Literary and linguistic norm is a traditionally established system of rules for the use of linguistic means that are recognized by society as mandatory. In the minds of speakers, a norm is a kind of ideal that has the qualities of special correctness, and therefore it is universally binding. As a set of stable and unified linguistic means and rules for their use, consciously cultivated by society, the norm is one of the characteristic features of the literary language of the national period.
A norm is a category that is, on the one hand, strictly linguistic, and on the other, socio-historical. The social aspect of the norm is manifested in the very fact of selection and fixation of linguistic phenomena (this is especially clearly expressed in a class society, where the speech of the “top” of society, the educated and privileged strata, is opposed to the speech of the “lower classes”, the masses), as well as in the presence of a system of their assessments ( “correct/incorrect”, “Appropriate/inappropriate”) The linguistic aspect is expressed in the systematic nature and connection with the structure of the language characteristic of the norm.
The modern theory of a linguistic norm identifies its following features: 1) the objectivity of the norm (the norm is not invented by someone, but develops gradually, being developed in the language of classical literature); 2) variability of the norm (the norm is always the result of the development of a language, and changes in its language system inevitably entail changes in the norm); 3) variability of the norm (i.e. recognition of variants of pronunciation or spelling, the so-called “senior” and “younger” norms, which allows preserving the integrity of the literary language and preventing its death); 4) the social need to describe norms and teach them at school. 1 Skvortsov L.I. Theoretical foundations of speech culture. M., 1980, p. 45. The degree of stability of the norm at different levels of language is not the same. The decisive factor is the relationship between the norm and the language system: in the field of orthoepy, for example, the language system entirely determines the norm, therefore it has the highest degree of stability; in the field of vocabulary, the decisive thing is the content plan of a language unit, its semantic accuracy and stylistic appropriateness, hence the widespread use of synonymous means of language, variability, and therefore the degree of stability of the norm is correspondingly lower.
The core of the literary norm consists of stylistically neutral and, therefore, the most widespread phenomena, the periphery - archaic and new phenomena that have not yet received widespread use in the language, as well as those that have restrictions in the sphere of their use (territorial or professional).
A norm can be imperative (i.e. strictly obligatory) and dispositive (i.e. not strictly obligatory). An imperative norm is a norm that does not allow variability in the expression of a linguistic unit, regulating only one way of its expression. Violation of this norm is regarded as poor language proficiency (for example, errors in declension or conjugation, determining the gender of a word, etc.). A dispositive norm is a norm that allows for variability, regulating several ways of expressing a linguistic unit (for example, Cup of tea And cup of tea, cottage cheese And cottage cheese etc.). Variability in the use of the same linguistic unit is often a reflection of the transitional stage from an outdated norm to a new one (cf., for example, variability in the pronunciation of consonant combinations [Thu] And [chn] In russian language: to, But something boring But creamy).
Being quite stable and stable, the norm as a historical category is subject to change, which is associated with the very nature of the language, which is in constant development (cf., for example, changes in the pronunciation of the reflexive particle -sya (sya), which in the 19th century was pronounced with a hard consonant, as evidenced by the following poetic rhyme: “Her back was covered with scales, she hovered over my head more than once” M.Yu. Lermontov "Mtsyri"). The variability that arises in this case does not destroy the norms, but makes it a more subtle tool for selecting linguistic means.
In the history of literary languages, the norms of written language emerge earlier than those of spoken language. Most modern literary languages are characterized by a convergence of the norms of written language with the norms of spoken language: under the influence of oral forms of language, there is some liberalization of the norms of the literary and written language, which is associated with the inclusion of wide social strata of society among the native speakers of the literary language.
The norm is cultivated in the media, in the theater. It is a subject of school language teaching. Representing the exemplary use of linguistic (speech) means, the norm in the minds of speakers has the qualities of special correctness.
