Management- this is mental and physical activity, the purpose of which is for subordinates to perform the actions prescribed to them and solve certain problems.
Supervisor - this is a position that allows a person to have certain powers and use the power given to him. To effectively manage an organization, a leader must have leadership influence determined by personal qualities. However, a manager does not become a leader only because of these qualities.
Modern scientific ideas, based on research by foreign and domestic psychologists, include in the generalized psychological portrait of a leader:
1. biographical characteristics;
2. abilities;
3. personality traits.
Biographical characteristics. One of the most important biographical indicators is the high level of education of managers. For example, a typical manager in Japan usually has a university degree in engineering or social sciences, and sometimes two degrees in different fields. Many Russian managers also strive to obtain engineering and humanitarian (socio-economic, legal) education. Domestic scientists involved in psychobiographical research use the concept “psychological age.”
Under abilities understand the stable properties and qualities of people that determine the success they achieve in a variety of activities. Human abilities are bio-social in nature. This means that they are formed on the basis of the anatomical and physiological inclinations of a person, and develop in the process of his life under the influence of various social factors (primarily training and upbringing).
Professional quality:
1. competence in the relevant and related professions based on a high level of education, experience, knowledge of the relevant and related professions, open-mindedness, erudition;
2. constant desire for self-improvement and acquisition of new knowledge;
3. search and implementation of new forms and methods of working with staff, helping others in training;
4. ability to act according to plan.
Personal qualities:
1. high ethical standards;
2.physical and psychological endurance, the ability to neutralize the effects of stress;
3. high internal and external culture;
4. the “three D” formula - accessibility, friendliness, integrity;
5. empathy (compassion);
6. visual appeal.
Business qualities:
1. ability to organize activities and perform basic management functions; 2. healthy ambition, the desire for power, leadership, independence under any circumstances, an inflated level of self-esteem, activity, assertiveness in moving towards a goal, the ability to defend one’s rights;
3. sociability, charm, ability to gain credibility, convince and lead;
4. creativity, initiative, efficiency in solving problems, the ability to determine priority areas of activity, concentrate on them or easily adapt;
5. self-control, self-control, planning work time, managing relationships with others;
6. desire for innovation, willingness to take reasonable risks, ability to attract subordinates.
The civic worldview of a leader includes the followingComponents:
1. recognition of the intrinsic value of human life and health, treating each person as an individual;
2. careful handling of nature and its wildlife, active environmental activities;
3. strict adherence to universal human moral norms, the inviolability of democratic rights and freedoms;
4. respect for the law and obedience to the law, respect for the rule of law;
5. constant desire to master scientific knowledge, strengthening one’s skills in their reasonable technical application;
6. the desire for self-affirmation, faith in oneself and people, inexhaustible optimism in life.
A modern leader (manager) is at the same time:
1. manager , endowed with power;
2. leader , capable of leading subordinates (using their authority, positive emotions, high professionalism);
3. diplomat , establishing contacts with partners and authorities, successfully overcoming internal and external conflicts;
4. teacher , possessing high moral qualities, capable of creating a team and directing its development in the right direction;
5. innovator , understanding the role of science in the modern business world, able to evaluate and immediately implement know-how, inventions, and rational proposals into production;
6. just a person , possessing deep knowledge, extraordinary abilities, a high level of culture, honesty, decisiveness of character, strong will, but at the same time, prudence, the ability to be an example in all respects.
In general terms, the requirements for a manager’s personality can be presented as follows:
1. ability to manage oneself;
2. clear and distinct personal goals;
3. dynamic personal development;
4. ability to make decisions;
5. creativity in work;
6. ability to influence people;
7. understanding the specifics of managerial work;
8. high organizational skills;
9. ability to teach;
10. ability to form and develop a team.
