Genres (types) of literature
Ballad
A lyric-epic poetic work with a clearly expressed plot of a historical or everyday nature.
Comedy
Type of dramatic work. Displays everything ugly and absurd, funny and absurd, ridicules the vices of society.
Lyric poem
A type of fiction that emotionally and poetically expresses the author's feelings.
Peculiarities: poetic form, rhythm, lack of plot, small size.
Melodrama
A type of drama in which the characters are sharply divided into positive and negative.
Novella
A narrative prose genre characterized by brevity, a sharp plot, a neutral style of presentation, lack of psychologism, and an unexpected ending. Sometimes used as a synonym for story, sometimes called a type of story.
A poetic or musical-poetic work characterized by solemnity and sublimity. Famous odes:
Lomonosov: “Ode on the capture of Khotin, “Ode on the day of accession to the All-Russian throne of Her Majesty Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.”
Derzhavin: “Felitsa”, “To Rulers and Judges”, “Nobleman”, “God”, “Vision of Murza”, “On the Death of Prince Meshchersky”, “Waterfall”.
Feature article
The most authentic type of narrative, epic literature, depicting facts from real life.
Song or chant
The most ancient type of lyric poetry. A poem consisting of several verses and a chorus. Songs are divided into folk, heroic, historical, lyrical, etc.
Tale
An epic genre between a short story and a novel, which presents a number of episodes from the life of the hero (heroes). The story is larger in scope than a short story and depicts reality more broadly, depicting a chain of episodes that make up a certain period in the life of the main character. It contains more events and characters than a short story. But unlike a novel, a story usually has one storyline.
Poem
A type of lyric epic work, a poetic plot narrative.
Play
The general name for dramatic works (tragedy, comedy, drama, vaudeville). Written by the author for performance on stage.
Story
Small epic genre: a prose work of small volume, which, as a rule, depicts one or more events in the hero’s life. The circle of characters in the story is limited, the action described is short in time. Sometimes a work of this genre may have a narrator. The masters of the story were A.P. Chekhov, V.V. Nabokov, A.P. Platonov, K.G. Paustovsky, O.P. Kazakov, V.M. Shukshin.
Novel
A large epic work that comprehensively depicts the lives of people during a certain period of time or during an entire human life.
Characteristic properties of the novel:
Multilinearity of the plot, covering the fates of a number of characters;
The presence of a system of equivalent characters;
Covering a wide range of life phenomena, posing socially significant problems;
Significant duration of action.
Examples of novels: “The Idiot” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev.
Tragedy
A type of dramatic work telling about the unfortunate fate of the main character, often doomed to death.
Epic
The largest genre of epic literature, an extensive narrative in verse or prose about outstanding national historical events.
There are:
1. ancient folklore epics of different peoples - works on mythological or historical subjects, telling about the heroic struggle of the people with the forces of nature, foreign invaders, witchcraft forces, etc.
2. a novel (or a series of novels) depicting a large period of historical time or a significant, fateful event in the life of a nation (war, revolution, etc.).
The epic is characterized by:
- wide geographical coverage,
- a reflection of the life and everyday life of all layers of society,
- nationality of content.
Examples of epics: “War and Peace” by L.N. Tolstoy, “Quiet Don” by M.A. Sholokhov, “The Living and the Dead” by K.M. Simonov, “Doctor Zhivago” by B.L. Pasternak.
| Literary movements Classicism Artistic style and movement in European literature and art of the 17th - early 19th centuries. The name is derived from the Latin "classicus" - exemplary. Features: 1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. 2. Rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. 3. Classicism is interested only in the eternal, the unchangeable. He discards individual characteristics and traits. 4. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. 5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” and “low” (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The leading genre is tragedy. 6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance, the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions . Classicism originated and received its name in France (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, etc.). After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism went into decline, and romanticism became the dominant style of European art. Romanticism One of the largest movements in European and American literature of the late 18th - first half of the 19th century. In the 18th century, everything factual, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic. Main features: 1. Romanticism is the most striking form of protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaicness of bourgeois life. The social and ideological prerequisites are disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general. 2. General pessimistic orientation - ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow”. 3. Absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. At the center of a romantic work there is always a strong, exceptional personality opposed to society, its laws and moral standards. 4. “Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. The romantic hero is subject to spiritual insight and inspiration, thanks to which he penetrates into this ideal world. 5. "Local color." A person who opposes society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature as a setting. Sentimentalism A movement in European and American literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Based on Enlightenment rationalism, he declared that the dominant of “human nature” is not reason, but feeling. He sought the path to an ideal-normative personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings. Hence the great democracy of sentimentalism and its discovery of the rich spiritual world of ordinary people. Close to pre-romanticism. Main features: 1. True to the ideal of a normative personality. 2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, he declared feeling, not reason, to be the main thing in human nature. 3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.” 4. Sentimentalism opened up the rich spiritual world of the common people. This is one of his conquests. 5. Unlike romanticism, the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods, the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation. Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism: a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed; b) Strong moralizing attitude; c) Educational trends; d) Improving the literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced vernaculars. The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motifs predominate. Naturalism A literary movement that developed in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the USA. Characteristics: 1. Striving for an objective, accurate and dispassionate portrayal of reality and human character. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a scientist studies nature. Artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge. 2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the act of cognition carried out in it. 3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that there were no unsuitable subjects or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists. Realism A truthful depiction of reality. A literary movement that emerged in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century and remains one of the main trends in modern world literature. The main features of realism: 1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself. 2. Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him. 3. Cognition of reality occurs with the help of images created by typing the facts of reality. Character typification in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” of the specific conditions of the characters’ existence. 4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. Unlike romanticism, the philosophical basis of realism is Gnosticism, the belief in the knowability of the surrounding world. 5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development. It is capable of detecting and capturing the emergence and development of new social phenomena and relationships, new psychological and social types. Symbolism Literary and artistic movement of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The foundations of the aesthetics of symbolism were formed in the late 70s. gg. 19th century in the works of French poets P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarmé and others. Symbolism arose at the junction of eras as an expression of the general crisis of Western-type civilization. He had a great influence on all subsequent development of literature and art. Main features: 1. Continuity with romanticism. The theoretical roots of symbolism go back to the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer and E. Hartmann, to the work of R. Wagner and some ideas of F. Nietzsche. 2. Symbolism was primarily aimed at the artistic symbolization of “things in themselves” and ideas that are beyond sensory perceptions. A poetic symbol was considered as a more effective artistic tool than an image. The symbolists proclaimed an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols and the symbolic discovery of correspondences and analogies. 3. The musical element was declared by the Symbolists to be the basis of life and art. Hence the dominance of the lyrical-poetic principle, the belief in the suprareal or irrational-magical power of poetic speech. 4. Symbolists turn to ancient and medieval art in search of genealogical relationships. Acmeism A movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, which was formed as the antithesis of symbolism. The Acmeists contrasted the mystical aspirations of symbolism towards the “unknowable” with the “element of nature”, declared a concrete sensory perception of the “material world”, and returned the word to its original, non-symbolic meaning. This literary movement was established in the theoretical works and artistic practice of N.S. Gumilyov, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, A.A. Akhmatova, M.A. Zenkevich, G.V. Ivanov and other writers and poets . All of them united into the group "Workshop of Poets" (operated from 1911 - 1914, resumed in 1920 - 22). In 1912 - 13 published the magazine "Hyperborea" (editor M.L. Lozinsky). Futurism (Derived from the Latin futurum - future). One of the main avant-garde movements in European art of the early 20th century. The greatest development has occurred in Italy and Russia. The general basis of the movement is a spontaneous feeling of the “inevitability of the collapse of old things” (Mayakovsky) and the desire to anticipate and realize through art the coming “world revolution” and the birth of a “new humanity.” Main features: 1. Break with traditional culture, affirmation of the aesthetics of modern urban civilization with its dynamics, impersonality and immorality. 2. The desire to convey the chaotic pulse of a technicalized “intensive life”, an instantaneous change of events and experiences, recorded by the consciousness of the “man of the crowd”. 3. Italian futurists were characterized not only by aesthetic aggression and shocking conservative taste, but also by a general cult of power, an apology for war as “hygiene of the world,” which later led some of them to Mussolini’s camp. Russian Futurism arose independently of Italian and, as an original artistic phenomenon, had little in common with it. The history of Russian futurism consisted of a complex interaction and struggle of four main groups: a) “Gilea” (cubo-futurists) - V.V. Khlebnikov, D.D. and N.D. Burlyuki, V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Mayakovsky, B.K. Lifshits; b) “Association of Ego-Futurists” - I. Severyanin, I. V. Ignatiev, K. K. Olimpov, V. I. Gnedov and others; c) “Mezzanine of Poetry” - Khrisanf, V.G. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev and others; d) “Centrifuge” - S.P. Bobrov, B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev, K.A. Bolshakov and others. Imagism A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the goal of creativity is creating an image. The main expressive means of imagists is metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creative practice of Imagists is characterized by shocking and anarchic motives. The style and general behavior of Imagism was influenced by Russian Futurism. Imagism as a poetic movement arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, who came from Penza, former futurist Vadim Shershenevich, and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets. Imagism virtually collapsed in 1925. In 1924, Sergei Yesenin and Ivan Gruzinov announced the dissolution of the “Order”; other imagists were forced to move away from poetry, turning to prose, drama, and cinema, largely for the sake of making money. Imagism was criticized in the Soviet press. Yesenin, according to the generally accepted version, committed suicide, Nikolai Erdman was repressed |
Literary and poetic devices
Allegory
Allegory is the expression of abstract concepts through concrete artistic images.