Codified norms of a literary language are norms that all speakers of a literary language must follow. Any grammar of the modern Russian literary language, any of its dictionaries is nothing more than its modification. The statement that a feminine noun with the ending -a in the nominative case in the prepositional case has the ending -r (and not some other) is a statement about the norm. However, such norms are natural for native speakers of the Russian language, their codification is extremely simple, any grammarian can cope with such codification, and there is nothing for a speech culture specialist to do here. The culture of speech begins where language seems to offer a choice for codification, and this choice is far from clear-cut. You can often hear a kilometer, but the norm is only a kilometer, no less often you hear an agreement, but the norm is an agreement, although now an agreement is no longer categorically prohibited, whereas thirty years ago such an emphasis was prohibited. This indicates, among other things, that the modern Russian literary language, although it can be considered as the language from Pushkin to the present day, does not remain unchanged. He constantly needs rationing. If you follow the established norms once and for all, then there is a danger that society will simply stop taking them into account and will spontaneously establish its own norms. Spontaneity in such a matter is far from good, since what seems acceptable to some will be unacceptable to others. Therefore, constant monitoring of the development and change of norms is one of the main tasks of linguistic science about the culture of speech.
Culture of Russian speech / Ed. OK. Graudina and E.N. Shiryaeva - M., 1999
Language levels- these are subsystems of the general language system, each of which is characterized by a set of relatively homogeneous units and a set of rules governing their use and grouping into various classes. The following units are usually distinguished: phonetic (units - sounds and phonemes), morphemic (units - morphemes), lexical (units - lexemes), morphological (units - forms and classes of words), syntactic (units - sentences and phrases).
Language norm- these are the rules of speech behavior of a native speaker, socially approved, objectified by speech practice and reflecting the laws of the language system.
Reasons for changing the norm:
Language reasons:
1) law of speech economy = law of least effort
2) Law of analogy
3) Law of speech tradition
Non-linguistic (extralinguistic) reasons for changes in the norm are various social and historical factors, as well as linguistic fashion and linguistic taste.
Signs of normality:
1) the norm is static in a certain period of time and dynamic in its development. The dynamics of a norm are associated with the existence of a triad of systems (a language system is a set and a way of expressing special ones in a given language).
2) the norm is variantless and variant. Variant refers to parallel ways of expressing the same linguistic content. Options provide more opportunities for their implementation: neutral and outdated (film, sanatorium); neutral conversational (on vacation - on vacation); neutral vernacular (theirs - theirs); neutral vernacular (compAs, Alcohol, drug addiction); neutral folk-ethical (gate - gate, maiden - red maiden)
3) universality and locality. Locality can be professional and territorial.
There are the following types (types) of structural linguistic norms:
1) Ya. n. pronunciations regulate the choice of acoustic variants of a phoneme or alternating phonemes - at each step in the development of speech and in each syllable of a separate word. It is possible - (golden), it is not possible - (golden); it is possible - (agarot, usad "ba), it is impossible - (agarod, usad "ba").
2) Ya. n. stress regulates the choice of placement and movement of a stressed syllable among unstressed ones. You can - (quarter), you can't - (quarter). N. Russian modern stress in a literary language is closely related to the morphological properties of parts of speech and turns out to be one of their formal indicators. The mobility and diversity of modern Russian stress makes it difficult to master, especially by persons for whom Russian is not a native language and is not acquired by them in early childhood, which leads to the “overlapping” of new accentological languages. to old ones already acquired in their native language.
