Aggregate states of matter(from lat. aggrego- I add) - these are states of the same substance in different intervals (intervals) of temperatures and pressures.
Aggregate states are considered to be gaseous,liquid And hard. The simplest examples of the existence of the same substance in these three aggregate states that are observed in everyday life are ice, water and water vapor. Invisible water vapor is always present in the air around us. Water exists in the temperature range from 0 °C to 100 °C, ice exists at temperatures below 0 °C. At temperatures above 100 ºС and normal atmospheric pressure, water molecules exist only in a gaseous state - in the form of water vapor. Water, ice and water vapor are the same substance with the chemical formula H 2 O.
We observe many substances in everyday life only in one of the states of aggregation. Thus, oxygen in the air around us is a gas. But at a temperature of -193°C it turns into liquid. By cooling this liquid to -219 ºС, we obtain solid oxygen. On the contrary, iron is solid under normal conditions. However, at a temperature of 1535 ° C, iron melts and turns into liquid. Above the molten iron there will be a gas - steam from iron atoms.
Different states of aggregation exist for each substance. These substances differ not in molecules, but in how these molecules are located and how they move. The arrangement of water molecules in three states of aggregation is shown in the figure:
Transition from one state of aggregation to another. Under certain conditions, substances can transform from one state of aggregation to another. All possible transformations are shown in the figure:
In total, there are six processes in which aggregate transformations of matter. The transition of a substance from a solid (crystalline) state to a liquid is called melting crystallization, or hardening. An example of melting is the melting of ice; the reverse process occurs when water freezes.
The transition of a substance from a liquid to a gaseous state is called vaporization, the reverse process is called condensation. An example of vaporization is the evaporation of water; the reverse process can be observed when dew falls.
The transition of a substance from a solid state directly to a gaseous state (bypassing the liquid state) is called sublimation, or sublimation, the reverse process is called desublimation. For example, graphite can be heated to a thousand, two thousand and even three thousand degrees and, nevertheless, it will not turn into a liquid: it will sublimate, that is, it will immediately go from a solid state to a gaseous state. The so-called dry ice (solid carbon monoxide) also passes directly into the gaseous state (bypassing the liquid state). CO 2), which can be seen in ice cream shipping containers. All odors possessed by solids (for example, naphthalene) are also caused by sublimation: when molecules fly out of a solid, they form a gas (or vapor) above it that has an odor.
An example of desublimation is the formation of patterns of ice crystals on windows in winter. These beautiful patterns are formed by the desublimation of water vapor in the air.
Transitions of matter from one state of aggregation to another play an important role not only in nature, but also in technology. Thus, water converted into steam can be used in steam turbines in power plants. Various alloys are obtained from molten metals in factories: steel, cast iron, brass, etc. To understand these processes, you need to know what happens to a substance when its state of aggregation changes and under what conditions this change is possible.
STATE
STATE
STATE, states, cf.
1. only units Staying in some position (book). Condition in the personnel troops.
2. The position in which someone or something is. To be at war with someone. “War for capitalist countries is as natural and legitimate a state as the exploitation of the working class.” History of the CPSU(b) . The state of modern Europe. Budget status. State of health. Weather conditions. Fall into disrepair. Be in exemplary condition.
3. Mood, disposition of spirit. “For some time he had been in an irritable and tense state, similar to hypochondria.” Dostoevsky . A state of melancholy. A state of delight. Contemplative state.
|| Physical well-being. “He was experiencing a painful state of fume.” Chekhov. Fainting state. Drunken state. Drunk.
4. Rank, social status (obsolete). People of all conditions. “What a mixture of clothes and faces, tribes, dialects, conditions!” Pushkin. Deprivation of all rights of the estate. Civil status.
5. Property, property of a private person. “I’ll make a devilish fortune for myself.” Sukhovo-Kobylin . Small fortune. Large fortune.
|| Significant property, wealth (owned by a private individual). To make a fortune. A man with a fortune. “- Do you have a fortune? he asked. - No; about a hundred little souls." Goncharov . “Not just one, but three states in your lifetime you will live!” Nekrasov .
❖ In a state with inf. - to have the ability, to be able. I am not able to lift such a weight. He is able to say something sassy.
Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.