Examples of allegory:
The stupid and stubborn are often called the Donkey, the coward - the Hare, the cunning - the Fox.
Alliteration (sound writing)
Alliteration (sound writing) is the repetition of identical or homogeneous consonants in a verse, giving it a special sound expressiveness (in versification). In this case, the high frequency of these sounds in a relatively small speech area is of great importance.
However, if entire words or word forms are repeated, as a rule, we are not talking about alliteration. Alliteration is characterized by irregular repetition of sounds, and this is precisely the main feature of this literary device.
Alliteration differs from rhyme primarily in that the repeating sounds are not concentrated at the beginning and end of the line, but are absolutely derivative, albeit with high frequency. The second difference is the fact that, as a rule, consonant sounds are alliterated. The main functions of the literary device of alliteration include onomatopoeia and the subordination of the semantics of words to associations that evoke sounds in humans.
Examples of alliteration:
"Where the grove neighs, guns neigh."
"About a hundred years
grow
we don't need old age.
Year to year
grow
our vigor.
Praise,
hammer and verse,
land of youth."
(V.V. Mayakovsky)
Anaphora
Repeating words, phrases, or combinations of sounds at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.
For example:
« Not intentionally the winds were blowing,
Not intentionally there was a thunderstorm"
(S. Yesenin).
Black ogling the girl
Black maned horse!
(M. Lermontov)
Quite often, anaphora, as a literary device, forms a symbiosis with such a literary device as gradation, that is, increasing the emotional character of words in the text.
For example:
“Cattle die, a friend dies, a man himself dies.”
Antithesis (opposition)
Antithesis (or opposition) is a comparison of words or phrases that are sharply different or opposite in meaning.
Antithesis makes it possible to make a particularly strong impression on the reader, to convey to him the strong excitement of the author due to the rapid change of concepts of opposite meanings used in the text of the poem. Also, opposing emotions, feelings and experiences of the author or his hero can be used as an object of opposition.
Examples of antithesis:
I swear first on the day of creation, I swear by it last in the afternoon (M. Lermontov).
Who was nothing, he will become everyone.
Antonomasia
Antonomasia is an expressive means, when used, the author uses a proper name instead of a common noun to figuratively reveal the character of the character.
Examples of antonomasia:
He is Othello (instead of "He is very jealous")
A stingy person is often called Plyushkin, an empty dreamer - Manilov, a man with excessive ambitions - Napoleon, etc.
Apostrophe, address
Assonance
Assonance is a special literary device that consists of repeating vowel sounds in a particular statement. This is the main difference between assonance and alliteration, where consonant sounds are repeated. There are two slightly different uses of assonance.
1) Assonance is used as an original tool that gives an artistic text, especially poetic text, a special flavor. For example:
Our ears are on top of our heads,
A little morning the guns lit up
And the forests are blue tops -
The French are right there.
(M.Yu. Lermontov)
2) Assonance is widely used to create imprecise rhyme. For example, “hammer city”, “incomparable princess”.
One of the textbook examples of the use of both rhyme and assonance in one quatrain is an excerpt from the poetic work of V. Mayakovsky:
I won’t turn into Tolstoy, but into a fat man -
I eat, I write, I’m a fool from the heat.
Who hasn't philosophized over the sea?
Water.
Exclamation
An exclamation can appear anywhere in a work of poetry, but, as a rule, authors use it to intonationally highlight particularly emotional moments in the verse. At the same time, the author focuses the reader’s attention on the moment that particularly excited him, telling him his experiences and feelings.
Hyperbola
Hyperbole is a figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, or significance of an object or phenomenon.
Example of a hyperbole:
Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon; baobabs to the skies (Mayakovsky).
Inversion
From lat. inversio - permutation.
Changing the traditional order of words in a sentence to give the phrase a more expressive shade, intonation highlighting of a word.
Inversion examples:
The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog... (M.Yu. Lermontov)
The traditional order requires a different structure: A lonely sail is white in the blue fog of the sea. But this will no longer be Lermontov or his great creation.
Another great Russian poet, Pushkin, considered inversion one of the main figures of poetic speech, and often the poet used not only contact, but also remote inversion, when, when rearranging words, other words are wedged between them: “The old man obedient to Perun alone...”.
Inversion in poetic texts performs an accent or semantic function, a rhythm-forming function for building a poetic text, as well as the function of creating a verbal-figurative picture. In prose works, inversion serves to place logical stresses, to express the author’s attitude towards the characters and to convey their emotional state.
Irony
Irony is a powerful means of expression that has a hint of mockery, sometimes slight mockery. When using irony, the author uses words with opposite meanings so that the reader himself guesses about the true properties of the described object, object or action.
Pun
A play on words. A witty expression or joke based on the use of words that sound similar but have different meanings or different meanings of one word.
Examples of puns in literature:
A year for three clicks for you on the forehead,
Give me some boiled food spelt.
(A.S. Pushkin)
And previously served me poem,
Broken string, poem.
(D.D. Minaev)
Spring will drive anyone crazy. Ice - and that got under way.
(E. Meek)
Litotes
The opposite of hyperbole, a figurative expression containing an exorbitant understatement of the size, strength, or significance of any object or phenomenon.
Example of litotes:
The horse is led by the bridle by a peasant in big boots, a short sheepskin coat, and large mittens... and he himself from marigold! (Nekrasov)
Metaphor
Metaphor is the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison. Metaphor is based on similarity or resemblance.
Transferring the properties of one object or phenomenon to another based on their similarity.
Examples of metaphors:
Sea problems.
Eyes are burning.
Boiling desire.
Noon was burning.
Metonymy
Examples of metonymy:
All flags will be visiting us.
(here flags replace countries).
I'm three dishes ate.
(here the plate replaces the food).
Address, apostrophe
Oxymoron
A deliberate combination of contradictory concepts.
Look, she it's fun to be sad
Such elegantly naked
(A. Akhmatova)
Personification
Personification is the transference of human feelings, thoughts and speech to inanimate objects and phenomena, as well as to animals.
These signs are selected according to the same principle as when using metaphor. Ultimately, the reader has a special perception of the described object, in which the inanimate object has the image of a certain living being or is endowed with qualities inherent in living beings.
Impersonation examples:
What, a dense forest,
Got thoughtful,
Sadness dark
Foggy?
(A.V. Koltsov)
Be careful of the wind
From the gate came out,
Knocked through the window,
Ran on the roof...
(M.V.Isakovsky)
Parcellation
Parcellation is a syntactic technique in which a sentence is intonationally divided into independent segments and highlighted in writing as independent sentences.
Parcelation example:
“He went too. To the store. Buy cigarettes” (Shukshin).
Periphrase
A paraphrase is an expression that conveys the meaning of another expression or word in a descriptive form.
Examples of paraphrase:
King of beasts(instead of a lion)
Mother of Russian rivers(instead of Volga)
Pleonasm
Verbosity, the use of logically unnecessary words.
Examples of pleonasm in everyday life:
In May month(suffice it to say: in May).
Local aborigine (suffice it to say: aborigine).
White albino (suffice it to say: albino).
I was there personally(suffice it to say: I was there).
In literature, pleonasm is often used as a stylistic device, a means of expression.
For example:
Sadness and melancholy.
Sea ocean.
Psychologism
An in-depth depiction of the hero’s mental and emotional experiences.
Refrain
A repeated verse or group of verses at the end of a song verse. When a refrain extends to an entire stanza, it is usually called a chorus.
A rhetorical question
A sentence in the form of a question to which no answer is expected.
Example:
Or is it new for us to argue with Europe?
Or is the Russian unaccustomed to victories?
(A.S. Pushkin)
Rhetorical appeal
An appeal addressed to an abstract concept, an inanimate object, an absent person. A way to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to express an attitude towards a particular person or object.
Example:
Rus! where are you going?