3) Ya. n. lexical ones regulate word usage - they do not allow violation of the traditionally established correlation of a name with a specific object, a phenomenon of the real world. So, for example, it is forbidden to call a loaf of white or black bread a bun, because the word bun has a traditionally fixed correlation with another object: a bun is a product made from wheat flour that has a round or oval shape. Lexical Ya. n. determine the reproducibility in literary texts and in oral forms of communication of a certain word from a number of possible ones that have the same subject relevance in various forms of existence of the Russian language. So, for example, the first word of the indicated series is literary-standardized, although all the words of this series denote the same object or the same phenomenon: yesterday, the other day; eyes, peepers, zenks, eyesores, cataracts, balls; slap in the face, slap in the face; thank you, thank you; cold, cold, freezing; generous, torpid, etc. Phraseological Ya. n. regulate the use of figures of speech traditionally associated with the characteristics of certain phenomena. So, for example, the expression goosebumps are running as a figurative characteristic of the state of a person who feels an attack of some chills or trembling is considered codified, but the expression goosebumps are jumping (or crawling) is considered unacceptable.
4) Ya. n. word formations do not allow the use in literary texts of words whose structure violates the principles of combining morphemes. Consequently, these Ya. n. restrain the influx into the literary vocabulary of words that do not correspond to the word-formation structure of the models.
5) Ya. n. morphological ones determine the literary status of certain word forms and do not allow the use of other word forms, although they are a means of speech in various types of “speaking”. So, for example, the following word forms are recognized as literary and correct: officers (not officer), engineers (not engineer), elections (not choice), professors (not professors), shurya (not brothers-in-law), brothers-in-law (not brothers-in-law), zvonche (not louder), sweeter (not sweeter), a pair of socks (not a sock), a pair of stockings (not stockings), a cup of coffee (not coffee), etc.
6) Ya. n. syntactic ones require compliance with the rules of agreement: big kangaroo, big sconce (but not big kangaroo and not big sconce), control: laugh through tears (but not through tears), rules for the arrangement of words in the structure of a sentence, expression of various relationships between parts of a complex sentence, etc. . P.
7) Ya.n. stylistic ones cover certain aspects (features) of the use of speech means in various spheres of literary-standardized communication: they predetermine the attachment of one or another means of speech to a certain sphere of speech activity, i.e. the use of words, expressions, word forms, methods combinations of words, types of syntactic constructions in certain contexts and speech situations.
Ya.n.s differ. imperative and dispositive. Imperative (i.e. strictly obligatory) Ya. n. - these are those whose violation is regarded as poor language proficiency (for example, violation of the norms of declension, conjugation or belonging to grammatical gender). Such Ya.n. do not allow options (non-variable Ya. n.), and any other implementations are regarded as incorrect, unacceptable, for example: alphabet (not alphabet), accepted (did not accept), chicken (not chicken), due to which (not due to which). In contrast to imperative Ya.n., dispositive (i.e., complementary, not strictly obligatory) allow options - stylistically different or completely neutral (variable Ya.n.), for example: barge and barge, on vacation (neutral) - on vacation (colloquial), compass - for sailors: compass. A literary norm can be a fact of codification or be at the stage of realizing codification possibilities, and also act as a potential for normalizing tendencies in the sphere of communication. That is why researchers consider it necessary to focus attention on the dynamic nature of the literary norm, on the dialectical nature of the very process of codification of means of communication.
At the level of speech activity, there are different types of language such as embodied, or realized, and disembodied, potential, realizable. Implemented Ya.n. consists of two parts: 1) the updated part (modern, productive, active, well-recognized and practically codified), 2) the non-actualized part (it includes archaisms, obsolete variants of the language, as well as rarely used variants, doublets, etc.). RealizableI. n. also falls into two parts: 1) becoming Ya. n. - neologisms and new formations at different levels of language and 2) a fundamentally non-codable area of speech activity (individual, occasional, created for the occasion, etc., but formations necessary in the process of communication). General literary Ya. n. can vary in different ways, that is, appear in the form of options as a consequence of the functional-dynamic existence of means of communication. Thus, in the accentological state of the modern literary language, there is a competing activity of variants with the stress moving to the beginning of the word bondar vm. cooper, butt vm. butt, glider vm. glider, born Vm. born), as well as variants with the stress moving to the end of the word (need vs. need).