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Characteristics of management levels |
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Management level |
Place on the hierarchy ladder |
Functions |
Appointment procedure |
Rights |
Responsibilities |
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Senior managers |
They are at the head of the organization (members of the board of directors, presidents, vice presidents, general directors) |
They determine the mission of the enterprise, its goals, policies, standards, structure and management system. |
Based on a contract with the owner (state, shareholders) |
Represent the interests of the enterprise in negotiations with government agencies and main contractors. |
Organizing the work of the company, disposing of property and all funds, terminating and concluding contracts, opening bank accounts, stimulating subordinates, responsibility for decisions, exercising power in accordance with status. |
Section 3. Psychology of a small group and team
Topic 3.1 Concept and types of small groups
Under small group understand a small, relatively stable association of people with a common goal, established business and personal relationships (family, kindergarten groups, school class, sports team, etc.).
The small group is the initial cell of human society and the fundamental basis of all other constituent elements. It objectively reveals the reality of life, activities and relationships of most people. A small group is a small-sized association of people connected by direct interaction.
It is in small groups that personality is formed and its qualities are revealed, so personality cannot be studied outside the group. Through small groups, connections between the individual and society are realized: the group transforms the impact of society on the individual, the individual influences society more strongly if there is a group behind it. The status of social psychology as a science and its specificity are largely determined by the fact that a small group and the psychological phenomena that arise in it are the central features in defining its subject.
Most specialists consider three people to be the lower limit of the size of a small group, since in a group of two people - dyad– group socio-psychological phenomena occur in a special way. The upper limit of a small group is determined by its qualitative characteristics and usually does not exceed 20-30 people. The optimal size of a small group depends on the nature of the joint activity being performed and is in the range of 5-12 people. In smaller groups the phenomenon is more likely to occur social satiety, Larger groups break up more easily into smaller ones microgroups, within which individuals are connected by closer contacts. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish groups primary, that is, the smallest in size and further indivisible communities, and secondary groups that formally represent single communities, but include several primary groups.
Small groups are the main object of laboratory experiments in social psychology. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between groups artificial(or laboratory), specially created to solve scientific problems, and natural groups that exist independently of the will of the researcher.
Formal groups– groups, membership and relationships in which are predominantly formal in nature, that is, determined by formal regulations and agreements. Formal small groups are, first of all, primary groups of divisions of social organizations and institutions.
Organizational and institutional small groups represent elements of the social structure of society and are created to satisfy social needs. The leading sphere of activity and the main psychological mechanism for uniting individuals within organizational and institutional small groups is joint activity,
Informal groups- associations of people that arise on the basis of the internal, inherent needs of individuals for communication, belonging, understanding, sympathy and love. Examples of informal small groups are friendly and friendly companies, pairs of people who love each other, informal associations of people connected by common interests and hobbies.
Groups are distinguished according to the time of existence temporary, in which the association of individuals is limited in time (for example, participants in a group discussion or neighbors in a compartment on a train), and stable, the relative constancy of existence of which is determined by their purpose and long-term goals of functioning (family, work and educational groups)
Depending on the degree of arbitrariness of an individual’s decision on whether to join a particular group, participate in its life activities, or leave it, groups are divided into open And closed.
The main criteria for the psychological community of a group are the phenomena of similarity, commonality of individuals included in a small group (commonality of motives, goals, value orientations and social attitudes). Awareness by group members of the presence of similarities, the commonality of the individuals included in it and the differences (including psychological) of their group from others is the basis identification individuals with their group (awareness of their belonging to a given group, their unity with it - the feeling of “we”). One manifestation of positive group identification is intragroup commitment– a tendency towards a more positive emotional attitude of individuals towards their group and a more positive assessment of its members.
Referentiality small group – the importance of group values, norms, assessments for the individual . The main functions of the reference group are: comparative And normative(providing the individual with the opportunity to correlate his opinions and behavior with those accepted in the group and evaluate them in terms of compliance with group norms and values).
Factors and stages of group development.
The manager needs to constantly analyze the level of development of the group over which he has power, and plan his activities so that the team constantly and systematically develops.
Group development factors can be divided into two groups.
The first group is formed external (objective) factors:
Square;
Technical equipment;
Salary fund;
Significance of production;
The second group consists internal (subjective) factors:
Quality of the leader's personality;
System of public relations;
Interaction with other teams.