Synonyms:
See what “CONDITION” is in other dictionaries:
state- A condition of the product that could lead to serious consequences such as personal injury, significant property damage or unacceptable environmental consequences. Source: GOST R 53480 2009: Reliability in technology. Terms and definitions origi... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation
STATE- (1) an amorphous (X-ray amorphous) state of a solid in which there is no crystalline structure (atoms and molecules are arranged randomly), it is isotropic, i.e. it has the same physical properties. properties in all directions and does not have a clear... ... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia
Business * Bankruptcy * Poverty * Prosperity * Wealth * Theft * Profit * Money * Debts * Stinginess * Gold * Game * Idea * Competition * Planning * Profit * ... Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms
Category scientific knowledge, characterizing the ability of moving matter to manifest itself in various forms with their inherent beings. properties and relationships. “...Everything and everything happens both in oneself and for others in relation to another,... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
state- Your feelings, your mood. The unity of neurological and physical processes occurring in an individual at any given time. The state we are in influences our abilities and interpretations of experience. A holistic phenomenon... ... Great psychological encyclopedia
See goods, property, position, class to be able to do something. to do, in a state of slight intoxication, to bring into a flourishing state, to upset the state... Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning. under. ed. N. Abramova, M.:... ... Synonym dictionary
CONDITION, I, Wed. 1. see consist. 2. The situation, external or internal circumstances in which someone is located. At war. S. weather. C. health. At rest. 3. Physical well-being, as well as mood, mood.... ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
English situation(1, 4)/ condition(2)/status(3); German Zustand. 1. Characteristics of any system, reflecting its position relative to coordinate objects of the environment. 2. Physical well-being, mood. 3. Social position, rank. 4. Property,… … Encyclopedia of Sociology
Non-standing. Jarg. they say Joking. iron. 1. About severe intoxication. 2. About severe fatigue. Maksimov, 398 ... Large dictionary of Russian sayings
- (estate) 1. The total amount of a person's assets minus his liabilities (usually this term appears in the assessment of property made for the purpose of imposing inheritance tax on it after the death of that person). 2.… … Dictionary of business terms
Books
- The state of the population in ten provinces of the Kingdom of Poland by January 1, 1893. State of the population in ten provinces of the Kingdom of Poland by January 1, 1893: Available. population, permanent, unstable and foreigners. Religion compound. Population density by department. communes...
The most common knowledge is about three states of aggregation: liquid, solid, gaseous; sometimes they remember plasma, less often liquid crystalline. Recently, a list of 17 phases of matter, taken from the famous () Stephen Fry, has spread on the Internet. Therefore, we will tell you about them in more detail, because... You should know a little more about matter, if only in order to better understand the processes occurring in the Universe.
The list of aggregate states of matter given below increases from the coldest states to the hottest, etc. may be continued. At the same time, it should be understood that from the gaseous state (No. 11), the most “uncompressed”, to both sides of the list, the degree of compression of the substance and its pressure (with some reservations for such unstudied hypothetical states as quantum, beam or weakly symmetric) increase. After the text a visual graph of phase transitions of matter is shown.
1. Quantum- a state of aggregation of matter, achieved when the temperature drops to absolute zero, as a result of which internal bonds disappear and matter crumbles into free quarks.
2. Bose-Einstein condensate- a state of aggregation of matter, the basis of which is bosons, cooled to temperatures close to absolute zero (less than a millionth of a degree above absolute zero). In such a strongly cooled state, a sufficiently large number of atoms find themselves in their minimum possible quantum states and quantum effects begin to manifest themselves at the macroscopic level. A Bose-Einstein condensate (often called a Bose condensate, or simply "beck") occurs when you cool a chemical element to extremely low temperatures (usually just above absolute zero, minus 273 degrees Celsius). , is the theoretical temperature at which everything stops moving).
This is where completely strange things begin to happen to the substance. Processes usually observed only at the atomic level now occur on scales large enough to be observed with the naked eye. For example, if you place “back” in a laboratory beaker and provide the desired temperature, the substance will begin to creep up the wall and eventually come out on its own.
Apparently, here we are dealing with a futile attempt by a substance to lower its own energy (which is already at the lowest of all possible levels).
Slowing down atoms using cooling equipment produces a singular quantum state known as a Bose, or Bose-Einstein, condensate. This phenomenon was predicted in 1925 by A. Einstein, as a result of a generalization of the work of S. Bose, where statistical mechanics was built for particles ranging from massless photons to mass-bearing atoms (Einstein's manuscript, considered lost, was discovered in the library of Leiden University in 2005 ). The efforts of Bose and Einstein resulted in Bose's concept of a gas subject to Bose–Einstein statistics, which describes the statistical distribution of identical particles with integer spin called bosons. Bosons, which are, for example, individual elementary particles - photons, and entire atoms, can be in the same quantum states with each other. Einstein proposed that cooling boson atoms to very low temperatures would cause them to transform (or, in other words, condense) into the lowest possible quantum state. The result of such condensation will be the emergence of a new form of matter.
This transition occurs below the critical temperature, which is for a homogeneous three-dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles without any internal degrees of freedom.
3. Fermion condensate- a state of aggregation of a substance, similar to backing, but different in structure. As they approach absolute zero, atoms behave differently depending on the magnitude of their own angular momentum (spin). Bosons have integer spins, while fermions have spins that are multiples of 1/2 (1/2, 3/2, 5/2). Fermions obey the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two fermions can have the same quantum state. There is no such prohibition for bosons, and therefore they have the opportunity to exist in one quantum state and thereby form the so-called Bose-Einstein condensate. The process of formation of this condensate is responsible for the transition to the superconducting state.