(N.V.Gogol)
Comparisons
Comparison is one of the expressive techniques, when used, certain properties that are most characteristic of an object or process are revealed through similar qualities of another object or process. In this case, such an analogy is drawn so that the object whose properties are used in comparison is better known than the object described by the author. Also, inanimate objects, as a rule, are compared with animate ones, and the abstract or spiritual with the material.
Comparison example:
then my life sang - howled -
Buzzed - like the autumn surf –
And she cried to herself.
(M. Tsvetaeva)
Symbol
Symbol- an object or word that conventionally expresses the essence of a phenomenon.
The symbol contains a figurative meaning, and in this way it is close to a metaphor. However, this closeness is relative. Symbol contains a certain secret, a hint that allows one to only guess what is meant, what the poet wanted to say. The interpretation of a symbol is possible not so much by reason as by intuition and feeling. The images created by symbolist writers have their own characteristics; they have a two-dimensional structure. In the foreground there is a certain phenomenon and real details, in the second (hidden) plane there is the inner world of the lyrical hero, his visions, memories, pictures born of his imagination.
Examples of symbols:
dawn, morning - symbols of youth, the beginning of life;
night is a symbol of death, the end of life;
snow is a symbol of cold, cold feeling, alienation.
Synecdoche
Replacing the name of an object or phenomenon with the name of a part of this object or phenomenon. In short, replacing the name of a whole with the name of a part of that whole.
Examples of synecdoche:
Native hearth (instead of “home”).
Floats sail (instead of “a sailboat is sailing”).
“...and it was heard until dawn,
how he rejoiced Frenchman..." (Lermontov)
(here “French” instead of “French soldiers”).
Tautology
Repetition in other words of what has already been said, which means it does not contain new information.
Examples:
Car tires are tires for a car.
We have united as one.
Trope
A trope is an expression or word used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Thanks to the use of tropes, the author gives the described object or process a vivid characteristic that evokes certain associations in the reader and, as a result, a more acute emotional reaction.
Types of trails:
metaphor, allegory, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, irony.
Default
Silence is a stylistic device in which the expression of a thought remains unfinished, is limited to a hint, and the speech that has begun is interrupted in anticipation of the reader’s guess; the speaker seems to announce that he will not talk about things that do not require detailed or additional explanation. Often the stylistic effect of silence is that unexpectedly interrupted speech is complemented by an expressive gesture.
Default examples:
This fable could be explained more -
Yes, so as not to irritate the geese...
Gain (gradation)
Gradation (or amplification) is a series of homogeneous words or expressions (images, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) that consistently intensify, increase or, conversely, reduce the semantic or emotional significance of the conveyed feelings, expressed thoughts or described events.
Example of ascending gradation:
Not I'm sorry Not I'm calling Not I'm crying...
(S. Yesenin)
In sweetly misty care
Not an hour, not a day, not a year will leave.
(E. Baratynsky)
Example of descending gradation:
He promises him half the world, and France only for himself.
Euphemism
A neutral word or expression that is used in conversation to replace other expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate in a given case.
Examples:
I'm going to powder my nose (instead of going to the toilet).
He was asked to leave the restaurant (instead, He was kicked out).
Epithet
A figurative definition of an object, action, process, event. An epithet is a comparison. Grammatically, an epithet is most often an adjective. However, other parts of speech can also be used, for example, numerals, nouns or verbs.
Examples of epithets:
velvet leather, crystal ringing
Epiphora
Repeating the same word at the end of adjacent segments of speech. The opposite of anaphora, in which words are repeated at the beginning of a sentence, line, or paragraph.
Example:
“Scallops, all scallops: a cape from scallops, on the sleeves scallops, Epaulettes from scallops..." (N.V.Gogol).
| Poetic meter Poetic meter is a certain order in which stressed and unstressed syllables are placed in a foot. A foot is a unit of verse length; repeated combination of stressed and unstressed syllables; a group of syllables, one of which is stressed. Example: A storm covers the sky with darkness 1) Here, after a stressed syllable, one unstressed syllable follows - a total of two syllables. That is, it is a two-syllable meter. A stressed syllable can be followed by two unstressed syllables - then this is a three-syllable meter. 2) There are four groups of stressed-unstressed syllables in the line. That is, it has four feet. MONOSYLLABLE SIZE Brachycolon is a monocotyledonous poetic meter. In other words, a verse consisting of only stressed syllables. Example of brachycolon: Forehead – Chalk. Bel Coffin. Pop sang. Sheaf of Arrows – Holy Day! Crypt Blind. Shadow - To hell! (V. Khodasevich) BISYLLABLE MEASURES Trochaic A two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. That is, the first, third, fifth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. Main sizes: - 4-foot - 6-foot - 5-foot An example of a tetrameter trochee: A storm covers the sky with darkness ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ /∩́ __ / ∩́ __ Whirling snow whirlwinds; ∩́ __ / ∩́ __ / ∩ __ / ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) Iambic A two-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. That is, the second, fourth, sixth, etc. syllables are stressed in a line. A stressed syllable can be replaced by a pseudo-stressed one (with secondary stress in the word). Then the stressed syllables are separated not by one, but by three unstressed syllables. Main sizes: - 4-foot (lyrics, epic), - 6-foot (poems and dramas of the 18th century), - 5-foot (lyrics and dramas of the 19-20th centuries), - free multi-foot (fable of the 18th-19th centuries ., comedy 19th century) Example of iambic tetrameter: My uncle has the most honest rules, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ When he is seriously ill, __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / He Respect forced myself __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ And I couldn’t think of anything better. __ ∩́ / __ ∩́ / __ ∩ / __ ∩́ / (A.S. Pushkin) An example of iambic pentameter (with pseudo-stressed syllables, they are highlighted in capital letters): We are the result of the interference of the state of the Gorod, __ ∩ / __ ∩ / __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ But, sowing, we are to look at ... __ __ ∩ / __ ∩ / __ __ __ __ / __ ∩́ (A.S. Pushkin) THREE-SYLLABLE METERS Dactyl Three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the first syllable. Main sizes: - 2-foot (in the 18th century) - 4-foot (from the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the 19th century) Example: Heavenly clouds, eternal wanderers! ∩́ __ __ /∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / The azure steppe, the pearl chain... ∩́ __ __ /∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / ∩́ __ __ / (M.Yu .Lermontov) Amphibrachium A three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the second syllable. Main sizes: - 4-foot (beginning of the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example: It is not the wind that rages over the forest, __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / It is not the streams that run from the mountains - __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / Frost-voivode on patrol __ ∩́__ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / Walks around his possessions. __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ __ / __ ∩́ / (N.A. Nekrasov) Anapest A three-syllable poetic foot with stress on the last syllable. Main sizes: - 4-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) - 3-foot (from the middle of the 19th century) Example of a 3-foot anapest: Oh, spring without end and without edge - __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ Without end and without edge dream! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / I recognize you, life! I accept! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ And I greet you with the ringing of the shield! __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / __ __ ∩́ / (A. Blok) How to remember the features of two- and three-syllable meters? You can remember using this phrase: Dombai is walking! Lady, lock the gate in the evening! (Dombay is not only a mountain; translated from some Caucasian languages it means “lion”). Now let's move on to three-syllable feet. The word LADY is formed from the first letters of the names of three-syllable feet: D– dactyl AM– amphibrachium A– anapest And in the same order, the following words of the sentence belong to these letters: You can also imagine it this way: |
Plot. Plot elements
Plot A literary work is a logical sequence of actions of the characters.
Plot elements:
exposition, beginning, climax, resolution.
Exposition- introductory, initial part of the plot, preceding the plot. Unlike the plot, it does not affect the course of subsequent events in the work, but outlines the initial situation (time and place of action, composition, relationships of characters) and prepares the reader’s perception.
The beginning- the event from which the development of action in the work begins. Most often, conflict is outlined in the beginning.
Climax- the moment of the highest tension of the plot action, in which the conflict reaches a critical point in its development. The culmination can be a decisive clash between the heroes, a turning point in their fate, or a situation that reveals their characters as fully as possible and especially clearly reveals a conflict situation.
Denouement– final scene; the position of the characters that has developed in the work as a result of the development of the events depicted in it.
Elements of Drama
Remarque
An explanation given by the author in a dramatic work, describing how he imagines the appearance, age, behavior, feelings, gestures, intonations of the characters, and the situation on stage. Directions are instructions for the performers and the director staging the play, an explanation for readers.
Replica
An utterance is a phrase a character says in response to the words of another character.
Dialogue
Communication, conversation, statements of two or more characters, whose remarks follow in turn and have the meaning of actions.
Monologue
The speech of the actor, addressed to himself or to others, but, unlike dialogue, does not depend on their remarks. A way to reveal the character’s state of mind, show his character, and acquaint the viewer with the circumstances of the action that were not embodied on stage.