The level of activity and speed of team formation depends on:
Similarities in the composition of members (education, professional training, social attitudes, characters);
Number of members (determined by type of activity, characteristics of production);
Organizational abilities and moral qualities of the leader (character, work experience, leadership style).
The emergence and formation of small groups can vary greatly depending on the type of group. The formation of formal groups occurs, as a rule, without a direct connection with the needs and desires of people to unite in a given group. The entry of an individual into one or another formal group is dictated by needs that are not directly related to the need for communication and association with these particular people.
WITH stages of team development.
1. Primary synthesis stage(creation and formation of a team). The manager and subordinates perform certain functions.
2. Stage of differentiation:
Completion of mutual study;
Bringing people together in accordance with their interests and character;
Education of small groups:
- asset group– supports the manager;
- passive group- strives to do as little as possible,
looking for an easier job;
- group of conscientious performers– understands his
responsibilities, does his job, does not show initiative;
- group of disruptors.
3. Integration stage(a community of attitudes and interests, unity of will is formed):
The style of the leader is changing (from authoritarian to democratic), more flexibility is required;
Understanding by the team of the manager’s requirements;
Introducing higher demands to the manager (stimulating his growth);
Conditions are created for the creative growth of each team member and optimal problem solving;
The ideology, psychology and culture of the team are formed.
Topic 3.3 Moral and psychological climate of the team
Moral and psychological climate The collective is a stable system of internal connections, which is in the emotional mood of the collective, its public opinion, and the results of its activities.
The moral and psychological climate in the work team depends on the following factors:
1 . Social and production environment (level of mechanization and automation, disciplines and labor protection, level of labor organization and management).
2 . Socio-economic environment (methods of production, distribution and consumption of material assets, material incentive systems).
3. Social and general educational environments (qualification and educational level of the team, level of general and special education, creative and intellectual potential of the employee).
4. Social and cultural environment (level of technical aesthetics and production culture, level of spiritual and physical development of the team).
5. Social and moral environment (systems of moral education of the team, the formation of moral characteristics).
6 . Social and psychological environment (systems of psychological attitudes, social and psychological characteristics of individuals).
7. Social sphere (living and leisure conditions of team members).
The influence of the work collective on the individual depends on the nature of the existing relationships between the members of this collective.
The results of people's activities are greatly influenced by their mood. The mood of people depends on the members of the team themselves, on their attitude towards each other.
In a team with a normal moral and psychological climate, all its members, as a rule, are distinguished by their kindness and comradely attitude towards the new person. Respect and trust, an optimistic confidence assessment, the desire and ability to see the best in a person are the rule in such a team.
A normal moral and psychological climate in a team contributes to high labor productivity, since it maintains a positive emotional mood of the team and prevents the emergence of conflict.
Favorable psychological climate consists of several characteristics:
· Macroclimate of society. The group reflects the main elements of the socio-psychological climate of society as a whole, its characteristic attitude.
· Emotional background. The predominant color of emotional relationships between group members, the nature of these relationships.
· Number of team groups. As the number of groups increases, efficiency gradually decreases. It is noted that a group of up to 15 people is distinguished by integrity and unity; as the number increases, it begins to break up into smaller ones.
· Group structure. The heterogeneous composition of the group in terms of age differences provides greater cohesion and unity. Different ages and representation of both sexes form a richer spectrum of relationships and help strengthen the group.
· Duration of existence of the group. The time spent working together determines the formation of traditions, intragroup norms, the prestige of the group and its cohesion.
· Informal structure. The presence of an informal structure has a negative impact on the development and unification of the group.
Signs unfavorable socio-psychological climate are:
· distrust and high demands of group members towards each other;
· not friendly and not business-like criticism;
· inability to express one’s own opinion when discussing issues affecting the entire group;
· pressure from managers on subordinates and lack of the right to make decisions that are significant for the group;
· insufficient awareness of group members about its tasks and the state of affairs;
· dissatisfaction with belonging to the group;
· removal of responsibility for the state of affairs in the group by each of its members;
· low cohesion among all group members.
