In my opinion, the topic of cultivating altruism in society is very relevant today. Therefore, I decided to devote the second essay to the factors that stimulate its manifestation. The topic of the previous essay touched on the variety of types of altruism, among which I singled out highly intellectual Altruism, briefly outlining its essence. But since talking about its cultivation without first describing the prerequisites for its full “maturation” in the individual (through the passage of many other equally important processes) would be of little use, in this work I set the goal of revealing these prerequisites. In other words, I want to look at the factors that move a person from a selfishly thinking and feeling-oriented model to one that is able to involve the intellect in its choices, and thus develop intellectual altruism in itself.
Let me emphasize once again that this type of altruism is intermediate, since its manifestation is due to a combination of a still practical mind and elementary helping behavior. Therefore, intellectual altruism still contains elements of egoistic motivations, expressed in all sorts of benefits and calculations, motivated by ambition, arrogance, cunning, resourcefulness and similar qualities.
2. Factors that stimulate the manifestation of altruism
2.1. Three theories of altruism in sociology
When selecting material for my essay, I was interested in information from many years of research conducted by a number of famous psychologists. Today there is three theories of altruism in sociology: social exchange theory, social norms theory, and evolutionary psychology. From them we can conclude what specific prerequisites and factors influence the manifestation of altruism by people.
The founder of evolutionary psychology is the American psychologist John Watson. His theory is based on the existence of two types of altruism: altruism based on the protection of one's own kind, and altruism based on reciprocal exchange. In essence, evolutionary theory is associated with the search for biological and social prerequisites that contribute to the manifestation of altruism. Biological prerequisites determine an individual's ability to survive and reproduce within a social group. It logically follows from this that the genes of selfish individuals are less likely to survive than the genes of individuals prone to self-sacrifice. After all, if a person led an ascetic lifestyle and did not need a community of his own kind, then he would not have a need to develop altruism (self-sacrifice, mutual assistance, empathy and other qualities).
Another question: for whom should we sacrifice and show altruism? This is where selectivity in the manifestation of altruism arises. Genes that make a person willing to sacrifice himself for the well-being of a stranger had no chance of surviving the competitive struggle of species for existence. Therefore, altruism aimed at members of a related social group, which can be expressed as protection of the clan and mutual exchange, became evolutionarily important. (For example, a person is ready to die himself, protecting his child from death. Altruism of mutual exchange in tribes is manifested in donating excess prey to another tribe in the hope that someday, during unsuccessful periods of hunting, this tribe will also help them out).
Ethologists point out that animals also help other members of their own species, often at significant risk to themselves. It is generally accepted that in these cases the genetic composition of the species is the source of behavior aimed at protecting the social group and thereby promoting the survival of the species. How exactly this happens is not yet entirely clear, but it is possible that innate emotional reactions play a role in this process. For example, newborn babies scream when they hear another baby crying, and slightly older children experience stress when they see behavior that threatens other people.
If it is true that genetic individualism always wins in the struggle for existence, where does selfless altruism towards strangers come from? One answer to this question lies in group selection: groups of altruists survive more successfully than groups of non-altruists. Based on this statement, it becomes obvious that all social exchange patterns are altruistic to one degree or another. The only question is what share of egoism is contained in each of them.
Social exchange theory was developed by American sociologist George Caspar Homans. According to it, helping, like any other social behavior, is motivated by the desire to minimize costs and optimize rewards.
We exchange social values: we act in accordance with universal human values (we show concern for others), we want to know other people better and gain skills, we strive to become a member of a group and earn approval, we want to get rid of guilt and escape from personal problems, we strengthen self-esteem and self-confidence. By performing altruistic acts, we grow in our own eyes.
According to the theory of social exchange, a person who has an altruistic intention potentially has a share of selfishness, expressed in a rational calculation of the money spent and the benefit received (reward). To what extent this share can have a practical expression, and also vary from situation to situation, one can only speculate. However, some psychologists believe that genuine, selfless altruism also motivates people to help.
Social norms theory comes from the idea that the provision of assistance is associated with the existence of certain rules in society. Norms prescribe rules of behavior and stipulate what we are obliged to do (public morality). Researchers studying helping have identified two social norms that motivate altruism:
- norm of reciprocity
- social responsibility norm
The norm of reciprocity encourages us to respond with good rather than evil to those who come to our aid. American sociologist Alvin Gouldner argued that the norm of reciprocity is the only universal code of honor: those who help us, we should help, not harm. By “investing” in others, we have the right to expect dividends. In all cases, receiving without giving anything in return means violating the norm of reciprocity. Reciprocity within social connections helps characterize “social capital”—connections that provide support, information flows, trust, and joint action—all of which determine the health of society. “Keep each other in sight” is the motto of social capital in action.
The norm of social responsibility compels us to take care of those in need for as long as necessary, even when they are unable to thank us. This includes children, the infirm, the disabled, and anyone else we perceive as unable to participate in equal exchange. In our society, it is generally accepted that those in need should be helped without regard to any compensation in the future.
The belief that people should provide help to those in need, regardless of possible future benefits, is a norm of social responsibility. It is this norm that encourages people, for example, to pick up a book that a man on crutches has dropped. Experiments show that even when helpers remain unknown and do not expect any gratitude, they often help those in need.
From these above theories of altruism, a significant factor can be seen that unites them all in one thing - the presence of a social environment. Being in society, a person, one way or another, is forced to take care not only of himself, but also of relatives, friends, and even the “necessary” people. After all, if he were not socially oriented, then he would not have a need not only for the manifestation of altruistic tendencies, but also for communication, understanding by other people, receiving “feedback” and confirmation that he is accepted by this community. Every community forces its members to display minimalistic levels of humanity. The truth and “purity” of altruism (less share of egoism in elections) will depend on the degree of its self-organization.
2.2. When do we help each other?
Sociologists have found that the number of eyewitnesses directly influences the provision of assistance. David Myers writes that the more people who witnessed a situation, the less each of them will feel responsible for it. This happens due to looking at others, assessing their reaction to the incident. Thus, each of us evaluates reality by the behavior of the other. It is also important how we ourselves interpret the event itself and the reaction of the people around us to it. If we become the only eyewitness to the situation, then our responsibility increases.
The source of distorted interpretations of such an event is the so-called illusion of transparency - the tendency to overestimate the ability of others to understand our inner state. Our feelings and emotions are not as obvious to others as we think. When we are overwhelmed by a feeling, we think that it is easy to notice. Sometimes, even successfully veiled states are interpreted quite objectively by others, and sometimes they are incomprehensible or inaccessible to them due to their focus only on their feelings and inner world. In addition, by not demonstrating their reactions in the group, such people thereby influence the interpretation of it by other members of the team: “Since others remain calm, maybe nothing terrible is really happening?” Thus, circumstances occur, the reaction of others to which comes down to simple indifference due to misunderstanding or disregard for general peace.
If a situation was interpreted correctly because of its obviousness, people were equally willing to rush to help regardless of whether they were alone or with other eyewitnesses. If the situations were not absolutely obvious, people in groups showed significantly less willingness to help than lone eyewitnesses.
Conducted studies have shown that the manifestation of altruism is also influenced by its demonstration by other people, be it everyday life, or TV programs focused on it, journalism, etc. But, unfortunately, the current rhythm of life of the developed part of the human community (overload with new information, the need to quickly make decisions, lack of time) does not allow us to notice and appreciate opportunities for the manifestation of this quality. Social psychologists are often convinced that sometimes circumstances influence behavior more than beliefs. A person who is not in a hurry can stop and offer his help to someone who needs it. A person in a hurry will most likely not do this. As an example of this, residents of megacities rarely appear alone in public places, which explains their less responsiveness compared to the responsiveness of residents of small cities. “Compassion fatigue” and “sensory overload” that arise from communicating with a large number of people in need of help lead to the fact that in all countries of the world, residents of large cities are in no hurry to provide it.
If an adult feels guilty, sad or depressed for some reason, any kind deed helps him neutralize negative feelings. This mechanism does not work in children because they do not consider altruism to be a reward. From fairy tales and fables, they learn that selfish people are always happier than those who help others, but as they grow up, their views change. Although young children tend to be empathic, helping others does not bring them much pleasure. Such behavior is rather a consequence of socialization. According to all of the above, the idea that we are born egoists is confirmed. Altruism is acquired with age as children learn to see the world through the eyes of other people. Positivism also has a beneficial effect on the provision of selfless help. People who think positively are more likely to act positively. As the mood declines, the willingness to help also decreases.
Seneca also emphasized that beneficence should not be limited to a one-time action, but requires constant attention. The essence of a beneficence lies not in its matter, but in the mental disposition with which a specific act is performed that brings benefit to another. Therefore, the defining features of a good deed are that it gives joy, is done readily, willingly, proactively and of good will. In order for it to achieve its goal, it is necessary “not only to show beneficence, but also to love.” Seneca noted that beneficence is incompatible with “pernicious kindness,” which can ultimately lead to the death of the one who is supposedly being helped. In his saying “Guro hominist bonum perficit” (“Care improves the good in a person”), he expressed the idea that care contributes to human self-development.
2.3. Biological background
Scientists from Switzerland explained altruistic and selfish behavior by the volume of one of the areas of the cerebral cortex. The study was carried out by a team of specialists from the University of Zurich led by Ernst Fehr. They studied the structure of the posterior part of the lateral sulcus of the brain, in this area the junction of its temporal and parietal lobes is located. Based on the results of previous studies, scientists have suggested that the volume of this part of the right hemisphere cortex, as well as its activation in different situations, influence how unselfishly a person acts. Fehr and his colleagues asked volunteers to play a game in which each study participant had to divide sums of money between themselves and an anonymous partner. At the same time, scientists assessed the volume of gray matter in the temporo-parietal junction of the volunteers’ cortex, as well as the activity of this part of the cortex in the process of making decisions about the distribution of funds.