Related information.
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10th grade
Goal: To promote the formation of a creative personality capable of seeing, feeling and creating beauty, masterfully mastering the poetic word; a personality who retains the ability to be surprised by a bright, talented word.
- Analyze a finished sample text: understand and reveal the topic, determine the main idea, features of form and content.
- To develop the ability to analyze linguistic phenomena, assisting young poets in mastering professional skills by involving masters of artistic expression in cooperation.
- Develop students' oral and written speech.
- Foster a culture of communication in joint creative work, developing communication skills.
- Instill a love for poetry and for the native land .
Epigraph for the lesson:
What a glorious road -
The path of creativity, the blessed path!
E.V. Tatarintseva
Writing is God's gift, God's spark. And its ignition in the human heart is perceived as a miracle of revelation.
What kind of mission is it to be a poet? This is how Ninel Aleksandrovna Mordovina (Astrakhan poetess, 1928 - 2001) answered this question: “To shine while burning is a rare readiness.” And she added: “Thank you for the grace, poet.” In the classes of the creative association “Young Linguist” we get acquainted with the works of masters of artistic expression, study means of expression and poetic techniques, meet with Astrakhan writers and poets, try to create ourselves... The process of CO - creativity inspires. During such meetings, images, thoughts, words are born in us:
Inspiration is like a revelation of the soul.
Inspiration is the highest ray of illumination.
Inspiration is like thoughts floating.
Inspiration is the unity of different worlds...
Serova Ksenia
Night city
Behind the noisy scattering of piers
The city sleeps, a frosty dream,
The threads of the channels are quietly slumbering,
Someone's heart beats in unison.The midnight trams don't rumble,
The lights in the windows went out almost everywhere,
Our city is good not only in May,
Every day he is good, every hour.
Astrakhan
My city, kind and sunny,
Called Russian Venice,
Until the starry mysterious midnight
Your lights glow tenderly.Gray hair suits you so well
White stone Kremlin,
Here is the Russian spirit of depth
Absorbed by the steppe soil.The moray will tousle his hair,
Will drive the river waves,
The willows will whisper in a low voice -
Everything is filled with the joy of life.
Sitaliev Mirkhat
I flip through the pages slowly
Books that captivate the heart.
Here is Cleopatra's chariot
Flashed gold for a moment.Flight of invisible fantasy
Once again I carried my thoughts along.
And we have been walking towards the truth for so long,
And the path to it is still so far away.
Marakhtanov Alexander
Cat
Cat with dirty paws
She walked along the path home.
She was in no hurry:
It was her day off.The sun was shining outside,
And a warm breeze swirled.
And where did she wander?
Nobody could guess.And something else seemed strange,
What surprised everyone around
After all, cats are so clean!
(It matters to them, my friend).And nothing bothered this one,
And she walked without hesitation,
That everyone gave way
The kids laughed at her.And there were disputes for a long time.
And the wind was spinning wildly.
Cat with dirty paws
Walked along the path home...
Teacher: We begin each of our lessons with warm-up exercises that develop creative imagination. So today I invite you to find commonality between words denoting abstract concepts (life, fate, family, love, happiness, soul, friendship, hope, time, earth) and the names of specific objects (table, anthill, river, tree, flower , statue, cat, sand, woman, computer). Guests, join us in our warm-up...
Student answers:
- “Friendship and a flower: similar in that friendship can bloom like a flower and fade just as well.”
- “Friendship and table: they can be strong. Several people can sit at one table, and friendship can unite several people.”
- “Table and love: they can be strong and clean”
- “The soul and the statue: the soul is the image of a person, and the statue too: both are easy to break”
- “Cat and hope: both soothing”
- “Life and the river: life, like a river, flows sometimes violently, sometimes quietly. There are ebbs and flows in it. Sometimes there are craters, waves roll in, and floods occur. It’s easier to swim with the current than against the current.”
Teacher: For an inexperienced reader, almost every poem is fraught with many mysteries, so it may turn out to be incomprehensible, and therefore uninteresting. But if you treat the poem reverently and soulfully, if you know the artistic means of expression and try to find them in the work, then these riddles will turn into sparkling poetic facets. “Metaphor is the motor of form!” exclaimed the poet Andrei Voznesensky. So what is a metaphor?
Student: Metaphor - from Greek. “transfer” is an artistic means of expression, which is based on the transfer of properties from one object to another, resulting in the creation of a bright, imaginative picture. A word used in a metaphorical sense acquires extreme expressiveness, imagery, clarity, and emotionality. Therefore, metaphor is widely used in works of fiction, especially in poetry.
Teacher: Guys, your homework was to find beautiful, vivid examples of metaphors in the poems of Astrakhan poets...
Student answers:
Space is filled with the pupils of stars... (Sergey Motygin)
My soul is in the color of the wings... (Zhanna Migunova)
Forgiveness was considered an empty relic,
Putting an end to the soul and body crosses... (Andrey Belyanin)April - an inveterate torturer
He's dissecting our brains! (Olga Markova)The Astrakhan sun is merciless:
The rabid gaze is blinding.
Heat - Queen of Shamakhan -
She pitched a tent in the steppe. (Galina Podolskaya)Assumption Cathedral powerful chest
In the dawn fog he sighs a little.
And they look at the paintings of the windows, crossing themselves,
Slavic tenderness, Tatar passion. (Irina Serotyuk)But there, below, shining blue,
The Volga opened up in manes of reeds... (Ninel Mordovina)When I'm at odds with life
And all the words are set on edge,
I break the ringing pipe,
So that she doesn’t remember the old things... (Ninel Mordovina)The dream exploded!
Colored shards
The silence was torn to pieces. (Ninel Mordovina)
Teacher: If a metaphor shows the power of the poet’s imagination, the richness of his associative series, the luxury of his images, then the epithet reveals the depth of his thought, the inquisitiveness of his nature, the intensity of his gaze. “A good epithet is a passport to identity. This is the highest level of skill,” said the poet Lev Ozerov. So what is an epithet?
Student: Epithet - from Greek “application” - a figurative characteristic of a person, phenomenon or object through the expressiveness of a metaphorical adjective.
Teacher: The only possible, irreplaceable, accurate epithet is the artist’s victory! An epithet is his power over an object and phenomenon. An epithet is an arrow to the essence! Among poets it is customary to say: “Tell me what your epithet is, and I will tell you who you are.” Your homework was also to find examples of unusual, amazing epithets in the poetic works of our fellow countrymen...
Student answers:
You are beautiful, wormwood,
All in the sunset fire.
Why did you dream about me
Only epic melancholy? (author – Klavdiya Kholodova)Multilingual, dense with passions:
North - restrained,
Asia - burning... (Irina Serotyuk)I don't dare express it in poetry
Drops of intoxicating dew! (Pavel Morozov)And lies down on the ground, sinless,
Like a year not yet born. (Galina Podolskaya)Stubborn and awkward
Spring screamed in my face... (Dina Nemirovskaya)The city, matte from the heat,
With the tops of the domes...
What will I cover you with?
From nobles and fools? (Olga Markova)The whole world is green-blue-red
Swims and soars in them,
Oh, the narrow tail of beautiful dragonflies,
Oh, emerald! Oh, malachite! (Olga Markova)And to the star’s trusting gaze... (Sergey Motygin)
Teacher: The deepest understanding of Astrakhan; love of life; to the Volga expanses; to the people living here; to beauty; to human kindness; to Russia we find in the work of Nineli Aleksandrovna Mordovina (the song “In a triune image” sounds to the verses of N.A. Mordovina, performed by the actress of the Astrakhan Drama Theater Alexandra Kostina). The floor is given to student N.A. Mordovina, Astrakhan poetess Eleonora Vladimirovna Tatarintseva...
Teacher: Today we will learn about another poetic device, completely new to us - ANZHANBEMAN. It was masterfully used by F.I. Tyutchev, M.I. Tsvetaeva and some other poets. So, what is enjanbeman? Anzhanbeman (French enjambement, from enjamber - “to step over”) –a syntactic means of expressiveness, which is based on the transfer from line to line of a single sentence when it does not fit into a poetic line or stanza and occupies part of the next one. F. I. Tyutchev, “Fountain”:
Rising like a ray to the sky, He
Touched cherished heights.
M. Tsvetaeva, “Over the Raven Cliff”:
Above the black cliff –
White zari sleeve.
Leg - already skidding
Running - with difficulties dug in
into the ground laughing that first
Got up , in the dawn crown -
Max, I was - so true
Wait on your porch!
ON THE. Mordovina was very fond of the work of M.I. Tsvetaeva and also used enjanbemane as an artistic medium in her works. Let's try to find them in the proposed poems:
...August is generous like a king: starfalls
Gives everything so that people are happy,
Make a wish successfully.