Section 4. Psychology of communication
Topic 4.1 Content, goals and functions of communication
Communication– a complex, multifaceted process that acts as a process of interaction between two or more people, in which information is exchanged, mutual influence, empathy, and mutual understanding occur. In the process of communication, psychological and ethical relationships are formed, which constitute the culture of business interaction.
Communication is classified according to content, goals, means, functions, types and forms.
1. Material – exchange of products and objects of activity, which in turn serve as a means of satisfying the actual needs of subjects.
2. Cognitive – knowledge Exchange.
3. Active – exchange of actions, operations, abilities, skills; information is transferred from subject to subject, improving and developing abilities.
4. Air-conditioned – exchange of mental and physiological states; people exert influence on each other, calculated to bring each other into a certain physical or mental state.
5. Motivational-exchange of motives, goals, interests, motives, needs; has as its content the transfer to each other of certain motives, attitudes or readiness to act in a certain direction.
Purpose of communication – This is why a person has this type of activity. The goals of communication are a means of satisfying many different needs: cognitive, social, cultural, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth, moral development and a number of others.
Communication is divided by purpose:
1. Biological – necessary for the maintenance, preservation and development of the body is associated with the satisfaction of basic organic needs.
2. Social – pursues the goals of expanding and strengthening interpersonal contacts, establishing and developing relationships, and personal growth of the individual.
Communication means – methods of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication from one person to another.
According to forms, communication is divided into:
1. Direct– natural face-to-face contact through verbal and non-verbal media is personally transmitted from one participant to another.
2. Indirect – inclusion in the communication process of an “additional” participant as an intermediary through whom information is transmitted.
3. Direct – with the help of natural organs given to man by nature (arm, torso, head)
4. Indirect– incomplete psychological contact using special means that delay receiving feedback.
5. Mass – multiple, direct contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by its various types.
6. Interpersonal – Direct contacts of people in groups or pairs with a constant composition of participants imply the psychological closeness of the partners.
According to orientation, monological and dialogical communication can be distinguished. Monologue communication is divided into:
1. Imperative– an authoritarian, directive form of influence on a communication partner in order to achieve control over his behavior and internal attitudes, forcing him to take certain actions or decisions; the communication partner is considered as an object of influence and acts as a passive, “suffering” party; the ultimate goal of the imperative - coercion of a partner - is unveiled.
2. Manipulation– involves influencing a communication partner in order to achieve one’s hidden intentions; the communication partner is used by the manipulator to achieve his goals; the fundamental difference between manipulation and imperative is that the partner is not informed about the true goals of communication (they are hidden or replaced by others); the communication partner is perceived not as an integral person, but as a bearer of certain properties and qualities “needed” by the manipulator; A manipulative attitude towards another leads to the destruction of close, trusting relationships between people.
Dialogical communication represents a transition from an egocentric, self-fixated attitude to an attitude towards the interlocutor, a real communication partner; such communication has psychotherapeutic properties, brings a person closer to greater mental health, balance and integrity.
Topic 4.2 The communicative side of communication
Business conversation – communication, i.e. exchange of information that is significant for the participants in communication. Means of communicative communication can be divided into verbal (verbal) - transfer of information, and non-verbal – transfer of attitude to a communication partner.
On a verbal level Human speech is used as a means of transmitting information. The main purpose of exchanging information is to develop a common point of view between those communicating and to establish agreement on situations and problems. The ability to accurately express one’s thoughts and the ability to listen are components of the communicative side of communication.
The function of verbal means of communication is the transmission of information that is carried out using language.
Nonverbal communication are a complement to verbal communication.
There are several types of non-verbal means of communication:
1. Kinesics– studies the external manifestation of a person, the visually perceived movements of another person, performing an expressive-regulatory function in communication, includes: facial expressions (movement of facial muscles), pantomime (body movement: posture, gait, poses), gestures, gaze.
2. Extralinguistics- explores the inclusion of speech pauses, coughing, crying, laughter, and sighs in speech.
3. Prosody – the general name for the rhythmic and intonation aspects of speech (voice pitch and timbre, volume of voice tone, speed of speech, stress force).