After evaluating the data, the researchers concluded that more generous participants had a larger volume of gray matter at the temporoparietal junction. They also found that activity in this region increased as the difficulty of the decision increased, particularly when volunteers reached the threshold of the amount they were willing to donate to their partner. According to the authors of the study, increased activity in the temporo-parietal junction cortex is due to the fact that a person has to overcome his selfish nature when he wants to selflessly help someone.
In Iissiidiology, I came across information that a person’s manifestation of highly intellectual Altruism is accompanied by the activity of the frontal lobes and other parts of the frontal zone of the cerebral cortex, while intellectual altruism activates only the subcortex of the brain, affecting mainly the limbic system, which is involved in the organization of visceral, motivational and emotional reactions of the body.
Further, I considered it necessary to dwell in more detail on the consideration of such factors contributing to the provision of assistance as empathy, religious feelings and self-actualization, due to the important role that their activity plays in the self-awareness of the individual when he manifests altruistic tendencies.
2.4. Empathy
Many researchers highlight empathy as the most significant factor in the manifestation of altruism. The more a person is inclined to empathy, the higher his readiness to help in a particular case. It is characteristic that putting oneself in the place of someone in need of help without experiencing an empathic emotion (“I wouldn’t want to be in his place”) does not lead to the desire to provide help.
In some cases, the provision of assistance is dictated either by outright selfishness (help is provided either in order to receive a reward or to avoid punishment) or veiled selfishness (help is provided in order to regain spiritual comfort). Is there a third motive - altruism, the only goal of which is the well-being of another person, and the happiness of the helper is just a by-product? Can empathy-based helping be a source of such altruism? Sociologists still doubt this and note that none of the experiments excludes absolutely all possible selfish explanations for helping.
Empathy is conscious empathy for the current emotional state of another person, without loss of awareness or objectivity. To become someone else, but not to be completely involved in his state, but while remaining oneself as well: this is what makes it possible to maintain rationality in empathy. The range of manifestations of empathy varies quite widely: from a slight emotional response to complete immersion in the world of feelings of a communication partner. However, in the latter case, the desire to provide help decreases, as the person becomes overly focused on his own experiences.
Empathy can manifest itself in two forms - empathy and sympathy. Empathy is the subject's experience of the same feelings experienced by another. Sympathy is a responsive, sympathetic attitude towards the experiences and misfortune of another (expression of regret, condolences, etc.). The first is based more on one’s past experience and is associated with the need for one’s own well-being and one’s own interests. The second is based on an understanding of the other person's distress and is related to his needs and interests. Hence empathy is more impulsive, more intense than sympathy. Some social psychologists believe that empathy is more of an individual property, since it is associated with such a typological feature as weakness of the nervous system, and sympathy is a personal property that is formed in conditions of social learning.
The concept of "empathy" is not associated with any specific emotion (as, for example, is the case with the word "compassion") and is equally used to denote empathy for any emotional state.
It has been suggested that mirror neurons are involved in the neurophysiological mechanisms of empathy. Modern methods of neurophysiology have made it possible to study the ability to empathize more constructively and meaningfully than philosophers previously did with the help of speculative logic. Not only have neuroscientists clearly shown how and in which parts of the brain compassion arises, but they have also found that conscience is a necessary attribute of compassion.
A few years ago, scientists discovered that sympathy is not a figurative expression, but quite literal. It is due to a person’s ability to actually experience imaginary situations and sensations, for example, those that the interlocutor describes to him. Despite the “imaginability” of the situation, a very real excitation of the very neurons that would be excited if something like this happened to him in reality occurs in the listener’s brain. In the centers of disgust, excitement arises in response to a story about a friend’s unpleasant experiences, in the centers of tactile sensations - in response to information about tactile sensations, and the same with the centers of pain. So, in the language of neurophysiology, empathy is the adequate excitation of neurons in response to an imaginary signal.
We show empathy to those people with whom we have a certain degree of similarity in the context of current ideas and psycho-emotional states. Mirror neurons reflect the potential ability to understand other beings according to this similarity.
We are more likely to show empathy towards family and friends, as well as those with whom we identify. When we experience compassion, we think not so much about ourselves, but about the one who is suffering. Sincere sympathy and sympathy make us help a person for his own sake. This feeling arises completely naturally. In my opinion, the manifestation of empathy can be a good prerequisite for the manifestation of altruism, since there is a moment of openness, empathy and sympathy for the interlocutor, a desire to morally help him.
From the perspective of issiidiology, empathy can be viewed from a slightly different angle.
Our Self-Consciousness is structured by energy-information fragments of different content and quantity, each of which carries a strictly defined information basis. These fragments, depending on their information content, belong not only to human consciousnesses, but also to all types and species of other creatures inhabiting our planet (animals, plants, minerals, liquids, gases, etc.).
The visible difference between all of us, determined by physical form, is based on different combinations of these fragments. These combinations, forming groups (in accordance with the greatest compatibility with each other) are the basis of all our ideas about the world around us - SFUURMM-Forms. Thus, the entire surrounding world is conditionally divided into groups of heterogeneous energy-informational relationships between some strictly defined information fragments (out of their total number), in turn limited by the synthesis scheme according to which these relationships are realized. Each of the groups corresponds to certain Directions of development of the corresponding categories of biological species included in it (people, animals, plants, minerals, etc.). These varieties of forms of Self-Consciousness are called Proto-Forms, and their directed evolutionary life activity is called protoform Directions of development. In each such Direction, information fragments of predominantly a given synthesis scheme are used. As soon as the dynamics of the psycho-emotional process of some form of self-awareness begins to resonate with energy-informational fragments of another protoform Direction, its biological form, life values, psycho-emotional background, etc. undergo corresponding changes.
Thus, with direct long-term and close interaction of two different Proto-Forms, for example, dog ↔ human, mineral ↔ human, cat ↔ bird, and so on, an active exchange of SFUURMM-Forms occurs between them, which leads to the restructuring of some of the energy-informational fragments of each of these Proto-Forms. In this case, the evolutionary process of each of these forms of self-consciousness partially and temporarily deviates from its own initial “landmark” (it is determined by the type of biological form at birth) and can significantly increase the evolutionary path of such a form in the process of its development. Thus, for each protoform Direction of development, its own detailing of the synthetic process is determined, and as soon as it is violated (deviates “from the norm”), this is reflected in the principles of interaction of such forms of self-consciousness with the entire collective consciousness of its Proto-Form.
Now let’s take a closer look at the structural essence of the Human protoform Direction of development (lluuvvumic). The genome of each person corresponds to strictly defined energy-informational relationships, which, in addition to the lluuvvumic one, also include numerous inclusions of energy-informational fragments of other protoform Directions. This fact influences the formation of our tastes, habits and character traits. Such a diversity of human genotypic “branches” within their main lluuvvumic Direction of development gives rise to both the diversity of individual nations and groups (political parties, societies, unions) and collectives within them. The formation of groups generates conformity, and therefore selectivity in favor of one’s group as opposed to others. This gives rise to selectivity in communication between people (“friend” - “stranger”), rejection of radically different views, inability to find a compromise and other characteristics that are in no way related to the manifestation of highly intellectual Altruism and highly sensitive Intelligence by such people.
According to Iissiidiology, humanity can rapidly progress in the lluuvvumic Direction by adhering to precisely these two fundamental characteristics. And this part of humanity currently constitutes only 3%
Of course, there is not only one single path that leads people through development in a truly Human Direction (it is subjectively the shortest, but also the most difficult, since people are asked to actively get rid of selfishness), there are many others - okolluuvvumic (“near-human”) Directions (already with a slightly different synthesis scheme), which correspond to other conditions of existence (both biological and psychomental), from the subjective position of the author of Iissiidiology, are no longer so favorable for the development of the current Human civilization.
From the above, the conclusion suggests itself: since we are born in human form, then all the principles, laws, our subconscious activity, prompts of conscience - all this calls on us to be guided in our choices and to perform actions based precisely on the Human SFUURMM-Forms of the lluuvvumic Direction of development (and not a cat, for example, or a dog).
A mother who worries about her child is able to experience a state of empathy (compassion) and immerse herself in it so much that she can even experience the same physical sensations as her child. However, we cannot “mirror” empathize with, for example, a dog, although we assume that it experiences pain just like us, and superimpose our perception on this. Although we (a person and a dog, for example) are structured by similar energy-informational fragments, the significant difference with another form of self-awareness, traced in the scheme and energy-informational content of their SFUURMM-Forms, does not allow us to unambiguously interpret each other’s psycho-emotional experiences. Therefore, we are not capable of experiencing identical psycho-emotional states or physical sensations with a dog or any other Proto-Form.
Next, I want to draw attention to a factor that plays an important role in the formation of empathic perception, such as intelligence. People living with HIV, the homeless, prisoners, and other minorities—some of them are in their position through a series of selfish and irresponsible choices. Sometimes, by blindly and openly empathizing with them, without thinking about the consequences of our behavior, we let them know that they are right, and deprive them of the opportunity to think that maybe they were lazy, immoral and unable to foresee the consequences of their actions and therefore should get what they deserve.
Such a one-sided manifestation of empathy can be attributed to a selfish act, since the empathizer, carried away by his own experiences, does not think about the harm that such a plausible act causes to another person. Yes, at this moment he is positive, he is compassionate and empathetic. However, the consequences of such empathy, devoid of a reasonable approach, can play an even more tragic role in the fate of another person. In my opinion, highly intellectual Altruism lies precisely in not harming another with one’s “goodness”, passively empathizing and resonating with his painful states (and thereby only earning his goodwill), but on the contrary, helping him see the reason for his own troubles and misfortunes with the help of the “right” words and actions that can deeply “shake” his consciousness. You must try to bring a grain of rationality into the manifestation of your compassion and be able to convey it to another - this is what highly intellectual Altruism consists of.