Both joy and success will come true!
The main thing: believe adamantly
August, star and sky -
Everything is possible, life is generous in full,
And adversity is not her fault...
On the rolls
...The Volga rolled across the steppe.
Ra-ka-ti-la! -
No end no edge
With the eye You don’t measure water.
And such beauty like this
Latitude And will-
Like nowhere else!
The mice are scurrying around rustling,
In the leaves autumn garden,
It's warming quietly soul,
As if lamp in the morning...
Tachycardia
Don't indulge Pride: don't feed Evil -
The heart grows with resentment and suffocates.
Charred, they die souls
There where unbelief rose into love.
By the blade
... Do not overcome doubt and timidity
Ways, where is the guide one-
Consciousness.
Consciousness of the only one possibilities
Don't give above us dominate-
Violence.
And break out of deception and severity
country, What called
Russia.
By the blade?!
Well we'll walk along the edge
Although unbearable burning
Winds counter,
And everyday life knits your legs
With his illnesses...
But this is temporary
And Russia is eternal!
Today we once again repeated artistic means of expression (such as metaphor and epithet), saw them in the works of our fellow countrymen poets, got acquainted with a new stylistic device - enjanbeman and discovered that N.A. masterfully used it in her work. Mordovina. Let's listen to the poem performed by Nineli Alexandrovna herself (there is a recording of the poetess's live voice with video slides).
(E.V. Tatarintseva addresses the young poets with parting words, talks about the N.A. Mordovina Prize, and demonstrates collections of young poets of the Astrakhan region).
Why are artistic techniques needed? First of all, in order for the work to correspond to a certain style, implying a certain imagery, expressiveness and beauty. In addition, a writer is a master of associations, an artist of words and a great contemplator. Artistic techniques in poetry and prose make the text deeper. Consequently, both the prose writer and the poet are not satisfied with just the linguistic layer; they are not limited to using only the superficial, basic meaning of the word. In order to be able to penetrate into the depth of thought, into the essence of the image, it is necessary to use various artistic means.
In addition, the reader needs to be lured and attracted. To do this, various techniques are used that give special interest to the narrative and some mystery that needs to be solved. Artistic media are also called tropes. These are not only integral elements of the overall picture of the world, but also the author’s assessment, the background and general tone of the work, as well as many other things that we sometimes don’t even think about when reading another creation.
The main artistic techniques are metaphor, epithet and comparison. Although the epithet is often considered as a type of metaphor, we will not go into the jungle of the science of “literary criticism” and will traditionally highlight it as a separate means.
Epithet
The epithet is the king of description. Not a single landscape, portrait, interior can do without it. Sometimes a single correctly chosen epithet is much more important than an entire paragraph created specifically for clarification. Most often, when talking about it, we mean participles or adjectives that endow this or that artistic image with additional properties and characteristics. An epithet should not be confused with a simple definition.
So, for example, to describe the eyes, the following words can be suggested: lively, brown, bottomless, large, painted, crafty. Let's try to divide these adjectives into two groups, namely: objective (natural) properties and subjective (additional) characteristics. We will see that words such as "big", "brown" and "painted" convey in their meaning only what anyone can see, since it lies on the surface. In order for us to imagine the appearance of a particular hero, such definitions are very important. However, it is the “bottomless”, “living”, “crafty” eyes that will best tell us about his inner essence and character. We begin to guess that in front of us is an unusual person, prone to various inventions, with a living, moving soul. This is precisely the main property of epithets: to indicate those features that are hidden from us during the initial examination.
Metaphor
Let's move on to another equally important trope - metaphor. comparison expressed by a noun. The author’s task here is to compare phenomena and objects, but very carefully and tactfully, so that the reader cannot guess that we are imposing this object on him. This is exactly how, insinuatingly and naturally, you need to use any artistic techniques. “tears of dew”, “fire of dawn”, etc. Here dew is compared with tears, and dawn with fire.
Comparison
The last most important artistic device is comparison, given directly through the use of such conjunctions as “as if”, “as if”, “as if”, “exactly”, “as if”. Examples include the following: eyes like life; dew like tears; tree, like an old man. However, it should be noted that the use of an epithet, metaphor or comparison should not only be used for the sake of a catchphrase. There should be no chaos in the text, it should gravitate towards grace and harmony, therefore, before using this or that trope, you need to clearly understand for what purpose it is used, what we want to say by it.
Other, more complex and less common literary devices are hyperbole (exaggeration), antithesis (contrast), and inversion (reversing word order).
Antithesis
A trope such as antithesis has two varieties: it can be narrow (within one paragraph or sentence) and extensive (placed over several chapters or pages). This technique is often used in works of Russian classics when it is necessary to compare two heroes. For example, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin in his story “The Captain's Daughter” compares Pugachev and Grinev, and a little later Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol will create portraits of the famous brothers, Andriy and Ostap, also based on the antithesis. The artistic techniques in the novel "Oblomov" also include this trope.
Hyperbola
Hyperbole is a favorite device in such literary genres as epics, fairy tales and ballads. But it is found not only in them. For example, the hyperbole “he could eat a wild boar” can be used in any novel, short story, or other work of the realistic tradition.
Inversion
Let's continue to describe artistic techniques in the works. Inversion, as you might guess, serves to give the work additional emotionality. It can most often be observed in poetry, but this trope is often used in prose. You can say: “This girl was more beautiful than others.” Or you can shout out: “This girl was more beautiful than the others!” Immediately, enthusiasm, expression, and much more arise, which can be noticed when comparing the two statements.
Irony
The next trope, irony, or hidden authorial ridicule, is also used quite often in fiction. Of course, a serious work should be serious, but the subtext hidden in irony sometimes not only demonstrates the wit of the writer, but also forces the reader to take a breath for a while and prepare for the next, more intense scene. In a humorous work, irony is indispensable. The great masters of this are Zoshchenko and Chekhov, who use this trope in their stories.
Sarcasm
Another one is closely related to this technique - it is no longer just a good laugh, it reveals shortcomings and vices, sometimes exaggerates the colors, while irony usually creates a bright atmosphere. In order to have a more complete understanding of this trail, you can read several tales by Saltykov-Shchedrin.
Personification
The next technique is personification. It allows us to demonstrate the life of the world around us. Images appear such as grumbling winter, dancing snow, singing water. In other words, personification is the transfer of the properties of animate objects to inanimate objects. So, we all know that only humans and animals can yawn. But in literature one often encounters such artistic images as a yawning sky or a yawning door. The first of them can help create a certain mood in the reader and prepare his perception. The second is to emphasize the sleepy atmosphere in this house, perhaps loneliness and boredom.
Oxymoron
Oxymoron is another interesting technique, which is a combination of incompatible things. This is both a righteous lie and an Orthodox devil. Such words, chosen completely unexpectedly, can be used by both science fiction writers and lovers of philosophical treatises. Sometimes just one oxymoron is enough to build an entire work that has dualism of existence, an insoluble conflict, and a subtle ironic subtext.
Other artistic techniques
It is interesting that the “and, and, and” used in the previous sentence is also one of the artistic means called polyunion. Why is it needed? First of all, to expand the narrative range and show, for example, that a person has beauty, intelligence, courage, and charm... And the hero also knows how to fish, and swim, and write books, and build houses...
Most often, this trope is used in conjunction with another, called This is the case when it is difficult to imagine one without the other.
However, this is not all artistic techniques and means. Let us also note rhetorical questions. They don't require an answer, but still make readers think. Perhaps everyone knows the most famous of them: “Who is to blame?” and "What should I do?"
These are just basic artistic techniques. In addition to them, we can distinguish parcellation (division of a sentence), synecdoche (when the singular is used instead of the plural), anaphora (similar beginning of sentences), epiphora (repetition of their endings), litotes (understatement) and hyperbole (on the contrary, exaggeration), periphrasis (when some word is replaced by its brief description. All these means can be used both in poetry and in prose. Artistic techniques in a poem and, for example, a story, are not fundamentally different.
Poetic devices (tropes)– transformations of language units, consisting in the transfer of a traditional name to another subject area.
Epithet– one of the tropes, a figurative definition of an object (phenomenon), expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb, noun, numeral, verb. Unlike the usual logical definition, which distinguishes a given object from many (“quiet ringing”), an epithet either highlights one of its properties in an object (“proud horse”), or, like a metaphorical epithet, transfers to it the properties of another object (“a proud horse”). living trace").