Voice- is an expression of our feelings and is important. Every person needs to work on developing their voice, this especially applies to those who constantly engage in communication, whose profession is related to the spoken word. Flexibility, plasticity of the voice, and the ability to easily change it depending on the content of the speech are essential. The tone of speech, the coloring of a person’s voice, with the help of which he conveys his feelings and thoughts, is of great importance.
4. Paralinguistics– explores volume, timbre, rhythm, pitch.
5. Takeshika– studies touch in the process of communication (handshake, kiss, touching).
6. Proxemics– explores the location of people in space when communicating (distance to the interlocutor, personal space)
The structure of kinesic means of communication includes:
1. Facial expressions– movement of facial muscles; facial expressions are characterized by integrity and dynamism; facial expressions determine the emotional state of an individual: joy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, fear.
2. Eye contact– reflects the emotional state of a person, indicates a disposition to communicate.
3. Pose– the position of the human body, typical for a given culture; posture determines a person’s status; By the posture one can judge whether a person is closed or inclined to communicate.
4. Gestures– various movements of the arms and head; gesticulation is characterized by intensity, which depends on the national culture and emotional state.
5. Gait– a style of movement by which it is easy to recognize the emotional state.
Takesical means of communication– dynamic touches in the form of a handshake, patting, kissing (a biologically necessary form of human communication).
The use of tactical means of communication depends on the following factors:
1. status of communicating parties
2. age
4. degree of familiarity
5. national customs, traditions
Proxemic characteristics – orientation of partners at the moment of communication, the distance between them (determined by cultural and national factors).
Proxemics takes into account the orientation to the angle of communication - turning the body, toe of the foot in the direction of the partner or away from him (direction of thoughts).
The adequacy of information perception largely depends on the presence or absence of communication barriers:
1. Information-deficient– a mechanical breakdown of information and hence its distortion and ambiguity.
2. Substituting-distorting– giving the received information a different meaning more often occurs when the transmission goes through several people - repeaters.
3. Phonetic misunderstanding– different languages, dialects of communication, speech and diction defects, incorrect grammatical structure of speech.
4. Semantic– differences in the meaning systems of communication participants (jargon, slang, jokes, quotes, figures of speech)
5. Stylistic– discrepancy between the communicator’s speech style and the communication situation (or speech style and psychological state)
6. Logical– the logic of the communicator’s reasoning is either too complex for the recipient, or seems incorrect to him, contradicts his inherent style of evidence (female, male, children’s logic)
7. Disposition-status barrier– social, political, religious, professional differences that determine the degree of authority of the communicator for the recipient and, accordingly, the degree of attention to the information offered.
Topic 4.3 Interactive side of communication
The interactive side of communication is associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities, while action is the main content of communication.
The main content of communication– impact on the partner, interaction that can be oriented towards control and understanding.
Communication is carried out regarding a particular subject, the nature of communication is determined by the openness or closedness of the subject position:
1. Openness of communication – the ability to express one’s point of view on a subject and the willingness to take into account the positions of others.
2. Closed communication – inability or unwillingness to disclose one’s position, one’s point of view on the subject of communication.
3. Mixed types of communication – one of the parties tries to find out the position of the other without revealing itself; or one of the interlocutors reveals his position to the partner, counting on help and not being interested in his opinion.
When choosing a communication position should be considered:
1. degree of trust in the partner
2. possible consequences of open communication
In the process of communication, one can distinguish stages of interaction:
1. Setting up a contact.The task of the contact phase is to encourage the interlocutor to communicate and create maximum opportunities for further business discussion and decision-making. Rules for establishing contact:
1) demonstrate goodwill and openness of communication (it is possible to use non-verbal means of communication - a smile, a tilt of the head, an expression in the eyes), create a friendly atmosphere.
2) verbal appeal - pause, wait for an answer, see the partner’s openness or closedness to communication.
3) start communication with the words “you”, “you”, “I”, “we”.
2. Orientation stage.Helps to determine the strategy and tactics of business communication, develop interest in it, and involve a partner. Tasks of this stage:
1) arouse interest in the upcoming conversation and involve the interlocutor in the discussion.
2) identify the interlocutor’s self-esteem and navigate the distribution of roles.
