrogative, exclamatory sentences of various kinds, repetitions, incompleteness of expression of thoughts.
The oral form is presented in two varieties: colloquial speech and codified speech.
Colloquial speech serves a language sphere characterized by: ease of communication; informality of relationships between speakers; unprepared speech; use of non-verbal means of communication (gestures and facial expressions); the fundamental possibility of changing communication “speaker – listener”.
Codified speech used in formal areas of communication (conferences, meetings, etc.). Usually it is prepared in advance (giving a lecture, reports) and is not always based on an extra-linguistic situation; it is characterized by moderate use of non-verbal means of communication.
Written speech- this is speech that is graphically fixed, pre-thought out and corrected, it is characterized by some linguistic features: the predominance of book vocabulary, the presence of complex prepositions, strict adherence to language norms,
Xlack of extra-linguistic elements. Written speech is usually directed towards visual perception.
Every written text is a complex statement about reality.
To construct a written text, it is necessary to comply with the rules of reference and predication.
The design of predicativity and reference is associated with the actual division of the sentence, with the highlighting of the “topic” or “new” in the message.
Written and oral forms of speech have a different material basis: moving layers of air (sounds) in oral speech and paint (letter) in written speech. This difference is associated with the rich intonation capabilities of oral speech and the lack of them in written speech. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the place of logical stress, its strength, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, the presence or absence of pauses. Written language cannot convey all this. She has only punctuation marks and punctuation at her disposal.
In oral speech, the linguistic means of conveying meaning is intonation, and in written speech it is derivative. In oral speech there are no written means such as quotation marks or capital letters, which can create difficulties in listening to the text. Using written form means the possibility of rearranging sentences, replacing words, and consulting dictionaries and reference books.
The first two differences between the oral form unite it with written speech spoken aloud. The third difference characterizes speech produced orally. Oral speech is divided into spoken and non-spoken. Conversational is divided into scientific, journalistic, business, artistic, non-conversational - into public and non-public speech. Public speech is divided into mass and collective. This division coincides with the division into monologue and dialogic speech.
1. A form of speech associated with perception, expression of thoughts in graphic form and thus including two types of speech activity: productive (writing) and receptive (reading). 2. (writing) A productive type of speech activity, which consists of the written expression of thoughts in a foreign language in graphic form. The objects of linguodidactic testing are: I) writing technique (graphics, spelling, punctuation); 2) productive written speech: the ability to produce one’s own written text, combining, if necessary, such complex forms as description, narration, reasoning, as well as the ability to reproduce audio text in writing, demonstrating the ability to analyze the content of the primary text and the ability to process information in accordance with educational, etc. tasks, as well as in accordance with the requirements of the genre. Types of test tasks according to p.r. varied: abstract, abstract (resume, evaluation, etc.), announcement, statement, abstract, plan, outline, etc.
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
WRITTEN SPEECH (LETTER)
a productive type of speech activity in which information is transmitted at a distance using graphic signs. Like all types of speech activity, P. r. has the following structure: 1. Preliminary orientation stage. At this stage, the writer determines for what purpose, to whom and what he will write. 2. Activity planning. At this stage, the writer plans not only the content, but also the form of his speech. He often uses long-term planning of his speech: at the same time, he can select the most accurate expressive language means. 3. Carrying out the activity, i.e. the writing process itself. Under the conditions of written communication there is no direct recipient and no intermediate feedback. The writer does not see the immediate reaction of the reader to each phrase (he can only predict this reaction). The writer is deprived of the opportunity to intonate his speech, use gestures, and facial expressions. Often the writer must first introduce the recipient to the appropriate situation, and then express his judgments, otherwise he may be misunderstood. 4. Control of activities. The writer is practically unlimited in time; his attention is directed both to the content and to another form of presentation. Re-reading what he has written, he checks to what extent the form used adequately conveys the intent of your statement. Mechanisms of P. r. are based on the mechanisms of speaking, in the process of P. r. All speech analyzers participate in their interconnection. Planning and control of your statement plays a greater role than in speaking. The result of P. r. as a type of speech activity is a written statement. Subtypes of P. r. are used in educational activities. - listening-P. r., reading-P. p., i.e. the student listens and writes (dictations, presentations, plans, theses, lecture notes) or reads and writes (plans, theses, notes, annotations, abstracts). Recordings not only save the material you read or listen to, but also help you learn it. Therefore, for educational purposes, such types of notes as plans, theses, notes, etc. are widely used, and the teacher’s task is to teach his students how to compose them. Various types of written speech works function in life. Lit.: Methodology / Ed. A.A. Leontyev. - M., 1988; Passov E.I. Fundamentals of communicative methods of teaching foreign language communication. - M., 1989.