Comparison- a figurative verbal expression in which the depicted phenomenon is likened to another according to some characteristic common to them in order to identify new, important properties in the object of comparison:
Metaphor- a type of trope based on the transfer of the properties of one object to another, according to the principle of their similarity in some respect or contrast: “enchanted stream” (V.A. Zhukovsky), “living chariot of the universe” (F.I. Tyutchev) , “a disastrous fire of life” (A.A. Blok). In metaphor, various features (what the object is likened to and the properties of the object itself) are presented in a new undivided unity of the artistic image.
The following types of metaphor are distinguished:
personification (“water runs”);
reification (“nerves of steel”);
distractions (“field of activity”), etc.
Personification- a special type of metaphor based on the transfer of human traits (more broadly, the traits of a living being) onto inanimate objects and phenomena. The following types of impersonation are distinguished:
personification as a stylistic figure inherent in any expressive speech: “the heart speaks”, “the river plays”;
personification in folk poetry and individual lyrics as a metaphor, close in its role to psychological parallelism;
personification as a symbol that grows out of a system of private personifications and expresses the author's idea.
Metonymy - a type of trope based on the principle of contiguity.
Types of metonymy and ways to create it :
whole and part (synecdoche): “Hey, beard! How can I get to Plyushkin?” (N.V. Gogol);
item and material: “It’s not like it’s on silver, it’s on gold” (A.S. Griboyedov);
contents and containing: “The flooded oven is cracking,” “The hissing of foamy glasses” (A.S. Pushkin);
bearer of property and property: “The city takes courage” (last);
creation and creator: “A man... He will carry Belinsky and Gogol from the market” (N.A. Nekrasov), etc.
Hyperbola- a stylistic figure or artistic device based on the exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon: “The sunset burned with one hundred and forty suns...” (V. Mayakovsky).
Litotes– trope, the opposite of hyperbole: understatement of the attribute of an object (“little-man-nail”, “little-thumb”).
Irony (in style)- an allegory expressing mockery or slyness, when a word or statement takes on a meaning in the context of speech that is opposite to the literal meaning or denies it, casting doubt on it. Irony is reproach and contradiction under the guise of approval and agreement: “Where are you, smart [donkey], coming from?” (I.A. Krylov).
Oxymoron- a compressed and therefore paradoxical-sounding antithesis, usually in the form of an antonymous noun with an adjective or a verb with an adverb: “living corpse”; “poor luxury of attire” (N.A. Nekrasov); “a bad peace is better than a good quarrel”; “It’s fun for her to be sad, so elegantly naked” (A.A. Akhmatova).
Pun- a play on words based on their polysemy (polysemy), homonymy or sound similarity, in order to achieve a comic effect.
End of work -
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Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines
We consider the nature of inspiration of creative thinking using the example of studying the formation of self-awareness of the artist’s individuality. Comparing.. The initial perception of the world corresponding to inclinations and drives determines.. We consider inspiration as a manifestation and realization of the artist’s individuality, a synthesis of mental processes..
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Basic and auxiliary literary disciplines
Literary criticism is a science that studies the specifics, genesis and development of verbal art, explores the ideological and aesthetic value and structure of literary works, studies social history
Specifics of art
Disputes about the specifics and essence of art and artistic creativity have been going on since antiquity. Aristotle associated the essence of artistic creativity with a person’s innate “passion” for imitation
World of Arts and Fiction
The world of arts and fiction is the cultural and spiritual heritage of humanity. Every nation is rich in its own culture, which reflects its mentality in vivid images.
Types of artistic images
One of the most important functions of a literary image is to give words the fullness, integrity and self-significance that things have. The specificity of the verbal image is also manifested in
Epilogue
The final component of a work, the ending, separated from the action unfolding in the main part of the text. COMPOSITION OF A LITERARY WORK Composition
Subjective organization of text
In a literary work, one should distinguish between the object of speech and the subject of speech. The object of speech is everything that is depicted and everything that is told about: people, objects, circumstances, events, etc. Subject
Artistic speech and literary language
A literary image can exist only in a verbal shell. The word is the material carrier of imagery in literature. In this regard, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “artistic
Lexical resources of artistic speech
Fiction uses the national language in all the richness of its capabilities. This can be neutral, high or low vocabulary; outdated words and neologisms; foreign words
Poetic figures
Syntactic expressiveness is another important linguistic means of fiction. What is important here is the length and melodic pattern of phrases, the arrangement of words in them, and various types of phrasing.
Rhythmic organization of artistic speech
Strophic
A stanza in versification is a group of verses united by some formal feature that is periodically repeated from stanza to stanza. Monostich - poetic
Plot, plot, composition of the work
C O M P O S I T I O N D E T A L D E T S of the work: 1. PLOT OF THE WORK - a chain of events that reveal the characters and relationships of the characters
Additional
Prologue. The introductory part of a literary work, which introduces the general meaning, plot or main motives of the work or briefly sets out the events preceding the main one
Composition of a literary work
The composition of a literary work plays a big role in expressing ideological meaning. The writer, focusing on those phenomena of life that currently attract him,
The ideological and emotional orientation of the literature. The concept of pathos and its varieties
The ideological world of a work is the third structural component of the content-conceptual level, along with themes and issues. The ideological world is an area
Epic genres
Epic literary genres go back to the epic folklore genres, which are closest to fairy tales. From the point of view of the genre form, the fairy tale has its own quite stable structure: a repeating beginning
Epic as a type of artistic creativity. Types of epic. Characteristics of epic genres
The most ancient of these types of artistic creativity is epic. The early forms of the epic arose in the conditions of the primitive communal system and are associated with human labor activity, with peace
Lyrics as a type of artistic creativity. Lyric genres. The concept and controversy about the lyrical hero
Another type of artistic creativity is lyricism. It differs from epic in that it brings to the fore the poet’s inner experiences. In the lyrics we see a living, excited person
Drama as a form of artistic creativity. Characteristics of drama genres
Drama is an original form of artistic creativity. The specificity of drama as a type of literature is that it is usually intended for performance on stage. In drama
Cognitive function of literature
In the past, the cognitive capabilities of art (and literature as well) were often underestimated. For example, Plato considered it necessary to expel all true artists from the ideal state.
Function of anticipation (“Cassandrian principle”, art as anticipation)
Why the “Cassandrian beginning”? As you know, Cassandra predicted the death of Troy in the days of the city’s heyday and power. The “Cassandrian principle” has always lived in art and especially in literature.
Educational function
Literature shapes the way people feel and think. By showing heroes who have gone through difficult trials, literature makes people empathize with them and thus, as it were, cleanses their inner world. IN
The concept of direction, flow and style in modern literary criticism
But despite all the uniqueness of creative individuals, special varieties develop within artistic systems according to their common characteristics. To study these varieties, most of all
The concept of ancient literature
If Greece is the cradle of European culture, then Greek literature is the foundation, the foundation of European literature. The word “antique” translated from Latin means “ancient”. But not every d
The fate of ancient literature
The plots, heroes and images of ancient literature are distinguished by such completeness, clarity and depth of meaning that writers of subsequent eras constantly turn to them. Ancient stories find a new interpretation
Periodization and features of ancient literature
In its development, ancient literature went through several stages and is represented by classical examples in all literary forms: epic and lyric poetry, satire, tragedy and comedy, ode and fable, novel and
Ancient mythology
The most important element of Greek culture were myths, that is, tales, traditions, legends dating back to ancient times. They constitute a rich treasury of images and subjects. Reflected in myths
Ancient epic. Homer
The greatest monuments of the most ancient period of Greek literature are Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. The poems belong to the genre of folk heroic epic, as they have folklore, folk
The rise of drama in the era of Pericles
5th-4th centuries BC. - a glorious era in the history of Greece, marked by the extraordinary rise of its literature and art, science and culture, and the flourishing of democracy. This period is called Attic, named after Attica
Ancient theater
It is human nature to imitate. A child in a game imitates what he sees in life, a savage dances to depict a hunting scene. Ancient Greek philosopher and art theorist Aristotle - all art
Ancient tragedy
The suffering and death of people who are objectively worthy of a better fate, capable of many glorious deeds for the benefit of humanity, who have gained immortal fame among their contemporaries and descendants, are experienced by us
Ancient comedy
People tend to laugh. Aristotle even elevated this characteristic inherent in people to a dignity that distinguishes man from animals. People laugh at everything, even at the most dear and close ones. But in one word
Greek lyrics
There is a pattern in the development of Greek literature: certain historical periods are marked by the dominance of certain genres. The most ancient period, “Homeric Greece” - the time of heroic e
Greek prose
The heyday of Greek prose occurred in the Hellenic period (III-I centuries BC). This era is associated with the name of Alexander the Great. His conquests and campaigns in the eastern countries had a great influence on
Middle Ages
The Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century. AD as a result of a slave revolt and barbarian invasion. Short-lived barbarian states arose from its ruins. The transition from the historically exhausted
A Word on Law and Grace" by Hilarion
4. The most ancient Russian lives (“Life of Theodosius of Pechersk”, lives of Boris and Gleb). Lives of the Saints. Monuments of the hagiographic genre - the lives of saints - also brought up
The story of the ruin of Ryazan by Batu
6. The genre of oratorical prose is one of the main genres in the system of ancient Russian literature in the 13th century. represented by the “words” of Serapion. Five “words” of Serapion have reached us. Main theme with
The concept of humanism
The concept of “humanism” was introduced into use by scientists of the 19th century. It comes from the Latin humanitas (human nature, spiritual culture) and humanus (human), and denotes ideology, n
Message from Archbishop Vasily of Novgorod to the ruler of Tfera Theodore about paradise"
The political struggle for primacy among the Russian principalities that took place during the period under review strengthens the journalistic focus and topicality of the literary works created at that time.