Electrons have spin 1/2 and are therefore classified as fermions. They combine into pairs (called Cooper pairs), which then form a Bose condensate.
American scientists have attempted to obtain a kind of molecules from fermion atoms by deep cooling. The difference from real molecules was that there was no chemical bond between the atoms - they simply moved together in a correlated manner. The bond between atoms turned out to be even stronger than between electrons in Cooper pairs. The resulting pairs of fermions have a total spin that is no longer a multiple of 1/2, therefore, they already behave like bosons and can form a Bose condensate with a single quantum state. During the experiment, a gas of potassium-40 atoms was cooled to 300 nanokelvins, while the gas was enclosed in a so-called optical trap. Then an external magnetic field was applied, with the help of which it was possible to change the nature of interactions between atoms - instead of strong repulsion, strong attraction began to be observed. When analyzing the influence of the magnetic field, it was possible to find a value at which the atoms began to behave like Cooper pairs of electrons. At the next stage of the experiment, scientists expect to obtain superconductivity effects for the fermion condensate.
4. Superfluid substance- a state in which a substance has virtually no viscosity, and during flow it does not experience friction with a solid surface. The consequence of this is, for example, such an interesting effect as the complete spontaneous “creeping out” of superfluid helium from the vessel along its walls against the force of gravity. Of course, there is no violation of the law of conservation of energy here. In the absence of frictional forces, helium is acted only by gravity forces, the forces of interatomic interaction between helium and the walls of the vessel and between helium atoms. So, the forces of interatomic interaction exceed all other forces combined. As a result, helium tends to spread as much as possible over all possible surfaces, and therefore “travels” along the walls of the vessel. In 1938, Soviet scientist Pyotr Kapitsa proved that helium can exist in a superfluid state.
It is worth noting that many of the unusual properties of helium have been known for quite some time. However, in recent years, this chemical element has been pampering us with interesting and unexpected effects. So, in 2004, Moses Chan and Eun-Syong Kim from the University of Pennsylvania intrigued the scientific world with the announcement that they had succeeded in obtaining a completely new state of helium - a superfluid solid. In this state, some helium atoms in the crystal lattice can flow around others, and helium can thus flow through itself. The “superhardness” effect was theoretically predicted back in 1969. And then in 2004 there seemed to be experimental confirmation. However, later and very interesting experiments showed that not everything is so simple, and perhaps this interpretation of the phenomenon, which was previously accepted as the superfluidity of solid helium, is incorrect.
The experiment of scientists led by Humphrey Maris from Brown University in the USA was simple and elegant. Scientists placed an upside-down test tube in a closed tank containing liquid helium. They froze part of the helium in the test tube and in the reservoir in such a way that the boundary between liquid and solid inside the test tube was higher than in the reservoir. In other words, in the upper part of the test tube there was liquid helium, in the lower part there was solid helium, it smoothly passed into the solid phase of the reservoir, above which a little liquid helium was poured - lower than the liquid level in the test tube. If liquid helium began to leak through solid helium, then the difference in levels would decrease, and then we can talk about solid superfluid helium. And in principle, in three of the 13 experiments, the difference in levels actually decreased.
5. Superhard substance- a state of aggregation in which matter is transparent and can “flow” like a liquid, but in fact it is devoid of viscosity. Such liquids have been known for many years; they are called superfluids. The fact is that if a superfluid is stirred, it will circulate almost forever, whereas a normal fluid will eventually calm down. The first two superfluids were created by researchers using helium-4 and helium-3. They were cooled to almost absolute zero - minus 273 degrees Celsius. And from helium-4, American scientists managed to obtain a supersolid body. They compressed frozen helium with more than 60 times the pressure, and then placed the glass filled with the substance on a rotating disk. At a temperature of 0.175 degrees Celsius, the disk suddenly began to spin more freely, which scientists say indicates that helium has become a superbody.
6. Solid- a state of aggregation of a substance, characterized by stability of shape and the nature of the thermal movement of atoms, which perform small vibrations around equilibrium positions. The stable state of solids is crystalline. There are solids with ionic, covalent, metallic and other types of bonds between atoms, which determines the diversity of their physical properties. The electrical and some other properties of solids are mainly determined by the nature of the movement of the outer electrons of its atoms. Based on their electrical properties, solids are divided into dielectrics, semiconductors, and metals; based on their magnetic properties, solids are divided into diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and bodies with an ordered magnetic structure. Studies of the properties of solids have merged into a large field - solid state physics, the development of which is stimulated by the needs of technology.
7. Amorphous solid- a condensed state of aggregation of a substance, characterized by isotropy of physical properties due to the disordered arrangement of atoms and molecules. In amorphous solids, atoms vibrate around randomly located points. Unlike the crystalline state, the transition from solid amorphous to liquid occurs gradually. Various substances are in an amorphous state: glass, resins, plastics, etc.