Written monologue speech can appear in various forms: in the form of a written message, report, written narrative, written expression of thought or reasoning, etc. In all these cases, the structure of written speech differs sharply from the structure of oral dialogical or oral monologue speech.
These differences have a number of psychological reasons.
Written monologue speech is speech without an interlocutor; its motive and intent are completely determined by the subject. If the motive for writing is contact (“-tact”) or desire, demand (“-mand”), then the writer must mentally imagine the person he is addressing, imagine his reaction to his message. The peculiarity of written speech lies precisely in the fact that the entire process of control over written speech remains within the activity of the writer himself, without correction by the listener. But in those cases when written speech is aimed at clarifying a concept (“-cept”), it does not have any interlocutor, a person writes only in order to understand the thought, in order to verbalize his plan, to develop it without even any mental contact with the person to whom the message is addressed.
Written speech has almost no extra-linguistic, additional means of expression. It does not presuppose either D knowledge of the situation by the addressee or sympractical contact, it has the means of gestures, facial expressions, intonation, pauses, which play the role of “semantic markers” in monologue oral speech, and only partial replacement of these latter are the techniques of highlighting individual elements of the presented text in italics or paragraph. Thus, all information expressed in written speech should be based only on a sufficiently complete use of the detailed grammatical means of the language.
Hence, written speech should be as synsemantic as possible and the grammatical means it uses should be completely sufficient to express the message being conveyed. The writer must structure his message in such a way that the reader can go all the way back from expanded, external speech to the internal meaning of the text being presented.
The process of understanding written speech differs sharply from the process of understanding oral speech in that what has been written can always be reread, that is, one can arbitrarily return to all the links included in it, which is completely impossible when understanding oral speech.
There is, however, one more fundamental difference between the psychological structure of written speech and oral speech. It is connected with the fact of completely different origins of both types of speech.
Oral speech is formed in the process of natural communication between a child and an adult, which was previously sympractical and only then becomes a special independent form of oral speech communication. However, as we have already seen, it always retains elements of connection with the practical situation, gesture and facial expressions.
Written speech has a completely different origin and a different psychological structure.
Written speech appears as a result of special training, which begins with the conscious mastery of all means of written expression of thought. At the early stages of its formation, its subject is not so much the thought that is to be expressed, but rather those technical means of writing sounds, letters, and then words that have never been the subject of awareness in oral dialogic or oral monologue speech. At these stages, the child develops motor writing skills.
A child who learns to write initially operates not so much with thoughts, but with means of their external expression, ways of designating sounds, letters and words. Only much later does the subject of the child’s conscious actions become the expression of thoughts, and how does written speech, unlike oral speech, which is formed in the process of live communication, from the very beginning be conscious, voluntary, in which the means of expression act as “the main objective activity. So intermediate operations, such as selection phonemes, the representation of these phonemes by a letter, the synthesis of letters in a word, the sequential transition from one word to another, which were never realized in oral speech, in written speech remain for a long time the subject of conscious action. Only after written speech is automated, these conscious actions turn into unconscious operations and begin to occupy the place that similar operations (isolating sound, finding articulation, etc.) occupy in oral speech.
Thus, written speech, both in its origin and in its psychological structure, is fundamentally different from oral speech, and conscious analysis of the means of its expression becomes the main psychological characteristic of written speech.
That is why written speech includes a number of levels that are absent in oral speech, but are clearly distinguished in written speech. Written speech includes a number of processes at the phonemic level - the search for individual sounds, their opposition, the coding of individual sounds into letters, the combination of individual sounds and letters into whole words. To a much greater extent than is the case in oral speech, it includes in its composition the lexical level, which consists in the selection of words, in the search for suitable necessary verbal expressions, contrasting them with other lexical alternatives. Finally, written speech also includes conscious operations at the syntactic level, which most often occurs automatically, unconsciously in oral speech, but which constitutes one of the essential links in written speech. As a rule, the writer deals with the conscious construction of a phrase, which is mediated not only by existing speech skills, but also by the rules of grammar and syntax. Thus, written speech is radically different from oral speech in that it must inevitably proceed according to the rules of detailed (explicit) grammar, necessary to make the content of written speech understandable in the absence of accompanying gestures and intonations. Therefore, any rapprochement between monologue and written speech with the structure of oral dialogic speech is impossible. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that those ellipses and grammatical incompleteness that are justified in oral speech become completely inapplicable in written speech.