Significant groups of words are drawn into the sphere of morphological variation. This is due to a number of factors: the presence of sonorant sounds in the outcome of the stems of nouns (eggplant, eggplant, roe deer, roe deer, similar, similar, nursery, nursery), shifting stress (winds, winds, barge, barge), etc. . P.
The increase in variability in the sphere of literary standardized communication is a complex and multifaceted process associated with the development of the literary language and its role in society; this may be a consequence of evolutionary transformations in the structure of language, the aging of some languages. and the emergence of others, the interaction of oral (spoken) and written (book) forms of speech, the competition of systemic capabilities of one or another means of communication within the literary language. And yet, the tendency towards expediency in acts of speech activity predetermines the direction of the structural-linguistic preference of the speech variant, which is expressed in the development and codification of literary norms (interaction and interpenetration of functional-speech variants, expansion of the scope of the normative weight of the variant, neutralization of functional-speech markings as a consequence of the convergence of the variants of oral and written speech, the normalization of variants as a fact of stylistic differentiation).
Codification of the norm– fixation of norms in dictionaries, reference books, grammar, etc.
Language system- a set of units of a given language level in their unity and interconnectedness; classes of units and rules for their formation, transformation and combination. In this sense, they talk about the phonological, morphological, word-formation, syntactic, lexical, semantic system of a given language or (more narrowly) about systems (subsystems) of declension and conjugation, verb and name, aspect and tense, gender and case, etc. They distinguish the core of the system, which includes the basic linguistic units and rules, and its periphery - little-used facts that stand on the border of the literary language (obsolete, slang, dialect, etc.); a distinction is also made between the core and periphery of the grammatical system. In connection with the functional-stylistic stratification of language (colloquial, official, newspaper-journalistic, scientific, etc.) and the fundamental admissibility of discrepancy between norms in different styles, language is sometimes defined as a system of systems (or subsystems).
Uzus- (from Latin usus - use, use, custom) - in linguistics, the generally accepted use of a linguistic unit (word, phraseological unit, etc.) in contrast to its occasional (temporary and individual) use (for example, neologisms are not common units language). Uzus is speech practice, the actual use of language in different areas of communication. The concept of language is closely related to the concepts of linguistic norms and language systems. The linguistic norm captures only some of the possibilities provided by language and reflects only some of the possibilities for the usual consumption of language. Usually, the usual use of language units is recorded in dictionaries (explanatory, phraseological, spelling, spelling, etc.).
1. Basic concepts of speech culture, subject of study.
The concept of speech culture in linguistics is interpreted in two ways. On the one hand, this concept is used to designate a special science and the corresponding academic discipline (1), and on the other hand, a specific phenomenon of social and linguistic reality, which is the subject of study of this science (2).
1) Speech culture is a section of linguistics (linguistics) that studies the speech life of society in a certain era (objective-historical point of view) and establishes, on a scientific basis, the rules for using language as the main means of communication between people, a tool for the formation and expression of thoughts (normative point of view). regulating).
2. Functions of the language.
3. Literary language as the highest form of the national language.
The Russian literary language is the highest form of the national language and the basis of the culture of speech. It serves various spheres of human activity - politics, legislation, culture, verbal art, office work, etc. Many outstanding scientists emphasize the importance of the literary language both for an individual and for an entire nation. It is noteworthy that not only Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, but also Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov and Likhachev emphasized the importance of mastering the norms of the Russian literary language. Wealth, clarity of expression of thought, accuracy testify to the richness of a person’s general culture and the high degree of his professional training. The scientific linguistic literature defines the main features of a literary language: Processing, Stability, Commitment, Presence of oral and written form, Standardization, Presence of functional styles. The Russian language exists in two forms - oral and written. Oral speech is vocal, subject to orthoepic and intonation forms, it is influenced by the direct presence of the addressee, it is created spontaneously. Written speech is graphically fixed, subject to spelling and punctuation norms, the absence of an addressee has no effect, it allows processing and editing.