At the same time, there can be no talk of any benefit or reward for such an altruistic helper. He is more likely to encounter misunderstanding and resentment towards himself, since such an intellectual-altruistic approach of his will most likely be perceived by the other side as harshness, callousness instead of what is “appropriate” from the position of public morality of compassion and pity. Real sincere gratitude from such help can come only after a while, after the person who received it has fully realized the correctness and effectiveness of such help. Thus, a person whose sole goal is to selflessly help another, even despite possible negative consequences for himself, can rightfully be considered truly altruistic.
Summarizing the above, I note that altruism based only on empathy (in particular empathy) can pose a certain problem in interpersonal relationships. Blindly empathizing with deeply selfish people, such altruists deprive them of the opportunity to notice their shortcomings and become better. Obviously, the greatest benefit is the manifestation of empathy (altruism) by people based on intelligence, which allows us to eliminate the one-sided perception of situations when identifying them, as well as their unfavorable consequences.
An important factor is the development of empathy for people towards whom we still have a tendency towards non-positivism. By studying more and more deeply information about the energy-informational structure of personality (this is described in detail in the volumes of the Fundamentals of Iissiidiology) and connecting it as an intellectual component in the process of empathy and sympathy, it is possible to achieve a complete understanding of almost any person. After all, through the process of understanding, a person’s psycho-emotional state is harmonized, which means he is already able to experience joy for other people.
“Attaching” the missing information about the behavioral patterns of environmental objects, which previously may have caused misunderstanding, condemnation and even hostility, leads to empathic states that allow you to positively perceive (sympathize, empathize, empathize) groups of unfamiliar people, without going into details about which of them more or less “pleasant”, “stranger” or “our own”. Thus, gradually a person moves from intellectual Altruism to cultivating highly intellectual Altruism in himself.
2.5. Self-actualization
Self-actualization (from the Latin actualis - actual, present; self-expression) is a person’s desire for the fullest possible identification and development of his personal capabilities. In some areas of modern Western psychology, self-actualization is promoted to the role of the main motivational factor. Genuine self-actualization presupposes the presence of favorable socio-historical conditions. This is the process of full development of personal potential, the revelation in a person of the best that is inherent in him from birth. Self-actualization has no external goal and cannot be set by society: it is something that comes from within a person, expressing his inner (positive) nature.
This concept in meaning very much reminds me of the essence of the term “spirituality”. However, in domestic sociology, cultural studies and journalism, “spirituality” is often referred to as the unifying principles of society, expressed in the form of moral values and traditions, concentrated, as a rule, in religious teachings and practices, as well as in artistic images. Here the influence of social, historically established religious prerequisites on the concept of spirituality is clearly visible.
While in modern Western religious studies, spirituality is most generally characterized as “life lived in the fullness of the unique experience of a person’s inner experiences,” which may contain traditional Western cultural “symbols” and other images that are significant to a person. As English sociologist and PhD Eileen Barker notes, spirituality differs from religiosity in that the source of the latter is the external world in the form of prescriptions and traditions, while the source of spirituality is the internal experience of a person. In my opinion, when describing the processes of spiritual aspiration and personal growth, excluding any religious overtones, it is preferable to use the term self-actualization.
The concept of “self-actualization” is one of the key ones in humanistic psychology. The essence of self-actualization is complex, and it does not always please both the person and those around him equally. Self-actualization comes in different types.
Active is a quick, impetuous desire and the use of all means for this realization. At the same time, the individual strives to achieve it as quickly as possible, and sees in this his meaning of life. Cautious self-actualization is a somewhat slower type; it is characterized by its spasmodic nature. Passive is simply the natural growth of a person, both physically and intellectually. Deep is, first of all, the desire to achieve your goal. It can be throughout life or turn into superficial - when a person loses the impetuosity that he had before, under the influence of standards and prohibitions of society. Harmonious is a self-actualization in which a person realizes himself at a normal pace, without harm to his psyche and without unnecessary haste; problematic, on the contrary, is a disorderly and unthought-out implementation that does not bring benefit to a person. The type of self-actualization of a person depends on the protoform configuration of his self-consciousness.
Psychologist, founder of humanistic psychology A. Maslow wrote: “The best path to a good life for a patient can be only one: to be even more oneself, learn to release the suppressed, to know one’s own Self, to listen to the “voice of impulse,” to reveal one’s majestic nature, to achieve understanding, penetration, comprehending the truth - that’s what is required.”
The need for self-actualization gives rise to a need in a person to become better, more perfect. He subconsciously understands that in order to change his life in a favorable direction or achieve his global goal, he needs to change a lot, first of all, in himself, through self-knowledge, self-improvement and making decisions that are increasingly far from selfishness. After all, a person can be happy when he achieves complete self-realization in the creative process, and this process is deeply tied to serving the public interests. Everything personal gradually loses its meaning.
The goals in people's lives are different and sometimes may not be consistent with the Human Direction of Development. Therefore, within the framework of the lluuvvumic Direction, I will determine the means for achieving them by eradicating egoistic tendencies in myself, putting in contrast the cultivation of one of the most important Human qualities - highly intellectual Altruism. Taking this into account, self-actualization can be safely added to the number of important factors accompanying the development of altruistic tendencies in a person’s self-awareness.
2.6. Religious feelings
Have you ever wondered why in modern society the religious concept of “God” plays the role of everything that is most highly sensual and deeply spiritual? It seems to me that in people’s ideas no other analogies exist that would allow them to somehow adapt for their own perception the image of something incommensurably better and more significant than themselves. Therefore, such a reference image of “God” is very necessary at the initial stage of self-knowledge of a person: the merging of her pragmatic mind with completely new religious feelings, all the diversity of which has been filling the information space of human ideas for many millennia, allows you to experience more sublime sensations and move on to more high level of self-actualization.
However, by plunging his consciousness deeper and deeper into religious morality, which drives him into the framework of dogmas and religious axioms, such a person unconsciously “cuts off” himself from access to information that explains, for example, the essence of the world order and the role of Man in it (which is described in detail by Iissiidiology), having learned which he could significantly expand his worldview and reveal his own inner potential. Improving his way of thinking on the basis of studying new information and thereby developing his intuition, such a person, being independently capable of not only understanding, but also explaining various categories of cause-and-effect relationships, soon ceases to need such associative objects, realizing his integrity even more deeply and unity with all that exists. But more on that later.
Religiosity is a more reliable predictor of a person's behavior when it comes to providing long-term care.
Sociologists have found that altruistic actions can be motivated by feelings of guilt. Therefore, our passionate desire to do good after a wrongdoing has been committed reflects both our need to reduce personal guilt and restore damaged self-esteem, and our desire for a positive public image. Confession is a consequence of awareness of one’s own wrongdoing. Paradoxically, its fact reduces the need to perform good deeds.
Based on the information from books on Iissiidiology, let us consider how religious feelings (not to be confused with the current generally accepted religious morality) influence the improvement in the individual’s consciousness of the mechanism for making more and more altruistic choices.
In a selfish person, such choices are very weak or not manifested at all, but in the process of self-actualization (in the lluuvum Direction), a natural need appears in his activity to increasingly, listening to the voice of his own conscience, experience more complex experiences and be realized in accepting already more radical (contradictory in meaning) solutions.
Every act of primitive altruism he exhibits (realization in something that outwardly contradicts his interests) is initially internally motivated by deeply selfish concepts. When carrying out this process, such a person receives both material (value criteria increase) and moral and psychological satisfaction. Gradually, dependence on these pleasant experiences sets in and the person begins to experience a more urgent need for them. The inevitable consequence of these positive states is a revaluation of life values and a decrease in consciousness of interest in one’s previous selfish realizations. In the process of rethinking their relationships with the outside world, the individual has a need for a deeper understanding of the meaning of everything that happens to him and around him. So a person from a selfish-atheistic state gradually comes to accept one or another religious (or esoteric) concept of the world order.
As one deepens in spiritual ideas, the motivations of altruistic choices realized by a person increasingly lose their selfish coloring, shifting towards establishing deeper relationships with “God” (“Buddha”, “Creator”, “Jehovah”, “Yahweh”, “Sabaoth”, “Ishvara”, “Tao”, “Christ”, “Allah”, etc.), which in his perception personifies everything that is most perfect, harmonious, omnipotent and humane (since in all faiths “God” on Earth is represented through his perfect "Son") When forming such ideas, every action and choice of such a person is checked against such an ideal and is perceived by him as his spiritual sacrifice to this “God”, as a need in his actions to at least in some way come closer to him.
At the same time, material interest from an altruistic act gradually loses its relevance, and the release of hormones (endorphins), stimulating an incomparable highly sensory state, is perceived as evidence of the manifestation of “unearthly Grace” sent to him by “God” for a plausible act. Such experiences serve as an incentive to implement even more radical altruistic choices.
In accordance with Iissiidiological ideas, the image of “God”, individually and subjectively formed in the consciousness of each person, is the Form of “Itself” subconsciously perceived by him, demonstrating all those potential capabilities, abilities and inclinations that the “personality” itself would really like to possess (and already possesses a lluuvvumic future in scenarios), but which seem to her so far completely unattainable. These stable positive ideas become the basis for the manifestation in the consciousness of a given individual of that internal positive effect, which is usually defined by him as conscience.
Intuitively focusing his consciousness precisely on his own hidden potential (by which is meant that unattainable “God”) and checking the quality of his thoughts and actions with it, such a person will try to correspond to this virtual image, working on himself, introducing and developing signs and qualities, which, as she assumes, must necessarily be present in her self-awareness in the future.