So, written monologue speech in its structure is always complete, grammatically organized, detailed structures that almost do not use forms of direct speech. This is why the length of a phrase in written speech is significantly greater than the length of a phrase in oral speech, since in extended written speech there are much more complex forms of control, for example, the inclusion of subordinate clauses, which are only rarely found in oral speech. All this gives the grammar of written speech a completely different character.
Written speech is an essential tool in thinking processes. Including, on the one hand, conscious operations with linguistic categories, it proceeds at a completely different, much slower pace than oral speech; on the other hand, allowing repeated reference to what has already been written, it also provides conscious control over ongoing operations. All this makes written speech a powerful tool for clarifying and refining the thinking process. Therefore, written speech is used not only to convey a ready-made message, but also to work out and clarify one’s own thoughts. It is known that in order to understand a thought, it is best to try to write, to express this thought in writing. That is why written speech, as work on the method and form of expression, is of great importance for the formation of thinking. Clarification of the thought itself with the help of written speech is clearly manifested, for example, when preparing a report or article. The work of a translator is also not simply translation from one code system to another; This is a complex form of analytical activity, the most important task of which is to understand the very logical structure of thought, its logical structure.
The relationship between oral and written speech. Writing Options
In conclusion, we would like to dwell on the last point, which has only a particular significance, but, despite this, is of significant interest for the psychological analysis of oral and written speech.
We are talking about the various relationships into which oral and written speech can enter, and about the different forms in which the interaction of these basic types of speech activity can occur. At least three types of such relationships can be noted.
Normally, oral and written speech, as mentioned above, proceed according to completely different rules and are structured grammatically in completely different ways.
Oral speech included in a situation, accompanied by gestures, intonation, semantic pauses, allows for abbreviations, ellipses and agrammatisms; in some cases of dialogic or monologue speech, these peculiar features appear with particular clarity.
Written speech, by its structure, is always speech in the absence of an interlocutor. Those means of encoding thoughts in a speech utterance that occur in oral speech without awareness are here the subject of conscious action. Written speech does not have any extra-linguistic means (knowledge of the situation, gestures, facial expressions), therefore it must have sufficient grammatical completeness, and only this grammatical completeness makes it possible to make a written message sufficiently understandable. However, for someone starting to master written language, things may be different.
Let's try to analyze the written speech of a person who learned it in adulthood and is not yet proficient in it. The written speech of this person partially transfers the techniques of oral speech, and partially it reflects the activity of conscious mastery of the means of language, which is characteristic of it.
As an example, we can take a letter from a person who has poor written language skills. It may have the following character: “Hello, dear mom, dad, sister Nina and brother Kolya. Your sister Katya is writing to you. I want to convey to you this, this and that, and I also want to tell you this, this, and this.” Such written speech, on the one hand, reflects those forms that are accepted in oral speech, on the other hand, the writer conveys the very fact of writing a letter: he reports who is writing, what he wants to convey, and describes the actions that he performs when writing letters. Thus, a person at this stage of mastery of written language writes as he speaks and as he acts; his written speech is characterized by completely different features than the written speech of a person who is accustomed to using it as a constant means of communication.
However, not only oral speech can influence written speech (as we saw above), but also written speech can influence oral speech. A person who has well-developed automated written speech often begins to transfer the rules of written speech into oral speech, and such a person begins to speak the way he writes. - We are dealing here with her case of a “clerical” style of oral speech - a style that does not allow ellipses or irregularities. In these cases, live, oral speech is deprived of elements of intonation, accompanying gestures and becomes hypergrammatical and formal, over-developed, repeating those features that are characteristic of written speech.
Touching upon the issues of different relationships between written and oral speech at successive stages of mastering written speech, on the one hand, and different attitudes towards oral and written speech, on the other, we move on to a new branch of science - stylistics, which is much more developed in linguistics and still requires its own special psychological coverage.
This section of the psychology of the main forms of speech communication goes beyond the scope of the book and requires special research.