8. Liquid crystal is a specific state of aggregation of a substance in which it simultaneously exhibits the properties of a crystal and a liquid. It should be noted right away that not all substances can be in a liquid crystalline state. However, some organic substances with complex molecules can form a specific state of aggregation - liquid crystalline. This state occurs when crystals of certain substances melt. When they melt, a liquid crystalline phase is formed, which differs from ordinary liquids. This phase exists in the range from the melting temperature of the crystal to some higher temperature, when heated to which the liquid crystal turns into an ordinary liquid.
How does a liquid crystal differ from a liquid and an ordinary crystal and how is it similar to them? Like an ordinary liquid, a liquid crystal has fluidity and takes the shape of the container in which it is placed. This is how it differs from the crystals known to everyone. However, despite this property, which unites it with a liquid, it has a property characteristic of crystals. This is the ordering in space of the molecules that form the crystal. True, this ordering is not as complete as in ordinary crystals, but, nevertheless, it significantly affects the properties of liquid crystals, which distinguishes them from ordinary liquids. Incomplete spatial ordering of the molecules forming a liquid crystal is manifested in the fact that in liquid crystals there is no complete order in the spatial arrangement of the centers of gravity of the molecules, although there may be partial order. This means that they do not have a rigid crystal lattice. Therefore, liquid crystals, like ordinary liquids, have the property of fluidity.
A mandatory property of liquid crystals, which brings them closer to ordinary crystals, is the presence of an order of spatial orientation of the molecules. This order in orientation can manifest itself, for example, in the fact that all the long axes of molecules in a liquid crystal sample are oriented in the same way. These molecules must have an elongated shape. In addition to the simplest named ordering of molecular axes, a more complex orientational order of molecules can occur in a liquid crystal.
Depending on the type of ordering of the molecular axes, liquid crystals are divided into three types: nematic, smectic and cholesteric.
Research on the physics of liquid crystals and their applications is currently being carried out on a wide front in all the most developed countries of the world. Domestic research is concentrated in both academic and industrial research institutions and has a long tradition. The works of V.K., completed back in the thirties in Leningrad, became widely known and recognized. Fredericks to V.N. Tsvetkova. In recent years, the rapid study of liquid crystals has seen domestic researchers also make a significant contribution to the development of the study of liquid crystals in general and, in particular, the optics of liquid crystals. Thus, the works of I.G. Chistyakova, A.P. Kapustina, S.A. Brazovsky, S.A. Pikina, L.M. Blinov and many other Soviet researchers are widely known to the scientific community and serve as the foundation for a number of effective technical applications of liquid crystals.
The existence of liquid crystals was established a long time ago, namely in 1888, that is, almost a century ago. Although scientists encountered this state of matter before 1888, it was officially discovered later.
The first to discover liquid crystals was the Austrian botanist Reinitzer. While studying the new substance cholesteryl benzoate he synthesized, he discovered that at a temperature of 145°C the crystals of this substance melt, forming a cloudy liquid that strongly scatters light. As heating continues, upon reaching a temperature of 179°C, the liquid becomes clear, i.e., it begins to behave optically like an ordinary liquid, for example water. Cholesteryl benzoate showed unexpected properties in the turbid phase. Examining this phase under a polarizing microscope, Reinitzer discovered that it exhibits birefringence. This means that the refractive index of light, i.e. the speed of light in this phase, depends on the polarization.
9. Liquid- the state of aggregation of a substance, combining the features of a solid state (conservation of volume, a certain tensile strength) and a gaseous state (shape variability). Liquids are characterized by short-range order in the arrangement of particles (molecules, atoms) and a small difference in the kinetic energy of thermal motion of molecules and their potential interaction energy. The thermal motion of liquid molecules consists of oscillations around equilibrium positions and relatively rare jumps from one equilibrium position to another; the fluidity of the liquid is associated with this.
10. Supercritical fluid(SCF) is a state of aggregation of a substance in which the difference between the liquid and gas phases disappears. Any substance at a temperature and pressure above its critical point is a supercritical fluid. The properties of a substance in the supercritical state are intermediate between its properties in the gas and liquid phases. Thus, SCF has a high density, close to a liquid, and low viscosity, like gases. The diffusion coefficient in this case has a value intermediate between liquid and gas. Substances in a supercritical state can be used as substitutes for organic solvents in laboratory and industrial processes. Supercritical water and supercritical carbon dioxide have received the greatest interest and distribution due to certain properties.