3) begin solving the main problem of communication.
At this stage, they immediately find out how long the conversation will be (condensed, clear or expanded, detailed)
3. Active discussion of issues in a relaxed atmosphere:
2) increasing the emotional tone of the interlocutor
3) involving the interlocutor in performing physical actions (asking for help, gratitude).
Taking into account the partner’s self-esteem, which can be increased or decreased, and the correct distribution of roles according to the principle of dominance - submission, the following are possible:
1. "extension on top" - straightened posture with the chin parallel to the ground; complete lack of eye contact; slow speech with long pauses; imposing a certain distance on the interlocutor.
2. "extension from below" - low posture; constant movement of the eyes from bottom to top; fast pace of speech; providing initiative to the partner.
3. "extension on equal terms" - synchronization of speech tempo; equalizing speech volume; establishing a symmetrical pattern of exchange of glances.
Topic 4.4 Perceptual side of communication
Perception– a holistic image of another person, formed on the basis of an assessment of his appearance and behavior. Perception depends on:
1. individual – personal factors
2.sociocultural factors (social origin, social status of a person)
Basis of perception – perception of phenomena or people as representatives of a particular social group. A person who has experience in communication is able to quite accurately determine his social and psychological characteristics by his appearance, by his clothing, manner of speaking and behavior: character traits; age; social layer; profession.
In the perception of people may be admitted errors, due to a number of factors.
1. Excellence Factor– acts in case of inequality of partners. Superiority can be manifested in appearance and demeanor. Under the influence of the superiority factor, it is possible to underestimate or overestimate a partner.
2. Attractiveness Factor– the tendency to overestimate an outwardly attractive person and underestimate an unattractive one.
3. Factor of attitude towards us-people who treat us well are rated higher than people who treat us poorly. Attitude towards us is manifested in agreement or disagreement with our position. We tend to value a person's opinion more highly the closer his opinion is to our own.
By studying the processes of perception, psychologists have identified typical distortions of ideas about another person:
1. Halo effect Any information received about a person is superimposed on a pre-created image. This pre-existing image acts as a halo that interferes with effective communication. The halo effect can be beneficial if you create a good reputation among people who are closely related to each other.
2. Projection effect- arises when we attribute our advantages to a pleasant person, and our shortcomings to an unpleasant person. The mechanism of projection is that we unconsciously endow another person with our own motives, attribute to him experiences, emotional states and qualities inherent in ourselves.
3. Anticipation effect – manifests itself when we are faced with conflicting information about a person. If we are dealing with a stranger, then importance is attached to the information that is presented at the beginning. When communicating with a well-known person, the latest information about him is taken into account.
Cognition and understanding of oneself and others in the process of communication occurs in accordance with psychological mechanisms of perception:
1. Identification – likening oneself to another. To understand a communication partner, you need to put yourself in his place, because you cannot truly understand a person until you are in his place. This mechanism helps to understand the values, habits, behavior and norms of another person.
2. Empathy – not a rational understanding of another person’s problems, but an emotional response, empathy. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside a person, what he is experiencing, and how he evaluates events. The highest form of empathy is effective, characterizing the moral essence of a person.
3. Attraction – is a form of knowing another person, based on the emergence of positive feelings towards him: from sympathy to love. The reason for the manifestation of a positive emotional attitude between communication partners is often their internal and external similarity.
4. Reflection– a person’s ability to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. It is no longer just knowing the other, but also knowing how the other understands you. At the same time, our attention is transferred from the communication partner to ourselves and a kind of doubling of mirror images of each other occurs. Understanding another person is very important for successful communication with him.
5. Causal attribution – attributing reasons for behavior to another person. In addition, there is internal and external attribution. Knowing the patterns and errors of causal attribution helps make it effective for establishing interactions.
Section 5. Psychology of business communication
Topic 5.1 Features and principles of management communication
Managerial communication is communication caused by the need to implement managerial influence on people taking into account feedback. There are the following forms of management communication:
1. Subordinate. The basis for such communication is administrative legal norms. It develops between managers and performers, as well as between managers at different levels.