I would attribute the positive influence of religious feelings on a person’s altruistic choices to such a factor as intelligence, the absence of which can incline such a person to extreme religiosity, making him a fanatical believer. Intellectuality here is expressed by analysis, which allows the individual to freely compare facts in accordance with his feelings, intuition, “voice of conscience,” and common sense. By intelligently weighing information coming from outside, such a person can avoid a one-sided perception of reality.
Thus, we can conclude that religious feelings (in union with intellectuality) at the initial stage of a person’s emergence from egoistic tendencies contribute to the evolution of his self-awareness in the lluuvvumic Direction of development.
Human society has developed ethical and religious rules that act as brakes on the biological predisposition in favor of selfishness. However, some rules considered social morality may conflict with morality and create internal conflicts when making truly altruistic choices. Thus, for Hegel, morality is the internal attitude of the individual to act according to his conscience and free will - in contrast to morality, which, along with the law, is an external requirement for the behavior of the individual.
I note that the morality of a community can be based on principles that are far from the lluuvvumic Directions of Development and embody dogmas that are beneficial to a given society for its successful management. The morality of such a society, as a rule, is replaced by religious views and a unique element of religious morality is formed.
The morality of the individual is based on intuitiveness, conscience, as a consequence of the intuitive aspiration to one’s truly Human (lluuvvuumic) sources. Conscience can resist quite steadily various manifestations of selfishness, cunning and everything else. The participation of conscience in making a choice depends on the degree of influence of selfish SFUURMM-Forms on the consciousness of the individual. The state of despondency, anxiety or dissatisfaction that follows an action, from the standpoint of conscience, indicates a nonluuvvumic choice. On the contrary, a state of joy indicates a correctly made decision.
Conscience in modern society is the projection of spirituality in the individual consciousness. The closest mechanism of lluuvvumic Direction from the position of Iissiidiology is also conscience. Why does this happen?
In my previous essay, I already tried to reveal the meaning of the concept of highly intellectual Altruism. In “union” with highly sensitive Intelligence, these two personal qualities form an integral part of our future Human life creativity, being both a common motivational basis for the implementation of our global goals and a way of life.
Consciously ignoring different protoform options for one’s development (eradicating selfishness in oneself and thus choosing a shorter path to one’s own evolution), the individual intuitively follows the lluuvvumic Direction of development in his choices. But how, you ask, can one consciously ignore something with which a person has become “innate” for many years?
“According to the knowledge of issiidiology, the surrounding reality is based on the simultaneous and parallel existence of an infinite number of worlds and, as a consequence of this, it can be argued that absolutely all potential options for our choices and destinies already exist in the universe.
Thus, each of us, with the help of a unique “tuning” of our consciousness to the desired “wave,” can, with the help of conscious control over our thoughts and feelings, create our own destiny, gaining individual life experience. This is possible because each of the worlds that form our development scenarios has a unique energy-informational component, that is, it has individual characteristics of form (energy - biological body) and self-awareness (information - thoughts, feelings, intentions). Therefore, as soon as we even slightly change the quality of our thoughts, we immediately change the development scenario.”
From this entire range of possibilities (conditionally for one person at a specific moment in her life), we can distinguish both the most favorable scenarios for her development and the most unfavorable ones, which in everyday consideration are usually called failure, a black streak, a series of troubles, misfortune, bad luck, defeat and etc. Falling into the spectrum of unfavorable scenarios indicates the presence of activity in the consciousness of different protoform energy-information fragments, which (in order to remain Human) require the annihilation of individuals (by analyzing the causality of the current circumstances and finding motivations to get out of the unfavorable situation), thus receiving exactly the Human experience. This is where intuition and conscience come to the rescue.
Intuition in this case is a “means” that helps to feel or “see” the approach of an unfavorable outcome of a situation long before the onset of obvious signs of this. The personality, as it were, “reads” information from parallel scenarios, where there are different options for resolving the situation. Comparing it with the existing state of affairs, a person understands that it would be better to do exactly “this way” (for example, forgive, understand, give in, show sympathy, altruism, etc., rather than get into trouble in the form of being fired from work or an accident), without understanding sometimes until the end of the true reasons pushing her to such a choice.
Remorse makes it possible to understand that the choice was wrong and thus “push” the person to correct the situation. And again, information from the levels of intuitive feeling is compared (in scenarios where he acted a little better from all the options available at that time) with the choice that was just made. Therefore, one can only guess where (in what protoform Directions) a person who ignores manifestations of conscience will evolve in his development.
To summarize the above in this section of the essay, I would like to say that at the stage of personality formation and the cultivation of altruistic tendencies, religiosity can play a positive role. Discussing the different degrees of influence of religiosity on a person, I note that on the one hand, with excessive activity of the intellect to the detriment of the development of high sensuality, a person most likely becomes an atheist and he does not understand the various theories of the existence of some ephemeral “higher matter.” On the other hand, a moderate critical (intellectual) attitude towards religious dogmas reduces the degree of overly sensual manifestations of a fanatical believer, and at the same time pushes him to search for more detailed answers that can satisfy his moral needs.
Thus, when the initial stage of self-knowledge in religiosity is exhausted due to the insufficient “information capacity” of the latter, then in order to substantiate certain phenomena and satisfy the growing desire to better understand the causality of ongoing events, a person inevitably begins the next stage of deeper self-knowledge based on intuitive feeling and application of the latest knowledge already available to humanity today.
3. Conclusion
Studying the factors of manifestation of altruism, I tried to cover this issue in detail by including in the description not only experimental data from social psychology, but also new information from issiidiology.
So, the factors for human manifestation of altruism can be the statement of evolutionary theory that groups of altruists survive more successfully than groups of non-altruists. However, this type of altruism is certainly accompanied by selfish tendencies, if only because the members of this group, guided by the goal of survival, resort to various methods of mutually beneficial relationships. Social exchange theory posits that the health of a community is based on mutual trust and support. Here, in my opinion, there is a considerable amount of pragmatism and prudence in relationships, which indicates their weak, highly emotional base, dubious morality and, as a consequence, the fragility of such relationships.
The theory of social responsibility prescribes helping without regard to those in need, without counting on any compensation in the future. This method of cultivating altruism, in my opinion, is a good moral platform for that social category of society that is still in the initial stages of its personal development. Let us recall, for example, the pioneer laws and customs of the last century: “a pioneer daily helps his fellow workers in building a communist society”; “the pioneer is hardworking and respects useful work”; “pioneers are not afraid to offer their services to people.” The moral norms of society of the Soviet period very well stimulated young people to perform altruistic work and contributed to the consolidation of patterns and rules of a certain level of humanity in their behavioral reactions.
Research conducted by American social psychologists has shown that the manifestation of altruism is also influenced by its demonstration by other people, whether in everyday life, or in television programs or journalism focused on it.
Unfortunately, at the moment such moral incentives practically do not exist in our society. There are also negligibly few positive examples, since the human community is still deprived of a new, high-quality and at the same time generally accessible idea that can unite millions in the pursuit of a common high goal for the majority of people, which would clearly define on what scientific and spiritual basis our future should be built.
We can confidently agree with the statement that we are born egoists. Altruism is acquired with age as children and adolescents mature in a social environment conducive to the manifestation of this quality. They independently learn to manifest it, also showing by their example the positive effect of non-standard behavior patterns, and also learn to look at the world through the eyes of other people, increasingly understanding the necessity, timeliness and appropriateness of altruistic acts. The more a person is inclined to empathy, the higher his readiness to help in a particular case. Sincere sympathy and sympathy make us help a person for his own sake. This feeling arises completely naturally.
Intelligence without the parallel cultivation of altruism can lead humanity into an evolutionary dead end, from which it will be very difficult to get out. For a person guided in his choices, for example, by rationalism, it is very difficult to perform an act based on intuition or empathy, and vice versa.
Altruism based only on empathy (in particular empathy) can pose a great threat to society. Blindly empathizing with deeply selfish people, such altruists deprive them of the opportunity to notice their shortcomings and become better. Obviously, the greatest good is when people show “intellectual” empathy. So gradually, from “sensual” empathy through deep understanding (“intellectual” empathy), a person gradually moves on to cultivating in himself a completely new quality - highly intellectual Altruism. Thus, intelligence can indirectly be attributed to the factors in the manifestation of highly intellectual Altruism
Another factor in the manifestation of altruism, in my opinion, is deep self-actualization. At the same time, a person not only develops intellectual and altruistic tendencies in himself, but also at the same time thinks about eradicating egoistic tendencies that interfere with personal growth.
Conscience and intuition also play an important role, leading a person to make better decisions, and thereby indirectly involve the manifestation of the best qualities in a person, which define him as a Human being, and not an animal. By the way, not a single animal is characterized by the simultaneous manifestation of intelligence and altruism in its motivations and choices.
At the stage of personality formation and the transition to the cultivation of altruistic tendencies, religiosity can also play a positive role. However, To When the initial stage of a person’s self-knowledge in religiosity exhausts itself due to insufficient “information capacity” to substantiate certain phenomena, the next stage of deeper self-knowledge inevitably begins on the basis of intuitive feeling and the application of the latest knowledge available to humanity today.
Let's consider the factors influencing the emergence of friendship
1. The most significant circumstance on which the emergence of friendly relations between any two people depends is their territorial proximity. Thanks to it, frequent meetings and contacts become possible, which allow us to find common ground and feel mutual sympathy. The likelihood that two people living side by side like Academy students living in the same dorm room will become good friends is very high. In fact, it is not territorial proximity that is decisive, but “functional distance,” that is, how often the paths of two people cross. We often find friends among those who use the same mode of transportation at the same time as us, work on the same floor, the same parking lot, or the same break room. Such contacts help people identify their general and individual tastes and interests and perceive themselves as a kind of social unit. We are predisposed to love those we see often! Territorial proximity creates favorable conditions for the emergence of mutual sympathy not only because it facilitates contacts and promotes positive expectations of them. There is another reason: the results of more than 200 experiments indicate that the “mere exposure effect” established by Zajonc (1968) also affects the way we evaluate others: we like people we know.