One of the most important properties of the supercritical state is the ability to dissolve substances. By changing the temperature or pressure of the fluid, you can change its properties over a wide range. Thus, it is possible to obtain a fluid whose properties are close to either a liquid or a gas. Thus, the dissolving ability of a fluid increases with increasing density (at a constant temperature). Since density increases with increasing pressure, changing the pressure can influence the dissolving ability of the fluid (at a constant temperature). In the case of temperature, the dependence of the properties of the fluid is somewhat more complex - at a constant density, the dissolving ability of the fluid also increases, but near the critical point, a slight increase in temperature can lead to a sharp drop in density, and, accordingly, the dissolving ability. Supercritical fluids mix with each other without limit, so when the critical point of the mixture is reached, the system will always be single-phase. The approximate critical temperature of a binary mixture can be calculated as the arithmetic mean of the critical parameters of the substances Tc(mix) = (mole fraction A) x TcA + (mole fraction B) x TcB.
11. Gaseous- (French gaz, from Greek chaos - chaos), a state of aggregation of a substance in which the kinetic energy of the thermal motion of its particles (molecules, atoms, ions) significantly exceeds the potential energy of interactions between them, and therefore the particles move freely, uniformly filling in the absence of external fields the entire volume provided to it.
12. Plasma- (from the Greek plasma - sculpted, shaped), a state of matter that is an ionized gas in which the concentrations of positive and negative charges are equal (quasi-neutrality). The vast majority of matter in the Universe is in the plasma state: stars, galactic nebulae and the interstellar medium. Near Earth, plasma exists in the form of the solar wind, magnetosphere and ionosphere. High-temperature plasma (T ~ 106 - 108K) from a mixture of deuterium and tritium is being studied with the aim of implementing controlled thermonuclear fusion. Low-temperature plasma (T Ј 105K) is used in various gas-discharge devices (gas lasers, ion devices, MHD generators, plasmatrons, plasma engines, etc.), as well as in technology (see Plasma metallurgy, Plasma drilling, Plasma technology) .
13. Degenerate matter— is an intermediate stage between plasma and neutronium. It is observed in white dwarfs and plays an important role in the evolution of stars. When atoms are subjected to extremely high temperatures and pressures, they lose their electrons (they become electron gas). In other words, they are completely ionized (plasma). The pressure of such a gas (plasma) is determined by the pressure of the electrons. If the density is very high, all particles are forced closer to each other. Electrons can exist in states with specific energies, and no two electrons can have the same energy (unless their spins are opposite). Thus, in a dense gas, all lower energy levels are filled with electrons. Such a gas is called degenerate. In this state, electrons exhibit degenerate electron pressure, which counteracts the forces of gravity.
14. Neutronium- a state of aggregation into which matter passes at ultra-high pressure, which is still unattainable in the laboratory, but exists inside neutron stars. During the transition to the neutron state, the electrons of the substance interact with protons and turn into neutrons. As a result, matter in the neutron state consists entirely of neutrons and has a density on the order of nuclear. The temperature of the substance should not be too high (in energy equivalent, no more than a hundred MeV).
With a strong increase in temperature (hundreds of MeV and above), various mesons begin to be born and annihilate in the neutron state. With a further increase in temperature, deconfinement occurs, and the substance passes into the state of quark-gluon plasma. It no longer consists of hadrons, but of constantly being born and disappearing quarks and gluons.
15. Quark-gluon plasma(chromoplasm) - a state of aggregation of matter in high-energy physics and elementary particle physics, in which hadronic matter passes into a state similar to the state in which electrons and ions are found in ordinary plasma.
Typically, the matter in hadrons is in the so-called colorless (“white”) state. That is, quarks of different colors cancel each other out. A similar state exists in ordinary matter - when all atoms are electrically neutral, that is,
positive charges in them are compensated by negative ones. At high temperatures, ionization of atoms can occur, during which the charges are separated, and the substance becomes, as they say, “quasi-neutral.” That is, the entire cloud of matter as a whole remains neutral, but its individual particles cease to be neutral. The same thing, apparently, can happen with hadronic matter - at very high energies, color is released and makes the substance “quasi-colorless.”
Presumably, the matter of the Universe was in a state of quark-gluon plasma in the first moments after the Big Bang. Now quark-gluon plasma can be formed for a short time during collisions of particles of very high energies.
Quark-gluon plasma was produced experimentally at the RHIC accelerator at Brookhaven National Laboratory in 2005. The maximum plasma temperature of 4 trillion degrees Celsius was obtained there in February 2010.
16. Strange substance- a state of aggregation in which matter is compressed to maximum density values; it can exist in the form of “quark soup”. A cubic centimeter of matter in this state will weigh billions of tons; in addition, it will transform any normal substance it comes into contact with into the same “strange” form with the release of a significant amount of energy.
The energy that can be released when the star's core turns into "strange matter" will lead to a super-powerful explosion of a "quark nova" - and, according to Leahy and Uyed, this is exactly what astronomers observed in September 2006.
The process of formation of this substance began with an ordinary supernova, into which a massive star turned. As a result of the first explosion, a neutron star was formed. But, according to Leahy and Uyed, it did not last very long - as its rotation seemed to be slowed down by its own magnetic field, it began to shrink even more, forming a clump of “strange matter”, which led to an even more powerful during an ordinary supernova explosion, the release of energy - and the outer layers of matter of the former neutron star, flying into the surrounding space at a speed close to the speed of light.