4. The concept of norm. Norm and codification. Orthological dictionaries of the Russian language
Norm
linguistic - a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of social communications. A norm as a set of stable and unified linguistic means and rules for their use, consciously fixed and cultivated by society, is a specific feature literary language national period. In a broader interpretation, the norm is interpreted as an integral attribute of language at all stages of its development.
The norm is both a linguistic and socio-historical category. The social aspect of the norm is manifested not only in the selection and recording of linguistic phenomena, but also in the system of their assessments (“right - wrong”, “appropriate - inappropriate”), and these assessments also include an aesthetic component (“beautiful - ugly”). As a socio-historical category, the linguistic norm is included in a number of norms and customs represented in society at different periods of its development.
Codification- organizing a text, renumbering its parts, dividing it into chapters, subchapters, paragraphs, as well as to facilitate citation and references when working with this text. Codification plays an important progressive role in the history of various ancient and modern texts. Codification is constantly used by people to compile digests, books, magazines, etc.
Codification in jurisprudence- this is a method of systematization, which consists in significantly processing, changing and updating the legal norms of a certain industry or sub-branch of law and the adoption of a new codification act. Such codification acts include sets of laws, codes, fundamentals of legislation, charters, regulations, regulations, etc.
Orthological dictionaries are normative dictionaries that serve the tasks of improving language and speech, strengthening the current norms of the literary language.
Orthological dictionaries - dictionaries of correctness: Russian literary pronunciation and stress: Orthoepic dictionary edited by R. I. Avanesov; Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language; Dictionary; Handbook of Spelling and Punctuation; Together or separately: experience of a reference dictionary; Uppercase or lowercase? : experience of a spelling dictionary.
5. The concept of the norm of the modern Russian literary language. Dynamics of the norm.
The concept of norm
Linguistic norms (norms of a literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
6. Types of norms. Norm and option.
the following types (types) of norms:
orthoepic(pronunciation), accentological(accent norms), grammatical(norms of morphology and syntax), lexical.
The first two types of norms (orthoepic and accentological) are applicable only to oral speech. Special norms of written speech are spelling and punctuation norms.
Imperative(i.e. strictly mandatory) ¾ these are norms, the violation of which is regarded as poor command of the Russian language (for example, violation of the norms of declension, conjugation or belonging to grammatical gender).
These norms do not allow options (they are non-variable), any other implementations of them are considered incorrect: met Vanya (not Vanya), they are calling (not calling), quarter (not quarter), my callus (not my callus), washing my hair with shampoo (not shampoo).
Dispositive(optional, not strictly mandatory) norms allow stylistically different or neutral options: otherwise - otherwise, croutons - croutons (colloquial), thinking - thinking (obsolete), whirl - whirl (permissible), brown - brown, piece of cheese - piece of cheese, gradebook - gradebook, three students went - three students went.
Evaluations of options in this case do not have a categorical (prohibitive) nature, they are more “soft”: “so to speak, better or worse, more appropriate, stylistically more justified.”
7. System of norms of the modern Russian literary language.
Established and determined by the philological discipline history of literary language based on the study of the language of literary classics - writers whose language and style are considered exemplary, and whose works are necessarily studied in school, first in the Russian language course as part of grammatical examples, and then in the course of the history of literature - as the highest achievements of language, in particular artistic, creativity.
By scope literary language norms are divided into general (language norms) and specific (speech norms). General rules apply to any statements, and specific rules apply to works of certain types of literature, for example, poetic works, documents, etc.