2. The second factor determining initial sympathy is physical attractiveness. Judging by how long babies linger their gaze on people's faces, even they prefer pretty faces. If you put all this information together, you get what is called stereotype of physical attractiveness: beautiful means good. Positive heroes of children's fairy tales are always beautiful and kind (Vasilisa the Beautiful, Cinderella). Children learn this at an early age. Negative heroes are ugly and evil (Baba Yaga, Kashchei the Immortal). The results of both laboratory and field studies indicate that we prefer beautiful people. However, in real life, people tend to choose as friends and spouses those whose external attractiveness matches their own (or those who compensate for the lack of it with some other advantages).
3. The phenomenon of “resemblance gives rise to sympathy” Mutual sympathy is favorable similarity attitudes, beliefs and moral values. The greater the similarity between spouses, the happier the marriage and the less likely divorce is. Similarity breeds satisfaction. Having discovered that someone has completely different attitudes, we may begin to dislike him. Members of the same political party are often united not so much by sympathy for each other, but by contempt for their opponents. Dissimilarity breeds hostility The general rule is this: the negative effect of dissimilarity of attitudes is more significant than the positive effect of their similarity.
4. We like those who like us. The fact that we like those whom we perceive as people who sympathize with us has been known for a long time. The ancient philosopher Hekaton wrote: “If you want to be loved, love yourself.” Dale Carnegie repeatedly emphasized in his books: “Be generous with your praise.” We tend to be friends with those to whom we we like you. The validity of this thesis has been confirmed experimentally: people who are told that someone loves or admires them, as a rule, begin to experience reciprocal sympathy.
The phenomenon of altruism
Altruism- a moral principle, a system of value orientations of an individual, prescribing selfless actions aimed at the benefit and satisfaction of the interests of another person or a social community. The term “altruism” was first introduced by O. Comte, who formed the principle of living for others. The scientist distinguished between the instinctive altruism inherent in animals, which unites the individual and the species and is then destroyed by civilization, and altruism, which arises and develops within its framework and ultimately turns into a spontaneous innate property that unites all people. The biological view on the problem of altruism was reflected in G. Spencer, who considered altruism as an adaptive quality that arises in the course of natural evolution; The most general evolutionary explanation of altruism is provided by the theory of kin selection. By helping a close relative survive, the animal thereby contributes to the preservation and spread of its own genes in subsequent generations. In most animals, siblings share 50% of their genes - the same as parents and their children. Therefore, for example, sacrificing one’s own life to save one sister or brother is unprofitable, but for the sake of three it is already profitable, and the hereditary predisposition to such self-sacrifice will be supported by selection. Thus, it can be assumed that altruism is the result of evolutionary development aimed at ensuring the transmission of hereditary traits between generations. In S. Freud's concept, manifestations of altruism are considered as the subject's neurotic need to weaken feelings of guilt, or as compensation for primitive egoism that has been repressed.
The central idea of altruism is the idea of selflessness as a non-pragmatically oriented activity performed in the interests of other people and not implying real reward. Altruism can become a conscious value orientation that determines the behavior of the individual as a whole; then it turns into the meaning of the individual’s life. Absolutization of altruism is just as erroneous as its underestimation. The real significance of an individual's altruistic behavior is determined by the nature of the values underlying relationships with other people. Altruism can act as a socio-psychological manifestation of humanity, as well as in everyday communication and activities of people. In social psychology there is a sufficient variety of theoretical ideas about altruism and its emergence. You can select three explanatory principles of this concept, which are not mutually exclusive.
According to the first of them, altruism is a consequence of an emotional reaction empathy, while the latter is understood as an affective connection with another person, as the ability to join the emotional life of another person, sharing his experiences.
According to the second principle, altruism arises as a result of influences on the subject of social moral standards. They are presented to a person mainly in the form of other people's expectations regarding his possible behavior. Being inextricably linked with society, the subject, even in the absence of observers, will behave in accordance with accepted norms of behavior.
According to the third principle, altruism is motivated by the so-called personal norms, such as helping another. In this case, a person can show altruism without expecting reward, in a situation without witnesses, at the cost of possible personal losses. This is the so-called pure (real, authentic) altruism, who does not expect reciprocal gratitude. In contrast to this type of altruism, social psychologists distinguish reciprocal altruism (reciprocal altruism) - a type of social behavior when two individuals behave with a certain degree of self-sacrifice towards each other, but only if they expect reciprocal self-sacrifice. This type of behavior is characteristic not only of humans, but also of a number of animals: the formation of coalitions in primates (whose members help each other) based on mutual altruism has been discovered.
There are two known experiments in social psychology that cast doubt on the exclusively positive role of altruism. Firstly, in the early 1970s, G. Tajfal (Great Britain) proved that the act of altruism is carried out in a situation of double social asymmetry. He posted his assistants at telephone booths and asked them to ask for a coin in order to make a call. It turned out that white female assistants were most often given coins by men of color. Similarly, male assistants of color were more likely to be given money by white women. Experiments by V. Lefebvre (formerly the USSR, now the USA) have proven that the act of altruism is often used to compensate for feelings of guilt. An advertisement was placed in newspapers for volunteers to conduct week-long experiments with animals (rabbits). The experiments began on Monday. And on Tuesday morning, the volunteers were met by an angry experimenter, who reported that, due to the fault of the volunteers, all the rabbits had died during the night. Then he softened slightly and said that there were spare rabbits in the laboratory, and the experiment would be continued on them. After lunch, Lefebvre's assistant appeared, disguised as a fundraiser for the cancer clinic. So, in those episodes where the rabbits “died,” the amount of donations was always much higher than in those episodes in which nothing happened to the rabbits.
Stand out factors contributing to the manifestation of altruistic behavior. These include: moral obligations; empathy (sympathy); the desire to return a similar favor (repay good for good); increased self-esteem; the desire for recognition by a group or social community. In addition, a positive relationship has been proven between good mood and helping. Willingness to help increases under the condition of a good mood (absence of danger) caused by successes and pleasant memories. Some data confirm the fact that emotional people and those who are independent in their life choices often provide help to others. It has been established that feelings of guilt increase the tendency to help. It is also known that a person is more inclined to help someone with whom he has a close relationship. The likelihood of displaying altruism increases if it is directed at a person in a state of grief or sadness.
Among reasons suppressing altruism Social psychologists most often name the following. Firstly, there is a lack of time (a person who is in a hurry is least likely to provide help). Secondly, stress and danger. Thirdly, material costs. Fourth, incompetence. Fifthly, bad mood. Sixthly, the presence of danger when a person is focused on himself. Seventhly, the irresponsible behavior of the victim herself or her appearance as a victim.
The phenomenon of aggression
2. Theories of altruism:
social exchange theory;
social norms theory;
evolutionary theory.
3. Empathy as a source of true altruism.
Practical work: implementation of the methodology "Diagnostics of the level of empathy"
V.V. Boyko.
4. Factors that motivate you to help others:
situational influences;
personal influences.
5. How to strengthen assistance:
eliminating barriers to assistance;
socialization of altruism.
"Altruism: a motive for helping someone that is not consciously associated with one’s own egoistic interests." (David Myers. Social Psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2002. - P. 571).
Altruism is selfishness in reverse. An altruist provides help even when nothing is offered in return and nothing can be expected. A classic illustration of this is Jesus' parable of the Good Samaritan:
A certain man was walking from Jerusalem to Jericho and was caught by robbers, who took off his clothes, wounded him and left, leaving him barely alive. By chance, a priest was walking past on the same road and, seeing him, passed by. Also, another person, being at that place, came up, looked and passed by. A Samaritan, passing by, found him and, seeing him, took pity and, approaching, bandaged his wounds, pouring oil and wine; and, setting him on his donkey, brought him to the inn and took care of him. And the next day, as he was leaving, he took out two denarii, gave them to the innkeeper and said to him: take care of him; and if you spend anything more, when I return, I will give it back to you (Luke 10:30-35).
The Samaritan exhibits pure altruism. Filled with a feeling of compassion, he gives time, energy, money to a complete stranger, without expecting any reward or gratitude.
So, altruism(Latin Alter - other) - a manifestation of a selfless attitude towards people, a willingness to empathize with them and act in their interests, sacrificing their own. Altruism is a value orientation of a person, defining his life position as humanistic.
The concept of altruism was introduced by the French philosopher O. Comte.
1) Social Exchange Theory: Human interaction is guided by "Social Economy". We exchange not only material goods and money, but also social goods - love, services, information, status. By doing this, we use a “minimax” strategy - we minimize costs and maximize rewards. Social exchange theory does not suggest that we consciously expect rewards; it simply suggests that such considerations shape our behavior.
Exercise. Take a notebook sheet and divide it in half with a vertical line. On the one hand, you will write down all the pros, and on the other, all the cons. Imagine that you are offered to participate in a blood donation campaign. Don't forget that the donor has the right to time off, free lunch and a small financial reward. What arguments will you give to yourself when making a decision? In a couple of minutes we will discuss the list of motives.
So, such an altruistic act as donating blood can be caused by various motives: both material and moral. Do you think participation in this action is an altruistic act?
The rewards that motivate helping can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Companies often, in order to improve their corporate image, sponsor various charitable events, and an individual, in order to gain recognition or achieve friendship, often unconsciously offers to use his services. So we give in order to receive. This benefit is external.
The benefits of helping may include internal self-rewards. If someone nearby is upset, we tend to respond with empathy. A woman’s scream outside the window disturbs us, thinking about what happened, we begin to feel anxious and distress arises. To reduce it, people most likely to help may try to intervene and clarify the situation. Altruistic actions also enhance a person’s self-esteem, make them think better about themselves, and give them a sense of self-satisfaction.