17. Strongly symmetrical substance- this is a substance compressed to such an extent that the microparticles inside it are layered on top of each other, and the body itself collapses into a black hole. The term “symmetry” is explained as follows: Let’s take the aggregative states of matter known to everyone from school - solid, liquid, gaseous. For definiteness, let us consider an ideal infinite crystal as a solid. There is a certain, so-called discrete symmetry with respect to transfer. This means that if you move the crystal lattice by a distance equal to the interval between two atoms, nothing will change in it - the crystal will coincide with itself. If the crystal is melted, then the symmetry of the resulting liquid will be different: it will increase. In a crystal, only points remote from each other at certain distances, the so-called nodes of the crystal lattice, in which identical atoms were located, were equivalent.
The liquid is homogeneous throughout its entire volume, all its points are indistinguishable from one another. This means that liquids can be displaced by any arbitrary distances (and not just some discrete ones, as in a crystal) or rotated by any arbitrary angles (which cannot be done in crystals at all) and it will coincide with itself. Its degree of symmetry is higher. Gas is even more symmetrical: the liquid occupies a certain volume in the vessel and there is an asymmetry inside the vessel where there is liquid and points where it is not. Gas occupies the entire volume provided to it, and in this sense, all its points are indistinguishable from one another. Still, here it would be more correct to talk not about points, but about small, but macroscopic elements, because at the microscopic level there are still differences. At some points at a given moment in time there are atoms or molecules, while at others there are not. Symmetry is observed only on average, either over some macroscopic volume parameters or over time.
But there is still no instant symmetry at the microscopic level. If the substance is compressed very strongly, to pressures that are unacceptable in everyday life, compressed so that the atoms are crushed, their shells penetrate each other, and the nuclei begin to touch, symmetry arises at the microscopic level. All nuclei are identical and pressed against each other, there are not only interatomic, but also internuclear distances, and the substance becomes homogeneous (strange substance).
But there is also a submicroscopic level. Nuclei are made up of protons and neutrons that move around inside the nucleus. There is also some space between them. If you continue to compress so that the nuclei are crushed, the nucleons will press tightly against each other. Then, at the submicroscopic level, symmetry will appear, which does not exist even inside ordinary nuclei.
From what has been said, one can discern a very definite trend: the higher the temperature and the greater the pressure, the more symmetrical the substance becomes. Based on these considerations, a substance compressed to its maximum is called highly symmetrical.
18. Weakly symmetrical matter- a state opposite to strongly symmetrical matter in its properties, present in the very early Universe at a temperature close to Planck's, perhaps 10-12 seconds after the Big Bang, when the strong, weak and electromagnetic forces represented a single superforce. In this state, the substance is compressed to such an extent that its mass turns into energy, which begins to inflate, that is, expand indefinitely. It is not yet possible to achieve the energies for experimentally obtaining superpower and transferring matter into this phase under terrestrial conditions, although such attempts were made at the Large Hadron Collider to study the early universe. Due to the absence of gravitational interaction in the superforce that forms this substance, the superforce is not sufficiently symmetrical in comparison with the supersymmetric force containing all 4 types of interactions. Therefore, this state of aggregation received such a name.
19. Ray substance- this, in fact, is no longer matter at all, but energy in its pure form. However, it is precisely this hypothetical state of aggregation that a body that has reached the speed of light will take. It can also be obtained by heating the body to the Planck temperature (1032K), that is, accelerating the molecules of the substance to the speed of light. As follows from the theory of relativity, when a speed reaches more than 0.99 s, the mass of the body begins to grow much faster than with “normal” acceleration; in addition, the body elongates, heats up, that is, it begins to radiate in the infrared spectrum. When crossing the threshold of 0.999 s, the body changes radically and begins a rapid phase transition up to the ray state. As follows from Einstein’s formula, taken in its entirety, the growing mass of the final substance consists of masses separated from the body in the form of thermal, x-ray, optical and other radiation, the energy of each of which is described by the next term in the formula. Thus, a body that approaches the speed of light will begin to emit in all spectra, grow in length and slow down in time, thinning to the Planck length, that is, upon reaching speed c, the body will turn into an infinitely long and thin beam, moving at the speed of light and consisting of photons that have no length, and its infinite mass will be completely converted into energy. Therefore, such a substance is called ray.
Human death is a common illusion. This assumption was voiced by Robert Lanza from the Wake Forest University School of Medicine.
In his opinion, the moment of death that frightens people so much is just a hallucination, which is a representative of the human conscience. Lanza clarifies that death is simply the moment of a person’s transition to the next, not yet studied level of existence. People are too attached to their body and consider the cessation of the functioning of the bioshell as the end of existence, but Lanza believes that consciousness does not die along with the body. It simply transforms into another form of existence and manifests itself in other conditions.