TO general the norms belong to:
orthoepic norms of oral speech, which are divided into phonetic (norms for pronouncing words and phrases) and prosodic (norms for constructing intonation), for example, stress in a word security on the third syllable;
morphological norms for constructing words, for example, the plural of a word Officer - officers with stress on the third syllable;
derivational norms, for example, formation from a noun condition verb condition with the sound and, accordingly, the letter o at the root, and not *condition;
lexical norms for the use of words and set phrases in certain meanings, for example, word iconic means " pertaining to a sign, having the function of a sign"and the word significant means " significant"so you can't say *" landmark presidential speech", But " significant or significant presidential speech"; or: " May God grant us *to overcome our very difficult socio-economic and political problems"- problems are possible decide.
logical-syntactic norms for the construction of phrases and sentences that regulate the correct semantic connection of the elements of statements. For example, if a mandatory element of a phrase is omitted, an ambiguity of meaning is created.
In modern linguistics, the term “norm” is understood in two meanings: Firstly , the norm is the generally accepted use of various linguistic means, regularly repeated in the speech of speakers (reproduced by speakers), Secondly, prescriptions, rules, instructions for use, recorded in textbooks, dictionaries, reference books.
Language norms(norms of a literary language, literary norms) are the rules for the use of linguistic means in a certain period of development of a literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, spelling, word usage, grammar. A norm is a pattern of uniform, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
Linguistic norms were not invented by philologists; they reflect a certain stage in the development of the literary language of the entire people. Language norms cannot be introduced or abolished by decree; they cannot be reformed administratively. The activity of linguists who study language norms is different - they identify, describe and codify language norms, as well as explain and promote them.
The main sources of language norms include:
- works of classical writers;
- works of modern writers who continue classical traditions;
- media publications;
- common modern usage;
- linguistic research data.
The characteristic features of language norms are:
- relative stability;
- prevalence;
- common use;
- universal obligatory;
- correspondence to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Standard criteria:
1) Model compliance. The first condition for the normativity of a linguistic phenomenon is the correspondence of this phenomenon to productive word-formation, morphological, syntactic models.
2) Usage.
3) Necessity. Compliance with the model alone is not enough to speak about the normativity of a particular phenomenon. It is also necessary to take into account the usage of this formation and its existence in speech. The frequency of occurrence of a phenomenon, its prevalence in a language is the most common and frequently encountered criterion of normativity.
Norm and literary language. Norm and codification.
In literary language, the following types of norms are distinguished:
1) norms of written and oral forms of speech;
2) norms of written speech;
3) norms of oral speech.
The norms common to oral and written speech include:
- lexical norms;
- grammatical norms;
- stylistic norms.
Special norms of written speech are:
- spelling standards;
- punctuation standards.
Applicable only to oral speech:
- pronunciation standards;
- accent norms;
- intonation norms.
Norms common to oral and written speech relate to linguistic content and text construction. Lexical norms, or norms of word use, are norms that determine the correct choice of a word from a number of units that are close to it in meaning or form, as well as its use in the meanings that it has in the literary language.
Lexical norms reflected in explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, terminological dictionaries and reference books.
Compliance with lexical norms is the most important condition for the accuracy of speech and its correctness.
Grammatical norms are divided into word-formation, morphological and syntactic. Grammatical norms are described in the "Russian Grammar" prepared by the Academy of Sciences, in Russian language textbooks and grammatical reference books.
Word formation norms determine the order of combining parts of a word and forming new words.
A word-formation error is the use of non-existent derivative words instead of existing derivative words with other affixes, for example: character description, salesmanship, hopelessness, the writer’s works are distinguished by their depth and truthfulness.
Morphological norms require the correct formation of grammatical forms of words of different parts of speech (forms of gender, number, short forms and degrees of comparison of adjectives, etc.). A typical violation of morphological norms is the use of a word in a non-existent or inflectional form that does not correspond to the context (analyzed image, reigning order, victory over fascism, called Plyushkin a hole). Sometimes you can hear the following phrases: railway rail, imported shampoo, registered parcel post, patent leather shoes. There is a morphological error in these phrases - the gender of the nouns is incorrectly formed.