2) Social norms. Often we provide help to others not because we have consciously calculated that providing help is in our interests, but simply because it is so accepted, that is, we adhere to certain norms accepted in society. We use a knife and fork when we eat, we say hello when meeting friends, we return a book if our classmate forgot it, etc. norms are what society expects from us, and we from it.
Social psychologists have discovered that there is something called norm of reciprocity, the expectation that people are more likely to help rather than harm those who have helped them. This rule is especially well known to politicians: having provided a favor, they hope to receive a favor in return. The norm of reciprocity reminds us that in social relations there must be a balance between giving and receiving. However, this is not the only norm, otherwise the Samaritan would not be Good. The belief that people will provide help to those in need, regardless of possible future benefits, is the norm social responsibility. It is this norm that prompts a person to pick up a book that a person on crutches has dropped. The norm of social responsibility is especially strong in India and Japan, i.e. in those countries where a collectivist culture exists.
3) Evolutionary theory explains the reasons for helping others from the point of view of preserving the human race.
Protection of the family. Genes force us to act in ways that maximize their chance of survival. For example, evolutionary theory explains the fact that parents are willing to sacrifice themselves for their children. Those parents who put their children's interests above their own are more likely to pass on their genes to future generations than parents who ignore their children. Children are less interested in the survival of their parents' genes, which explains the greater devotion of parents to their children than of children to their parents.
Within the framework of this theory, the principle reciprocity. One organism helps another because it expects help in return. The giver hopes that later he himself will be able to receive help from his fellow tribesmen, and the one who refuses help will be punished: (the whole world despises apostates and traitors). Moreover, reciprocity is better manifested where a person often meets the people he is helping. Small schools, towns, and student dormitories foster a community spirit where people take care of each other. Residents of big cities are less likely to care about each other. The same pattern is observed in the animal kingdom: if a vampire bat remains without food for a day or two, and it can die of hunger within 60 hours, it turns to its well-fed neighbor, who regurgitates some of the swallowed food. The donor mouse does this voluntarily, but such support exists only between familiar mice, who themselves provide similar assistance.
So, three theories provide an explanation for altruistic behavior.
Table 1. Comparison of theories of altruism.
|
theory |
Level of explanation |
How is altruism explained? |
|
|
Mutual "altruism" |
Genuine altruism |
||
|
Social norms |
sociological |
Norm of reciprocity |
Social responsibility norm |
|
Social sharing |
Psychological |
External rewards for providing assistance |
Distress - internal rewards for helping |
|
evolutionary |
biological |
reciprocity |
Preservation of the family |
The source of true altruism is empathy. Empathy is a Greek word meaning "sympathy."
Empathy- this is the ability to respond to the experiences of another person, to comprehend the emotional state of another person, to penetrate into the inner world of another.
Emotions
Motive
Behavior
Distress selfish motivation: behavior
(disorder, reduce own ( help possible),
1. anxiety, distress. to decrease
anxiety) own distress
empathy altruistic behavior(help)
(sympathy and motivation: in order to reduce
to another) distress of another
Rice. 1. Selfish and altruistic ways of providing assistance.
6. Factors that motivate you to help others:
situational influences;
personal influences.
the smaller the proportion of them notice what happened;
the less they are inclined to regard it as an emergency;
the less likely they are to take responsibility for resolving it.
When are people most likely to help?
Situational influences:
When they see others rushing to help;
When they're not in a hurry.
“a good mood - good deeds, a bad mood - bad deeds”, happy people are ready to help;
Having committed an offense, people are more likely to want to provide help, hoping to reduce the internal feeling of guilt; sad people are also inclined to help;
Sincerely religious people tend to provide help more often.
After the sinking of the Titanic, the surviving passengers were 80% women and 20% men. The chances of survival for a 1st class passenger were 2.5 times higher than for a 3rd class passenger. But the chances of survival were higher for a female 3rd class passenger than for a male 1st class passenger. Women in general are always more likely to seek help, and they are also more likely to receive help.
We are also most likely to give help to those we believe need and deserve help and to those who are similar to us.
7. How to strengthen assistance:
eliminating barriers to assistance;
socialization of altruism.
To improve the delivery of care, we can influence the factors that interfere with it. Social psychologists have found that:
reducing uncertainty and increasing responsibility enhance assistance. This can be achieved in various ways. For example,
in one of the observations it was found that hitchhikers are more likely to take a car if, when addressing the driver, they look him straight in the eyes;
people who give their name, age, etc. are more likely to help you. Even such a simple question like “excuse me, are you by any chance Masha Petrova’s sister?” may later help you get help sooner;
the power of personal influence - network marketing. Personal calls to do something are much more effective than posters, media, etc., especially if these calls come from friends;
socialization of altruism.
Altruism can be learned to some extent. A study of television channels conducted in America showed that the media can teach positive behavior. Children who have examples of helping before their eyes tend to do the same. In the same way, social learning of aggressive behavior and other manifestations of behavior occurs.
So, research shows that we can improve care in two ways:
1. First, we can influence the factors that interfere with the provision of assistance.
2. Secondly, we can learn altruism.
Summing up, repeating new material.
Express survey:
What new did you learn in today's lesson? What do you remember most?
AGGRESSION
Around the world, $3 billion a day is spent on weapons and military maintenance, which could be spent on fighting hunger, education, environmental protection and other needs.
In the 20th century, more than 350 wars took place, in which about 100 million people died - an entire “empire of the dead”, the population of which exceeds the populations of France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden combined.
Where does this passionate desire to harm, to hurt other people come from? What circumstances provoke outbreaks of aggression? Can we control aggression? What is aggression?
Aggression is physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone. This does not include motor vehicle accidents, dental pain, or unintentional sidewalk collisions. This definition includes assault, direct insults, and even “teasing.”
People have psychologists There are two types of aggression: hostile and instrumental. The source of hostile aggression is anger. Its only purpose is to cause harm. In the case of instrumental aggression, causing harm is not an end in itself, but a means to achieve some goal. Hostile aggression can be called “hot”, and instrumental aggression can be called “cold”. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between hostile and instrumental aggression. What starts as cold calculation can ignite hostility. Most killers are hostile, impulsive, and have uncontrollable outbursts of emotion. But murders can also be committed out of cold calculation, for example, committed for the purpose of robbery or taking possession of an inheritance.
Theories of aggression.
Analyzing the causes of hostile and instrumental aggression, social psychologists have put forward three important theoretical concepts: 1) there are innate aggressive impulses, 2) aggression is a natural reaction to frustration, 3) aggressive behavior is the result of learning.
1. The theory of instinctive aggression likens human aggressiveness to animal aggressiveness and explains it purely biologically - as a means of surviving in the fight against other creatures, as a means of protecting and asserting oneself, one’s life through destruction or victory over an opponent. For our distant ancestors, aggression was one of the factors of adaptation. Aggressive behavior helped to more successfully obtain food, resist an attack, intimidate or kill rivals in the struggle for possession of a female. Viewing aggression as an adaptive factor helps explain why levels of male aggression have been so high throughout human history.
The sensitivity of our nervous system to agents of aggression is influenced by heredity. It has long been known that animals of many species are bred for their aggressiveness. Sometimes this is done for practical reasons (breeding fighting cocks). Scientific goals are also pursued. In Finland, scientists managed to breed incredibly ferocious individuals from ordinary white mice. Taking several ordinary mice, scientists divided them into groups based on aggressiveness/non-aggression. By repeating this procedure for 26 generations, they ended up with one litter of extremely calm mice and another litter of incredibly ferocious ones.
Blood chemistry is another factor that influences the sensitivity of the nervous system to stimulation of aggression. Both laboratory experiments and police data show that those who are intoxicated are much easier to provoke into aggressive behavior. Aggression is also influenced by the male hormone testosterone. After 25 years, the level of testosterone in a man’s blood decreases, and at the same time the number of crimes related to violence decreases. Prisoners who have been convicted of unprovoked violent acts tend to have higher testosterone levels than prisoners who have committed nonviolent crimes.
2. Stifling summer evening. You, tired and thirsty after a whole day of studying, take some money from a friend and hurriedly go to the machine that sells jars of cool lemonade. While the machine is swallowing change, you can almost feel the taste of cold, refreshing water. But the button is pressed and nothing happens. You press again. Then lightly click on the coin return button. Nothing again. Then you hit the buttons. Then you hit the machine gun and shake it. Disgusted, having slurped unsalted, you trudge back to your textbooks. Should your neighbor be wary of you? Does it make you more likely to say or do something mean to him?
The state you just imagined is called “frustration.” Frustration is the blocking of goal-directed behavior; it is everything that prevents the achievement of a goal, which leads to dissatisfaction of the need.
The energy of aggression is not necessarily discharged against its original cause. Gradually, we learn to suppress anger and take it out indirectly, especially when intemperance can lead to disapproval or even punishment from others, instead of a direct response, we transfer our hostile feelings to more harmless targets. It is this kind of transference that is discussed in the old joke about a husband who hurts his wife, who yells at her son, who kicks the dog who bites the postman; and all because my husband received a scolding from his boss at work.
Currently, aggression is considered as one of the possible ways out of a frustrating situation, but not as inevitable.
3. Social learning theory states that frustration and interpersonal conflict facilitate the manifestation of aggression, but are not sufficient for its occurrence. In order for aggressive behavior to arise in a situation of frustration, a person must have a predisposition to behave aggressively in such cases. This predisposition is formed and reinforced through social learning: observing the behavior of others, one’s own successful experience in using aggression. Thus, the primary role in the formation of aggressive personalities is given to the social environment.