Lanza's point of view is shared by many physicists who are confident in the multilayered nature of the Universe. According to their beliefs, a person lives in every time era, both in the past and in the future (there is no general interpretation among scientists yet). Death is simply a transition from one state to another, and trying to somehow imagine or understand this is impossible for our current state. The number of lives can be infinite (or life itself is infinite).
Robert Paul Lanza- American physician, scientist, chief scientific officer of Octa Therapeutics, formerly Advanced Cell Technology, and adjunct professor at the Institute for Regenerative Medicine at Wake Forest University School of Medicine. .
R. P. Lanza was a member of the scientific team that was the first in the world to clone human embryos at an early stage, and also the first to successfully create stem cells from mature cells using somatic nuclear transfer of a somatic cell (“therapeutic cloning”).
R. P. Lanza demonstrated that the techniques used in preimplantation genetic diagnosis can be used to create embryonic stem cells without killing the embryo.
In 2001, he was the first to clone a gaur (an endangered species), and in 2003, he also cloned a banteng (another endangered species) from frozen skin cells from an animal that died at the San Diego Zoo in about a quarter centuries before that.
R. P. Lanza and his colleagues demonstrated for the first time that nuclear transfer could be used to arrest the aging process and to create immunologically compatible tissues, including the creation of the first organ grown in the laboratory from clonal cells.
R. P. Lanza showed the possibility of creating functional, oxygen-carrying red blood cells from embryonic stem cells under conditions suitable for reconstitution in the hospital. Potentially, such blood cells could be a source of “universal” blood.
A group working under the leadership of R. P. Lanza has discovered a method that makes it possible to obtain functional hemangioblasts (a population of “ambulance” cells) from human embryonic stem cells. In animals, these cells quickly repaired damaged blood vessels, halving the mortality rate after a heart attack and improving blood flow to an ischemic limb that would otherwise have to be amputated.
Recently, R. P. Lanza and a group of researchers at Harvard University, led by Kwang-Soo Kim, reported the creation of a safe technology that allows the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS).
Human iPS were derived from skin cells using direct protein delivery. Thus, dangerous risks associated with genetic and chemical manipulations were eliminated. This new technology provides a potentially safe source of patient-specific stem cells that can be used for clinical introduction. R.P. Lanza and Advanced Cell Technology plan to begin the regulatory approval process for what experts say could be the first human studies involving induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, created by reverting mature cells to , similar to embryonic.
A group of researchers working under the direction of R. P. Lanza at Advanced Cell Technology was able to grow retinal cells from stem cells. The use of this technology makes it possible to cure some forms of blindness, such as macular degeneration and Stargardt disease. These eye diseases are currently incurable and lead to blindness in adolescents, as well as in young and old people.
Advanced Cell Technology has received FDA approval to conduct human studies using embryonic stem cells to treat degenerative eye diseases. In this treatment of eye diseases, stem cells are used to produce those retinal cells that support the photoreceptor cells that give a person the ability to see. Supporting cells are part of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and are typically the first cells to die in age-related macular degeneration and other eye diseases, which in turn leads to vision loss.
In September 2011, R. P. Lanza's company received permission from the Medicines and Healthcare Products Administration (UK) to conduct the first clinical trials in Europe using human embryonic stem cells. Surgeons at Moorfields Eye Hospital in London will inject healthy retinal cells into the eyes of patients with Stargardt's macular degeneration. In this way, they hope to slow down the disease, stop it, or even eliminate its negative consequences. The first patient was treated with embryonic stem cells in early 2012. After treatment, this patient noted an improvement in vision. According to The Guardian newspaper, this result “is the greatest scientific achievement.”
In October 2014, R. P. Lanza and colleagues published an additional paper in The Lancet that showed for the first time the long-term safety and possible biological activity of pluripotent stem cell descendants in humans across all diseases. “For at least twenty years, scientists have dreamed of using human embryonic stem cells to treat diseases,” said Gautam Naik, science reporter for The Wall Street Journal, “and the day has finally come... Using embryonic stem cells, scientists successfully treated patients with severe vision loss.” Retinal pigment epithelial cells derived from embryonic stem cells were injected into the eyes of 18 patients with Stargardt disease or dry age-related macular degeneration. The patients were followed for more than three years, and half of the patients were able to see three more lines on their visual acuity charts, which significantly improved their daily lives.
In 2007, The American Scholar published an article by R. P. Lanza, “A New Theory of the Universe.” The article presents R. P. Lanza's idea of a biocentric universe, according to which biology should be placed above other sciences. The book by R. P. Lanza, “Biocentrism, or Why Life and Consciousness are the Keys to Understanding the Universe,” was published in collaboration with B. Bernam in 2009. This book caused a mixed reaction from readers.
Biocentric universe is a concept proposed in 2007 by Robert Lanza, who sees biology as the central science of the universe and the key to understanding other sciences. Biocentrism states that biological life creates the reality around us, time and the universe - that is, life creates the universe, and not vice versa. He argues that currently the theories of the physical world do not work and will never work until they start from life in the universe and its intelligent beginning as a starting point.