2. Service-friendly. Such communication is based on administrative and moral norms. It develops between work colleagues.
3. Friendly. The basis of such communication are moral and psychological norms of interaction. Such communication can be between managers, between subordinates (work colleagues), between managers and subordinates.
Features of holding office meetings.
List of participants. The manager must approach the formation of the list of participants very carefully and think about both the quantitative and qualitative composition.
Quantitative composition. The optimal number of meeting participants is considered to be the same as the number of employees actively participating in the discussion of the issue. In this case, the main criterion is competence in the issues on the agenda. A common mistake is to invite the largest number of participants that can fit in the meeting room (the so-called “mass invitation”).
High-quality composition. Only those officials who are most competent in the problem under discussion should be invited to participate in the meeting.
Setting a day and time for the meeting. As a rule, one specific day per week is allocated for the meeting. This allows its participants to properly plan their working time and properly prepare for the meeting. The best day for a meeting is considered to be Wednesday or Thursday, since the weekly performance curve has a noticeable decline on Monday and Friday.
The main mistakes made during a meeting:
u its duration is not regulated;
u the established duration is not observed;
u duration is too long;
u no breaks are taken;
u there is no time limit for reports and speeches;
u participants do not know how to express their thoughts briefly and clearly.
As a rule, the location of a significant part (more than 70%) of business meetings is the office of the head of the organization. Currently, enterprises have rooms specially equipped for meetings.
There are certain requirements for equipping such premises. For example, it must have good sound insulation, normal air temperature and humidity, ventilation, comfortable furniture, and office equipment.
The main mistakes made when determining the location of the meeting:
u too many meetings are held in the boss's office;
u During the meeting, telephone conversations are held and even visitors are received;
u The meeting room is poorly equipped and insufficiently lit.
1.Preparation of meeting participants.
The meeting organizer must familiarize all participants with the agenda and necessary materials in advance. Each participant must know the topic and objectives of the meeting in advance. This is the key to an effective meeting, as all participants will be properly prepared for it.
2. Conducting a meeting.
Scientists have found that the optimal duration of joint mental activity of a large number of people is only 40-45 minutes. After 50 minutes, the attention of the meeting participants weakens: noise, unnecessary movements, and distracted conversations arise. If you continue to have a meeting without a break, most people become tired. After a 30-40 minute break, those present feel better, their normal state is restored, and the discussion of problems can continue.
After 90 minutes of work, attention and interest in the problems discussed decrease. If a meeting lasts 2 hours without a break, then more than 90% of its participants agree to any decision, as long as this meeting ends quickly. The optimal duration of the meeting should not exceed 1 hour. If the circumstances of the case require longer work, then after 40 minutes of the meeting it is necessary to announce a break of 10-15 minutes.
Protocol of the meeting- this is a primary, official document drawn up in a certain form and containing a record of the speeches of the participants in the meeting, meeting, session and the decisions they made. Based on this document, management has the right to demand that employees complete the tasks assigned to them. The meeting appoints or elects a secretary, who records in the minutes, on behalf of the meeting, the most important points:
u achieving the purpose of the meeting;
u solution;
u task performers and deadlines.
The following are the items that should be reflected in the minutes of a business meeting:
u date, venue;
u protocol number;
u were present;
u were absent, reasons for absence;
u copies (surnames of those for whom they are intended);
u agenda by item;
u topic by agenda item;
u discussed (who spoke);
u decided (it is reported what exactly);
u the implementation of the decision is entrusted to (surnames);
u due date (date).
3. Summing up and making a decision.
The results of the meeting are summed up and conclusions are drawn; those who must complete a certain amount of work and within what time frame are determined; the scope of work and the employees who will perform the task are determined; the time frame within which the task must be completed; forms for summarizing the results of the meeting (distribution of the minutes or part thereof; extract from the minutes, etc.).
4. Monitoring the implementation of the decision.
Without putting a decision into action and monitoring this process, any business meeting becomes meaningless. At this stage, the persons who will exercise control are determined.
Features of negotiations.
The main task of the negotiation process is to convince the other party to accept your proposal. Negotiations are a complex communication process that requires serious preparation, including the development of business proposals, the formulation of specific and strategic goals for negotiations, and the assessment of one’s own economic potential and the capabilities of a partner.