The Tale of Temir-Aksak
The main genres of literature, as in previous periods, are chronicle writing and hagiography. The walking genre is being revived. The genre of legendary historical tales is becoming widespread.
Historical narrative
In the 16th century all-Russian chronicle writing became centralized: chronicle writing was carried out in Moscow (most likely, by the joint forces of the grand ducal and metropolitan chancellery); chroniclers in other cities
Journalism (I. Peresvetov, A. Kurbsky, Ivan the Terrible)
In Ancient Rus' there was no special term to define journalism - just as there was none for fiction; the boundaries of the journalistic genre that we can outline are, of course, very conditional
Romanticism as a universal artistic system
Romanticism is a movement in literature at the beginning of the 19th century. ROMANTICISM. Several meanings of the word “romanticism”: 1. The direction in literature and art of the first quarter
Realism as a universal art system
Realism - in literature and art - is a direction that strives to depict reality. R. (real, real) – thin method, trace
Principles of socialist realism
Nationality. This meant both the understandability of the literature for the common people and the use of popular speech patterns and proverbs. Ideology. Show
In literature
The literature of socialist realism was an instrument of party ideology. A writer, according to Stalin’s famous expression, is an “engineer of human souls.” With his talent he should influence the cheat
Modernism as a universal art system
Literature of the 20th century developed in a climate of wars, revolutions, and then the emergence of a new post-revolutionary reality. All this could not but affect the artistic quest of the authors of this time.
Postmodernism: definition and characteristics
Postmodernism is a literary movement that replaced modernity and differs from it not so much in originality as in the variety of elements, quotation, immersion in
Blurring the boundaries between mass and elite art
This refers to the universality of works of postmodern literature, their focus on both prepared and unprepared readers. Firstly, it contributes to the unity of the public and
Features of Russian postmodernism
In the development of postmodernism in Russian literature, three periods can be roughly distinguished: The end of the 60s - the 70s. – (A. Terts, A. Bitov, V. Erofeev, Vs. Nekrasov, L. Rubinstein, etc.) 70s – 8
Symbolism and Acmeism
SYMBOLISM - a literary and artistic movement in European and Russian art of the 1870s-1910s, which considered the goal of art to be an intuitive comprehension of world unity through symbols
Futurism in Russia
In Russia, futurism first appeared in painting, and only later in literature. Artistic searches of the brothers David and N. Burlyuk, M. Larionov, N. Goncharova, A. Exter, N. Kulbin and
Cubofuturism
The program of Russian futurism, or more precisely that group of it, which at first called itself “Gilea”, and entered the history of literature as a group of cubo-futurists (almost all Hylean poets - in one degree or another
Ego-futurism. Igor Severyanin
The northerner was the first in Russia, in 1911, to call himself a futurist, adding another word to this word - “ego”. The result is egofuturism. (“Future self” or “future self”). In October 1911, an organization was organized in St. Petersburg
Other futurist groups
After Kubo and Ego, other futuristic groups arose. The most famous of them are “Mezzanine of Poetry” (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev, S. Tretyakov, B. Lavrenev, etc.) and “Tsen
Futurists and the Russian Revolution
The events of 1917 immediately placed the futurists in a special position. They welcomed the October Revolution as the destruction of the old world and a step towards the future they were striving for. "I'll accept
What was the general basis of the movement?
1. A spontaneous feeling of “the inevitability of the collapse of old things.” 2. Creation through art of the coming revolution and the birth of a new humanity. 3. Creativity is not imitation, but continuation
Naturalism as a literary movement
Along with symbolism, in the years of its emergence, another equally widespread trend in bourgeois literature was naturalism. Representatives: P. Bobory
Expressionism as a literary movement
EXPRESSIONISM (French expression - expression) is an avant-garde movement in literature and art of the early twentieth century. The main subject of the image in expressionism is internal experiences
Baedeker on Russian Expressionism
Terekhina V. On October 17, 1921, at the Polytechnic Museum, under the chairmanship of Valery Bryusov, a “Review of all poetic schools and groups” was held. Neoclassicists made declarations and poems
Declaration of Emotionalism
1. The essence of art is to produce a unique, unrepeatable emotional effect through the transmission in a unique form of a unique emotional perception. 2
Surrealism as a literary movement
Surrealism (French surrealisme - super-realism) is a movement in literature and art of the 20th century, which emerged in the 1920s. Originating in France on the initiative of the writer A. Breton, surre
About the merger of Oberiu
This is how representatives of a literary group of poets, writers and cultural figures called themselves, organized at the Leningrad House of Press, whose director N. Baskakov was quite friendly towards
Alexander Vvedensky
Guest on a horse (excerpt) The steppe horse runs tiredly, foam drips from the horse’s lips. Guest of the night, you are gone
A constant of fun and filth
The water in the river gurgles and is cool, and the shadow of the mountains falls on the field, and the light in the sky goes out. And the birds are already flying in dreams. And a janitor with a black mustache *
Existentialism as a literary direction
Existentialism. In the late 40s and early 50s. French prose is experiencing a period of “dominance” of the literature of existentialism, which had an influence on art comparable only to the influence of Freud’s ideas. Add it up
Russian existentialism
A term used to identify a set of philosophies. teachings, as well as (in a broader sense) spiritually related literary and other artistic movements, the structure of categories, symbols and
Self-destructive art
Self-destructive art is one of the strange phenomena of postmodernism. Paintings painted with paint that fades before the eyes of the audience... A huge eighteen-wheeled structure t
Figures of speech. Trails
Means of expressive speech. Correctness, clarity, accuracy and purity are such properties of speech that the syllable of every writer should be distinguished by, regardless of the form of speech.
Paths (Greek tropos - turnover)
Quite a lot of words and entire phrases are often used not in their own meaning, but in a figurative one, i.e. not to express the concept they designate, but to express the concept of another, having some
Artistic speech and its components
Literary speech (otherwise the language of fiction) partially coincides with the concept of “literary language”. Literary language is a normative language, its norms are fixed
Versification systems (metric, tonic, syllabic, syllabic-tonic)
The rhythmic organization of artistic speech is also associated with the intonation-syntactic structure. The greatest measure of rhythmicity is distinguished by poetic speech, where rhythmicity is achieved through uniform
Dolniki. Accent verse by V. Mayakovsky
1. DOLNIK - a type of tonic verse, where only the number of stressed syllables coincides in the lines, and the number of unstressed syllables between them ranges from 2 to 0. The interval between stresses is n
G.S. Skripov On the main advantages of Mayakovsky’s verse
What is remarkable and dear to us about the creative image of V.V. Mayakovsky? His role in Soviet art and in the life of the Soviet people as an “agitator, loudmouth, leader” is well known and deserves
Meter, rhythm and size. Types of sizes. Rhythmic determinants of verse
The basis of poetic speech is, first of all, a certain rhythmic principle. Therefore, the characteristic of a specific versification consists primarily in determining the principles of its ri
Rhyme, ways of rhyming
Rhyme is the repetition of more or less similar combinations of sounds that connect the endings of two or more lines or symmetrically located parts of poetic lines. In Russian classical
Types of stanzas
A stanza is a group of verses with a specific rhyme arrangement, usually repeated in other equal groups. In most cases, the stanza is a complete syntactic whole
The sonnet is available in Italian and English
An Italian sonnet is a fourteen-line poem divided into two quatrains and two final tercets. In quatrains, either a cross or a ring is used
Philosophical and literary critical thought in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome
Literary studies as a special and developed science arose relatively recently. The first professional literary scholars and critics appeared in Europe only at the beginning of the 19th century (Saint-Beuve, V. Belinsky). D
Development of literary critical thought in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance
In the Middle Ages, literary critical thought completely died out. Perhaps some glimpses of it can be found in the short period of the so-called Carolingian Renaissance (late 8th - early 9th centuries). B with
Literary critical thought of the Enlightenment
Voltaire's compatriot Denis Diderot (1713–1784), without attacking the followers of Aristotle and Boileau, already expressed something new in comparison with them. In the article “Beautiful” Diderot talks about relative
Biographical method of literary criticism
Mythological school, mythological and ritual-mythological criticism in literary criticism
In the nineteenth century, literary criticism took shape as a separate science, dealing with the theory and history of literature and including a number of auxiliary disciplines - textual criticism, source studies, biography
Cultural-historical school. The main ideas of A. Veselovsky about the art of words
Another outstanding literary critic, Hippolyte Taine (1828–1893), considered himself a student of Sainte-Beuve, whose ideas and methodology were decisive for European literary criticism in the second half of the 19th century.