A child who successfully intimidates other children with his aggressive actions becomes more aggressive. Aggressive hockey players - the ones who are most likely to end up in the penalty box due to rough play - score more goals for their team than non-aggressive players. “Kill one and kill tens of thousands,” says an ancient Chinese proverb. This is why terrorists, who do not actually have power, capture everyone's attention. If terrorism were deprived of the publicity that their attacks receive thanks to the means of modern communication, it would definitely decline. This is reminiscent of incidents that took place in the 70s. 20th century, when television screens in Western countries showed naked fans “prowling” the football field for several seconds. Once the broadcast networks decided to ignore such cases, the phenomenon ceased to exist.
Children whose parents use punishment often tend to use similar aggressive behaviors in their relationships with others. Parents, seeking obedience from them with the help of shouts, spanks and slaps, thus gave them lessons in aggression as a method to solve problems. Such children are four times more likely to abuse punishment against their own children than in general according to statistics. Domestic violence often leads to violence later in life.
The social environment outside the home presents a wide range of aggressive behavior patterns. In societies where the "macho" style (from the Spanish "real man") is admired, aggression is easily passed on to new generations. The violent subculture of teenage gangs exposes their youngest members to patterns of aggressive behavior.
Homework: Watch TV for at least 1 hour. Mark the start and end time of viewing, name the program and TV channel. Assignment: determine the audience for which this program is intended. Count how many scenes demonstrating manifestations of aggression (verbal, physical, sexual) were present on the television screen during your viewing. How many scenes did you notice that showed examples of prosocial behavior? Draw conclusions.
Prosocial behavior is positive, constructive, socially useful behavior.
What influences aggression?
Aggression is caused not only by frustration, but also by so-called aversive states: pain, unbearable heat, cramped conditions, disgusting odors, tobacco smoke and other similar factors.
For example, pain increases aggressiveness. This has been proven in experiments on animals, but you yourself can recall or imagine similar cases: an unexpected and severe bruise of a sore toe, a severe headache, accidentally touching a sore callus...
Aggression is triggered by aggressive stimuli, such as weapons. Half of all murders in the United States are committed with personal firearms. If weapons are stored in the house, then there is a high probability that household members will be killed rather than uninvited guests. “Guns not only enable crime, they can also encourage crime. The finger reaches for the trigger, but the trigger also reaches for the finger” (Berkowitz). When Washington passed laws restricting gun ownership, gun homicides and suicide rates plummeted by about 25%. In the experiment, angry men sent electrical shocks of greater force to their “tormentor” when a rifle or revolver (left “inadvertently” after a previous experiment) was in their field of vision than when the objects “accidentally” left behind were badminton rackets.
Jamaica implemented an anti-crime program in 1974 that included strict gun control and censorship of gun scenes on television. The following year, the number of thefts decreased by 25% and the number of shots fired by 37%.
In Sweden, the production of war toys is banned: “playing war teaches you to resolve disputes through violence.”
Independent work of students
Please provide explanations for the following questions:
1. What three theories explain altruism?
2. What factors encourage people to help?
3. What theories exist to explain aggression?
4. Suggest measures that can reduce manifestations of aggression in society (further discussion in the group is possible).
Answer the questions:
1. Can altruism be learned? Aggression?
2. I ask you, Mercutio, friend, let's leave:
the day is hot, Capulets are wandering everywhere;
If we meet, we will not avoid a quarrel.
In the heat, the blood always rages more strongly.
(William Shakespeare. Romeo and Juliet).
Name several other aversive factors. How do they influence aggression?
3. The motive for helping someone, not consciously connected with one’s own selfish interests, is _____________________________.
4. Physical or verbal behavior aimed at causing harm to someone is _____________________________.
5. The ability to respond to the experiences of another person, comprehension of the emotional state of another person, penetration into the inner world of another - _____________________________.
6. The source of _______________________ aggression is anger. Its only purpose is to cause harm. In the case of _________________________________ aggression, causing harm is not an end in itself, but a means to achieve some goal.
7. _______________________ behavior – positive, constructive, socially useful behavior.
8. ___________________________ is a blocking of goal-directed behavior, this is everything that prevents the achievement of a goal, which leads to dissatisfaction of the need.
9. Below are some cases and incidents. Select from them those that can be called aggressive:
b) the hunter shot the prey
c) traffic accident
d) random collision of passers-by on the street
d) suicide attempt
f) the child was put “in a corner” for disobedience
g) tooth extraction by a dentist
10. On a hill in Jerusalem, 800 trees planted in one line form the Road of the Righteous. Under each tree lies a plaque bearing the name of a European Christian who saved the life of one or more Jews during the Nazi Holocaust. These “righteous infidels” knew that if the fugitives were discovered, they would, according to Nazi policy, be exposed to the same danger as the people they were sheltering. Nevertheless, many took this step.
What quality did people show when they saved Jews from the Nazis? How can assistance be strengthened in an emergency? Is it possible to cultivate this quality among the population?
Bibliography
Baichenko A. A., Sablina T. A. Mental and social health of the individual. - M., 2004. -184 p.
Myers D. Social psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2002. - 752 p.
Stepanov S.S. Popular psychological encyclopedia.-M., 2003.-640p.
Workshop on differential psychodiagnostics of professional suitability. / Ed. V.A. Bodrova – M., 2003. -768 p.
Lecture on social psychology.
Topic: Congruent interaction.
question - Concept and theories of altruistic interaction.
The concept of altruism in social psychology is interpreted, firstly, as a motive for providing someone with help, which is not consciously associated with one’s own selfish interests, and secondly, as actions aimed at the benefit of another person, despite the fact that there is a choice to carry them out or not; thirdly, as help to another, which does not require remuneration, without witnesses, at the cost of possible own losses.
Auguste Comte. According to Comte, the principle of altruism states: “Live for others.”
Altruistic interaction refers to actions to provide help to someone, the motive of which is not consciously connected with one’s own selfish interests.
From the point of view of awareness of these interests, the following are distinguished:
a) True (internal, pure) altruism. There is no conscious egoistic interest. In the great humanistic teachings, in classical world literature, it was precisely this kind of altruism that was described and glorified as the highest value of humanity, as the best role model.
b) false (external) altruism. Conscious interest is present, but true intentions are hidden. There are many examples where altruistic behavior is manifested in public and where the altruistic act is not necessarily devoid of personal gain. In particular, many pop stars have certain benefits when they sacrifice time and money for those in need, because their altruistic actions contribute to the popularity of their own records. The same can be said about the selflessness of altruistic behavior: in some cases it is explicitly or hidden, but is rewarded.
Altruistic actions can be considered at different levels:
Psychological. At this level, altruistic actions are explained within the framework of the theory of psychological exchange, according to which a person interacts, expends effort in the hope of receiving something significant for him in exchange, and this significant can be both material and social rewards (love, respect, sympathy).
The point is that during interaction a person exchanges not only goods, money, and other benefits, but also love, status, information, etc. At the same time, expenses decrease and rewards increase. But this does not mean at all that a person consciously expects reward. Simply, as representatives of the theory of social exchange claim, it is the analysis of costs and rewards (either the feeling of guilt will decrease, or respect will increase) and the desire to achieve the most positive result for ourselves that determine our altruistic actions.
Sociological level. At this level, altruistic actions are explained by the theory of social moral norms of helping others.
Norms are social expectations. They prescribe rules of behavior and stipulate what we are obliged to do. We must help the new neighbor settle in his new place. We must turn off the lights in a parked car. We must return the wallet we found. We must protect our friends on the battlefield.
Researchers studying helping have identified two social norms that motivate altruism: The norm of reciprocity.
Sociologist Alvin Gouldner argued that the norm of reciprocity is the only universal code of honor: those who help us, we should help, not harm. Mark Whatley and his colleagues found that their subjects, university students, were more willing to provide favors to someone who had previously treated them to candy.
If people do not have the ability to reciprocate the favor, they may feel uncomfortable accepting help and may be afraid to do so.
social responsibility norm
In relation to those who are clearly dependent and unable to reciprocate - children, the infirm, the disabled, and everyone who is perceived by us as unable to participate in an equal exchange - there is a different norm that stimulates our help. This is a norm of social responsibility, according to which those in need should be helped without regard to any compensation in the future. For example, the activities of volunteers who help, for example, frail old people or disabled people. It is this norm that encourages people to pick up a book that a man on crutches has dropped.
3. Biological level.
The third approach to the interpretation of altruism is based on evolutionary theory. From the point of view of this theory, true altruism has a chance of becoming entrenched in genes only if altruism contributes to the preservation and development of the biological species. Protection of the species
Our genes dispose us to care for those who, like us, are their carriers. Therefore, one form of self-sacrifice that can increase the chances of survival of genes is attachment to one's own children. Parents who put their children's interests above their own are more likely to pass on their genes to their offspring than those who neglect their responsibilities. As evolutionary psychologist David Barash wrote, “genes help themselves by loving each other even if they are in different bodies” (Barash, 1979, p. 153). Although evolution encourages altruism towards one's own children, the latter are less dependent on the survival of the parent's genes. That is why parents, as a rule, are more devoted to their children than children are to their parents.
For example, a father donates his own kidney to his own daughter in order to save her life.
Situational factors
Typicality, fixedness of the situation in social norms.
For example, a stranger on the street becomes ill, and you help him, take him to the hospital, spend money on some medicine.
Number of eyewitnesses. The less, the more likely altruistic behavior is.
Using the previous example, if there are few people nearby, you are more likely to help a person on the street than if the street is filled with people.
Type of interpretation of the situation (attribution of behavior of participants). Situational attribution increases the likelihood of altruistic actions.