Currently, physics is considered the basis for the study of the Universe, and chemistry is the foundation for the study of life, however, biocentrism claims that biology is the foundation for other sciences and claims to be the so-called “theory of everything”.
Robert Lanza believes that future experiments, particularly on large-scale quantum superposition, will confirm or challenge his theory.
For a critically minded person, observations of how their physiological characteristics change when people transition from one state to another can be very interesting and useful. For example, posture and tone of voice can change almost instantly. By observing others, you can discover a lot about yourself, especially if until now you thought that you lacked creative energy, or that you lacked realism, or that you were a bad organizer. You can modify Disney's strategy model somewhat—for example, in your home, use different rooms or chairs to represent different positions. But remember to follow the following important rules of NLP:
Each position should have a corresponding tangible “anchor”, such that you invariably associate it with a certain state (just as you associate your favorite chair with relaxation).
Before entering any new state, exit the previous one (therefore it is advisable to use different positions in space for different states). Otherwise, there is a danger of taking with you elements of the previous state when transitioning to a new one, “sitting on two chairs at once.”
Practice as much as possible (just like learning any other technique) and be flexible. The Disney strategy model can be applied to a wide variety of situations, both in relation to people and in relation to processes, slow or fast.
All these are nothing more than models and techniques, but in practice you are free to think as you see fit and change your point of view as you wish. The purpose of the above exercise is to help you learn how to instantly move from one state to another if necessary (for example, in case of sudden danger). If you can imagine yourself entering a particular room or sitting in a particular chair, these images can evoke the same associations as actual physical actions. The ability to create such reinforcing “anchors” for oneself is a necessary condition for the learning process.
Modeling ourselves
Previously, we considered modeling as identifying the activity strategies of people who have achieved excellence in any area, and reproducing these strategies in their activities. Disney's strategy model, however, clearly shows that we can also rely on our own memories. Inside each of us there is a dreamer, a realist and a critic who, under certain conditions, can act for our benefit. Thus, each of us has the internal resources necessary to improve the efficiency of our activities. If you've ever had a strong drive, been confident, felt like everything depended on you, been creative, persistent, and willing to take meaningful risks, then you don't need to look for a role model. Just move one of the their effective strategies into a new field of activity. For example, from the field of sports to the professional sphere. Transfer success at work home, from private life to public life, and vice versa. Learn to evaluate the merits of effective strategies regardless of specific circumstances.
Like a recipe for macaroons or rules for crossing the street, the strategies can be used by everyone. A necessary condition for personal success is the ability to find strategies that best suit you in your personal experience or in the experience of other people. And discard those strategies that are not effective enough to achieve your current goals.
The ability to use models to change strategies is the essence of so-called accelerated learning. We can significantly speed up the usually rather sluggish learning process by applying our own effective strategies. We can also use the experience of others. Although, of course, one cannot expect to immediately reach their level. Each of us has the ability to learn to use both sides of our brain, to use our internal resources more effectively, and thus achieve exceptional success.
Part five
Creative approach to problem solving
Chapter 13
Using both hemispheres of the brain to think
Stages of the thinking process
Considering the stages of thinking can be very helpful. These stages do not have to be strictly sequential, but it is important for us to know how the various "operating" systems of the brain operate and how individual thinking processes relate to universal mental strategies.
Preparation
The preparation stage corresponds to the planning stage of a project and includes defining the problem, collecting data, and making basic assumptions. This strategy is in many ways similar to the first stage of the four-part cyclical success model we discussed in part one, in which you decide what you actually need and what your goal is. At this stage, you should formulate your goal in writing, and then use visualization techniques in order to experience the desired result as fully as possible and reflect it in the goal statement.
We have already talked about how important it is to have a clear idea of the desired outcome in the communication process. The same is true for the problem-solving process. Ask yourself the question: “What exactly would I like to achieve?” The essence of the communication “problem,” just like any other, is to bridge the gap between your current and desired state (by exchanging information, persuasion, getting answers to questions, etc.)
Analysis
At this stage, you should look deep into the problem, take into account all the pros, weigh all the pros and cons. Unfortunately, quite often solving a problem is reduced to analyzing its parts and working on them. The analysis of certain aspects of an issue, to the detriment of a holistic view, is associated with the activity of the left hemisphere of the brain. This process is linear in nature, the logical diagram looks something like this: “If A, then B.”
Unfortunately, the further you move along this path, the more difficult it becomes for you to accept the validity of any other, non-linear type of thinking. The advantage of the linear type of thinking is that on its basis it is possible to create algorithms used in the development of various kinds of methods and systems. The disadvantage of this type of thinking is that with its help it is impossible to solve problems that various logically constructed “systems” and computer programs are powerless to solve. Such problems are too complex and largely depend on the “human” factor.