Comparative-historical method of literary criticism
It is not surprising that the largest Russian literary critic of the 19th century, A. Veselovsky, who in his youth was influenced by the cultural-historical school, later overcame its limitations and became the founder of or
Psychoanalytic criticism
This school, influential in literary criticism, arose on the basis of the teachings of the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) and his followers. Z. Freud developed two important psychologists
Formal schools in literary criticism. Russian formal school
Formal schools in literary criticism. Literary studies of the second half of the 19th century are characterized by an interest in the content side of literature. Major research schools of the time
Structuralism and the New Criticism
New Criticism The most influential school in Anglo-American literary criticism of the twentieth century, the origin of which dates back to the period of the First World War. Methods of literary criticism of the twentieth century
Post-structuralism and deconstructivism
Poststructuralism An ideological movement in Western humanitarian thought that has had a strong influence on literary studies in Western Europe and the United States in the last quarter of a century. Poststructural
Phenomenological criticism and hermeneutics
Phenomenological criticism Phenomenology is one of the most influential movements of the twentieth century. The founder of phenomenology is the German idealist philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), who sought
Contribution from Yu.M. Lotman in modern literary criticism
Yuri Mikhailovich Lotman (February 28, 1922, Petrograd - October 28, 1993, Tartu) - Soviet literary critic, culturologist and semiotician. Member of the CPSU(b)
Contribution of M.M. Bakhtin into the modern science of literature
Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin (November 5 (17), 1895, Orel - March 6, 1975, Moscow) - Russian philosopher and Russian thinker, theorist of European culture and art. Issle
Genres and internal dialogue of the work
Bakhtin saw literature not only as “organized ideological material,” but also as a form of “social communication.” According to Bakhtin, the process of social communication was imprinted in the text of the work itself. AND
Writing, as mentioned in this article, is an interesting creative process with its own characteristics, tricks and subtleties. And one of the most effective ways to highlight a text from the general mass, giving it uniqueness, unusualness and the ability to arouse genuine interest and the desire to read it in full are literary writing techniques. They have been used at all times. First, directly by poets, thinkers, writers, authors of novels, stories and other works of art. Nowadays, they are actively used by marketers, journalists, copywriters, and indeed all those people who from time to time need to write bright and memorable text. But with the help of literary techniques, you can not only decorate the text, but also give the reader the opportunity to more accurately feel what exactly the author wanted to convey, to look at things from a perspective.
It doesn’t matter whether you write texts professionally, are taking your first steps in writing, or creating a good text just appears on your list of responsibilities from time to time, in any case, it is necessary and important to know what literary techniques a writer has. The ability to use them is a very useful skill that can be useful to everyone, not only in writing texts, but also in ordinary speech.
We invite you to familiarize yourself with the most common and effective literary techniques. Each of them will be provided with a vivid example for a more precise understanding.
Literary devices
Aphorism
- “To flatter is to tell a person exactly what he thinks about himself” (Dale Carnegie)
- “Immortality costs us our lives” (Ramon de Campoamor)
- “Optimism is the religion of revolutions” (Jean Banville)
Irony
Irony is a mockery in which the true meaning is contrasted with the real meaning. This creates the impression that the subject of the conversation is not what it seems at first glance.
- A phrase said to a slacker: “Yes, I see you are working tirelessly today.”
- A phrase said about rainy weather: “The weather is whispering”
- A phrase said to a man in a business suit: “Hey, are you going for a run?”
Epithet
An epithet is a word that defines an object or action and at the same time emphasizes its peculiarity. Using an epithet, you can give an expression or phrase a new shade, make it more colorful and bright.
- Proud warrior, be steadfast
- Suit fantastic colors
- beauty girl unprecedented
Metaphor
A metaphor is an expression or word based on the comparison of one object with another based on their common feature, but used in a figurative sense.
- Nerves of steel
- The rain is drumming
- Eyes on my forehead
Comparison
A comparison is a figurative expression that connects different objects or phenomena with the help of some common features.
- Evgeny went blind for a minute from the bright light of the sun as if mole
- My friend's voice reminded creak rusty door loops
- The mare was frisky How flaming fire bonfire
Allusion
An allusion is a special figure of speech that contains an indication or hint of another fact: political, mythological, historical, literary, etc.
- You are truly a great schemer (reference to the novel by I. Ilf and E. Petrov “The Twelve Chairs”)
- They made the same impression on these people as the Spaniards made on the Indians of South America (a reference to the historical fact of the conquest of South America by the conquistadors)
- Our trip could be called “The Incredible Travels of Russians in Europe” (a reference to the film by E. Ryazanov “The Incredible Adventures of Italians in Russia”)
Repeat
Repetition is a word or phrase that is repeated several times in one sentence, giving additional semantic and emotional expressiveness.
- Poor, poor little boy!
- Scary, how scared she was!
- Go, my friend, go ahead boldly! Go boldly, don’t be timid!
Personification
Personification is an expression or word used in a figurative sense, through which the properties of animate ones are attributed to inanimate objects.
- Snowstorm howls
- Finance sing romances
- Freezing painted windows with patterns
Parallel designs
Parallel constructions are voluminous sentences that allow the reader to create an associative connection between two or three objects.
- “The waves splash in the blue sea, the stars sparkle in the blue sea” (A.S. Pushkin)
- “A diamond is polished by a diamond, a line is dictated by a line” (S.A. Podelkov)
- “What is he looking for in a distant country? What did he throw in his native land? (M.Yu. Lermontov)
Pun
A pun is a special literary device in which, in the same context, different meanings of the same word (phrases, phrases) that are similar in sound are used.
- The parrot says to the parrot: “Parrot, I’ll scare you.”
- It was raining and my father and I
- “Gold is valued by its weight, but by pranks - by the rake” (D.D. Minaev)
Contamination
Contamination is the creation of one new word by combining two others.
- Pizzaboy - pizza delivery man (Pizza (pizza) + Boy (boy))
- Pivoner – beer lover (Beer + Pioneer)
- Batmobile – Batman's car (Batman + Car)
Streamlines
Streamlined expressions are phrases that do not express anything specific and hide the author’s personal attitude, veil the meaning or make it difficult to understand.
- We will change the world for the better
- Acceptable losses
- It's neither good nor bad
Gradations
Gradations are a way of constructing sentences in such a way that homogeneous words in them increase or decrease their semantic meaning and emotional coloring.
- “Higher, faster, stronger” (Yu. Caesar)
- Drop, drop, rain, downpour, it’s pouring like a bucket
- “He was worried, worried, going crazy” (F.M. Dostoevsky)
Antithesis
Antithesis is a figure of speech that uses rhetorical opposition between images, states, or concepts that are interconnected by a common semantic meaning.
- “Now an academician, now a hero, now a navigator, now a carpenter” (A.S. Pushkin)
- “He who was nobody will become everything” (I.A. Akhmetyev)
- “Where there was a table of food, there is a coffin” (G.R. Derzhavin)
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a stylistic figure that is considered a stylistic error - it combines incompatible (opposite in meaning) words.
- Living Dead
- Hot Ice
- Beginning of the End
So, what do we see in the end? The number of literary devices is amazing. In addition to those we have listed, we can also name parcellation, inversion, ellipsis, epiphora, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, synecdoche, metonymy and others. And it is this diversity that allows anyone to apply these techniques everywhere. As already mentioned, the “sphere” of application of literary techniques is not only writing, but also oral speech. Supplemented with epithets, aphorisms, antitheses, gradations and other techniques, it will become much brighter and more expressive, which is very useful in mastering and development. However, we must not forget that the abuse of literary techniques can make your text or speech pompous and not as beautiful as you would like. Therefore, you should be restrained and careful when using these techniques so that the presentation of information is concise and smooth.
For a more complete assimilation of the material, we recommend that you, firstly, familiarize yourself with our lesson on, and secondly, pay attention to the manner of writing or speech of outstanding personalities. There are a huge number of examples: from ancient Greek philosophers and poets to the great writers and rhetoricians of our time.
We will be very grateful if you take the initiative and write in the comments about what other literary techniques of writers you know, but which we have not mentioned.
We would also like to know if reading this material was useful for you?