Syntactic norms prescribe the correct construction of basic syntactic units - phrases and sentences. These norms include rules for word agreement and syntactic control, relating parts of a sentence to each other using the grammatical forms of words so that the sentence is a literate and meaningful statement. Violation of syntactic norms is found in the following examples: while reading it, a question arises; The poem is characterized by a synthesis of lyrical and epic principles; Married to his brother, none of the children were born alive.
Stylistic norms determine the use of linguistic means in accordance with the laws of the genre, the features of the functional style and, more broadly, with the purpose and conditions of communication.
Unmotivated use of words of a different stylistic connotation in the text causes stylistic errors. Stylistic norms are recorded in explanatory dictionaries as special notes, and are commented on in textbooks on the stylistics of the Russian language and speech culture.
Stylistic errors consist of violating stylistic norms, including units in the text that do not correspond to the style and genre of the text.
The most common stylistic mistakes are:
- stylistic inappropriateness (goes in cycles, royal lawlessness, doesn’t care, the love conflict is depicted in all its glory - in the text of an essay, in a business document, in an analytical article);
- the use of cumbersome, unsuccessful metaphors (Pushkin and Lermontov are two rays of light in a dark kingdom; These flowers - the messengers of nature - do not know what kind of violent heart beats in the chest under the stone slabs; Did he have the right to cut off this thread of life that he did not hang? );
- lexical insufficiency (I am deeply concerned about this issue);
- lexical redundancy (He wakes them up so that they wake up; We must turn to the period of their life, that is, the period of time when they lived; Pushkin is a poet with a capital P of the word);
- ambiguity (While Oblomov was sleeping, many were preparing for his awakening; Oblomov’s only entertainment is Zakhar; Yesenin, preserving traditions, but somehow does not love the fair female sex so much; All actions and relationships between Olga and Oblomov were incomplete).
Spelling standards- these are the rules for naming words in writing. They include rules for designating sounds with letters, rules for continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of words, rules for the use of capital letters and graphic abbreviations.
Punctuation standards determine the use of punctuation marks.
Punctuation tools have the following functions:
delimitation in a written text of one syntactic structure (or its element) from another;
fixation in the text of the left and right boundaries of a syntactic structure or its element;
combining several syntactic structures into one whole in a text.
The norms of spelling and punctuation are enshrined in the “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” (Moscow, 1956), the only most complete and officially approved set of spelling rules. Based on these rules, various reference books on spelling and punctuation have been compiled, the most authoritative among which is considered to be the “Handbook of Spelling and Punctuation” by D.E. Rosenthal, which was reprinted several times, in contrast to the official set of rules itself, published twice - in 1956 and 1962.
Orthoepic norms include norms of pronunciation, stress and intonation. Compliance with spelling norms is an important part of speech culture, because their violation creates in listeners an unpleasant impression of the speech and the speaker himself, and distracts from the perception of the content of the speech. Orthoepic norms are recorded in orthoepic dictionaries of the Russian language and dictionaries of accents. Intonation norms are described in “Russian Grammar” (Moscow, 1980) and Russian language textbooks.
Dictionary. The most complete information about a word is provided by an explanatory dictionary. The modern standard explanatory dictionary is the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova. It serves as a guide to the correct use of words, correct formation of words, correct pronunciation and spelling. From the entire variety of vocabulary of the modern Russian language, its main composition has been selected for this dictionary. In accordance with the objectives of the dictionary, it did not include: special words and meanings that have a narrow professional use; dialect words and meanings, if they are not used widely enough in the literary language; colloquial words and meanings with a pronounced rough coloring; outdated words and meanings that have fallen out of active use; proper names.
After interpreting the meaning of the word, where necessary, examples are given to illustrate its use in speech. Examples help to more accurately understand the meaning of the word and how to use it. As examples, short phrases, the most common combinations of words, as well as proverbs, proverbs, everyday and figurative expressions showing the use of a given word are given.