Personal factors
Awareness of feelings of guilt (we feel guilty if we don’t give it to someone asking on the street)
Experiencing stress (people who feel bad are more likely to help others)
Personality traits (increased emotionality, empathy, responsibility)
Religiosity (It is customary for Orthodox Christians to give to those who ask, to help the poor in need of help)
Psychology, at its best, has always thought about the improvement of human nature. And two fundamentally different paths have always been open to researchers: to fight human shortcomings or to create conditions for the manifestation and consolidation of the best qualities. Let's look at this problem within the framework of a specific and very relevant topic - altruism in human relations.
Altruistic behavior is actions aimed at benefiting another person, while the donor has a choice whether to do them or not.
Almost all scientific information regarding altruism in Russian-language literature is of American origin. However, even in American psychological science, the study of helping behavior, according to H. Heckhausen, proceeded along side, extremely overgrown paths, and on psychological highways - the study of abnormal and unsightly sides of human nature. There are many reasons for the neglect of the study of prosocial behavior.
The dominant schools of psychology psychoanalysis and classical learning theory were quite skeptical about the possibility of manifestation of altruistic behavior itself, because they believed that even ultimately it serves to achieve certain personal goals of the subject.
Psychoanalysis looked for those behind altruistic behavior repressed drives.
According to the fundamental learning theories hedonistic principle , helping subject Always had to have a positive reinforcement balance. In particular, there is a phenomenon called "paradox of altruism"". These are usually actions when the helper causes damage to himself personally through his action, and what is especially noteworthy is that often even foreseeing this damage in advance, he does not refuse to provide assistance. A possible explanation for this may be that in the absence of external reinforcements, the helper (experiencing sympathy, compassion, empathy) ultimately reinforces itself for his selfless action.
Under providing assistance , altruistic or prosocial ( these terms are used interchangeably) behavior is usually understood any action aimed at the well-being of other people. These actions are often very diverse. Their range can extend from manifestations of kindness, charitable activities to helping a person who finds himself in danger, in a difficult or distressing situation, and even up to his salvation at the cost of one's own life.
Prosocial behavior May be assessed and measured By expenses of the helper. For example, by the intensity of attention, the amount of time, the amount of labor, the significance of monetary expenses, relegation to the background or abandonment of one’s desires and plans, self-sacrifice.
G. Murray in his list of motives he introduced for aid activities special base motif by calling him thoughtfulness(need nіrtіrаpse). He describes the distinctive features of the actions corresponding to it as follows: "Show compassion and meet the needs of a helpless other - a child or anyone else who is weak, crippled, tired, inexperienced, infirm, humiliated, lonely, rejected, sick, who has failed or is experiencing mental turmoil. Help another in danger. Feed, look after, support, console, protect, soothe, care, heal".
J. Macauley and I. Berkowitz determine altruism How " behavior performed for the benefit of another person without expectation of any external reward".
However, what ultimately benefits another and therefore appears at first glance to be a helping activity may nevertheless be determined by completely different driving forces. In some cases, doubts arise about the extent to which the person providing assistance is guided primarily by concern for the welfare of the object of his help, that is, to what extent he is driven by altruistic motives. In this regard, Bierhoff (1990) identified two conditions, determining the prosocial reaction:
intention to act for the benefit of another;
freedom of choice (that is, actions not due to professional duties).
H. Heckhausen, having reviewed many scientific definitions, came to the conclusion that an excellent example of altruistic behavior is the parable of the Good Samaritan, described in the Gospel: “... A certain man was walking from Jerusalem to Jericho and was caught by robbers, who took off his clothes, wounded him and left, leaving him barely alive. A Samaritan, passing by, found him and, seeing him, took pity and bandaged his wounds, pouring oil and wine; and, putting him on his donkey, brought him to the inn and took care of him; and the next day, as he was leaving, he took out two denarii, gave them to the keeper and said to him: take care of him; and if you spend anything more, when I return, I will give it to you.”
The Samaritan's altruistic act is so remarkable because
it was carried out in the absence of social pressure;
not in front of a viewer capable of appreciating it;
he was not prescribed strict moral standards (as a priest);
because he took on the labor and costs without hoping for reward.
Since the creation of the great humanistic teachings - Christ, Buddha, Mohammed - altruism has been and remains the greatest value of humanity, it is glorified in literature and passed on to their children in words as the best role model by parents of almost all continents and countries.
1. 2 Motives of altruism. Social exchange (help as disguised selfishness).
The main question in the study of altruism is the question of the motives underlying such reactions. Scientists who have conducted research on the topic of bystander intervention in emergency situations have not been able to find personal determinants of assistance, i.e. no direct influence of personality traits on the tendency to help was found. There is no such personality trait - altruism.
One explanation for altruism is provided by social exchange theory: human interaction is directed by the “social economy.” We exchange not only material goods and money, but also social goods - love, services, information, status. According to the theory of social The exchange of people is driven by the desire to achieve the most positive result for oneself with a minimum of expenses, in extreme cases, to achieve a balance between price and reward. They weigh the costs and benefits. (In this case, the prerequisite for prosocial behavior is the calculation by the helping subject of the ratio of costs and benefits of actions in the case of providing and not providing assistance to them and comparing the acquired knowledge with each other).
When people enter into barter relations, they strive to receive a reward. These rewards can be extrinsic or intrinsic. * When a person offers his services to gain recognition or gain friendship, the benefit is external. We give to receive. (*For example, pop stars - Paul McCartney - receive some benefits by donating money and time to those in need, because their altruistic actions contribute to the popularity of their records).
The benefits of helping may include intrinsic self-rewards. *If we help a suffering person, we can achieve not only public approval, but also reduce our own suffering (get rid of discomfort) or rise in our own eyes (increase SO).
D. Myers gives Abraham Lincoln's arguments in favor of the fact that selfishness pushes one to perform all good deeds. ( Selfishness- motivation to improve your own well-being.) Lincoln, seeing that piglets had fallen into the pond past which his carriage was passing at that time and were drowning, and the pig was making a terrible noise, rushed into the water and pulled out the piglets. He explained his action by saying that he wouldn’t be able to calm down all day if he drove past and made the poor pig worry about her babies.
Altruistic actions increase our sense of self-worth. Surveys of donors in J. Pigliavin's study showed that donating blood makes them think better about themselves and gives them a feeling of self-satisfaction.
But are such actions truly altruistic? We call them truly altruistic only because the benefits from them are not obvious. B.F. Skinner (1971), having analyzed altruism, concluded that we respect people for good actions only when we cannot explain these actions. We explain the behavior of these people by their internal dispositions only when we lack external explanations. When external reasons are obvious, we proceed from them, and not from the characteristics of the individual.
Thus, altruistic behavior is not necessarily selfless. In many cases, it is - explicitly or implicitly - rewarded.
A cost-benefit analysis explains why bystanders who observed disruptive teenagers appeared passive. They were by no means apathetic, in fact they were probably in great shock, but they were paralyzed by the fear of possible losses if they intervened.
1.3 Prosocial behavior motivated by empathy. Altruism based on empathy.
In addition to external and internal reinforcement, there is another motivational principle - reinforcement with empathy. Psychologist Daniel Batson (1991, 1995) argues that prosocial behavior is motivated How selfishly and selflessly(altruistic). Thus, when we are upset about something, we strive to alleviate our suffering, either by avoiding unpleasant situations (like the priest and the Levite in the parable) or by providing help (like the Samaritan).
In those cases when we feel affection for someone, we experience empathy (sympathy), says Batson. Thus, loving parents suffer when their children suffer, and rejoice with them. By experiencing empathy, we pay attention not so much to our own discomfort, but to the suffering of others. Genuine empathy motivates ushelp another in his own interests. This empathy comes naturally. Even one-day-old babies cry harder when they hear another child crying. In maternity hospitals, the cry of one child sometimes causes a whole chorus of crying voices. Perhaps we are born with an innate sense of empathy.
Thus, altruistic motivation refers to empathy, which makes one care about the well-being of another. Empirical evidence confirms that empathy (empathy) and prosocial behavior are directly related to each other.
To separate the selfish desire to reduce one's own distress from altruistic empathy, Batson's research group conducted a study of what causes empathy. *The idea of the experiment was to push the subjects and the victim together, leaving the former with an escape route. If the subject is guided by selfish motives, he will prefer care in order to reduce his own discomfort (distress) (upset by something, we strive to alleviate our suffering by avoiding unpleasant situations). On the contrary, subjects with altruistic motivation will probably not leave, because the desire to alleviate the victim's suffering will not disappear with leaving.
In Batson's experiment, female students observed for Elaine, a confidant of the experimenter, who was allegedly subjected to electric shock. In the second experiment, she pretended to be in great pain, so the experimenter asked if she could continue to participate in the experiment. Having received a negative answer, he invited the observer (the true subject) to continue the experiment, taking on the role of the victim exposed to the current. In one case, subjects were told that a suffering woman shared many of their worldviews (thereby increasing their empathy). In another case, the subjects believed that Elaine adhered to the opposite attitudes (increased egoistic motivation). In addition, the difficulty of care was regulated. In one case, subjects believed that after the second experiment they could leave the observation room and would not have to watch Elaine suffer. In another case, they were told that they had to watch the experiment to the end.
It was hypothetically assumed that subjects under conditions of the ability to easily leave and dissimilarity of attitudes would be reluctant to help, but under other conditions they would demonstrate a high willingness to help. The results confirmed this assumption “one in three”: only 18% of the subjects were ready to help in the ease/dissimilarity conditions; in the other three conditions, the number of helpers turned out to be much higher.
The experiment showed that subjects who admitted that in response to danger felt Firstly personal discomfort, acted strictly in accordance with the situation , whereas subjects, admitted that first of all sympathized with the victim, acted altruistically, out depending on conditions , constructing the situation.
Thus, Batson argues, altruism is motivated by empathy.Sympathetic participation how a personality characteristic can be considered constant altruistic motivation, and the ever-present the predominance of personal discomfort – as a strong egoistic orientation.