The first commandment of successful negotiation is to respect mutual benefit.
The second important rule of negotiations is refusal of the dispute.
Negotiations should be conducted with a partner with authority - with a “key figure”.
The most important component of negotiations is the argumentation used by the partners. Arguments are arguments, reasons, evidence that can be based on subjective views, on objective positions or on generally established opinion. Arguments are given to support the truth of other judgments.
Ethicist P. Micic describes the following methods of argumentation.
Fundamental method represents a direct appeal to the interlocutor, who is introduced to the facts and information that form the basis of evidence-based argumentation. Digital examples play an important role and provide an excellent background. Unlike verbal information, numbers look more convincing. This happens to a certain extent also because at the moment no one present is able to refute them.
Method of contradiction based on identifying contradictions in the partner’s argumentation. Essentially, this method is defensive.
Extraction method conclusions are based on precise argumentation, which gradually, step by step, through partial conclusions, leads to the desired result.
Comparison method is of fundamental importance, especially when the comparisons are chosen well, which gives the performance exceptional brightness and great power of suggestion.
The “yes...but” method implies that the interlocutor makes well-constructed arguments, but they cover only the advantages or only the weaknesses of the proposed alternative. However, since it is really rare to listen in such a way that everyone only says “for” or “against”, it is easy to apply the “food... but” method, which allows you to consider other aspects of the decision. You can calmly agree with your interlocutor, and then the so-called “but” comes.
"Boomerang" method makes it possible to use the interlocutor’s “weapon” against him. This method does not have the force of proof, but has an exceptional effect if applied with a fair amount of wit.
Ignore method is that the fact stated by the interlocutor cannot be refuted, but its value and significance can be successfully ignored.
Visible method support very effective both in relation to one interlocutor and in relation to several listeners. Its essence lies in the fact that after the interlocutor has argued, they do not raise objections or contradict him, but, on the contrary, provide new evidence in favor of his arguments. Later, a counterattack follows, for example: “You forgot to cite the following facts in support of your thesis... (listed). But this will not help you, since...” Now comes the turn of your counterarguments. Thus, a the impression that you have studied the interlocutor’s point of view more thoroughly than he himself, and after that you are convinced of the inconsistency of his thesis.
Rules for constructing a business conversation.
Any business individual conversation consists of three stages.
First stage - preparatory. It includes determining the objectives of the conversation and drawing up its plan; setting the time and choosing the place where the conversation will take place. Drawing up a conversation plan based on its objectives is the main section of this stage.
Second phase - introductory. During this stage, the psychological barrier is overcome and an atmosphere of trust is established.
Third stage - the main one consists of 3 parts(Fig. 1):
The tone of a conversation with a stranger should be friendly and businesslike. This tone quickly creates an atmosphere of mutual trust.
Preparing for the conversation. If you came to the conversation for the first time, then you need to identify yourself upon entering. If a visitor comes to you and introduces himself, try to immediately remember his name and patronymic. Last name is easier to remember. Peering into the face of your future interlocutor, you need to try to read his gaze and establish mutual understanding without words. Scientists have found that when we first meet a person, we first pay attention to his appearance, we are interested in his expression. (“They meet you by their clothes, they see you off by their mind.”)
Having met a visitor, you need to get up from the table and invite your interlocutor to sit opposite. It’s good to meet him halfway: this gesture makes it clear to your interlocutor that you respect him and are ready to talk as equals.
Conversation (main stage). The manager must understand how his interlocutor assesses the situation and why exactly this way and not otherwise. It is necessary to try to present a complete picture of the event or situation, focusing only on the words of the interlocutor. You need to be able to listen and correctly ask clarifying and leading questions that can help reveal the thoughts of your interlocutor and, as a result, correctly determine his point of view.
End of the conversation. As soon as the interlocutor’s point of view becomes clear and you have also expressed yours, you can end the conversation. All issues have been agreed upon, decisions have been formulated, and the rules of the conversation have been fulfilled. You can say goodbye.
Business correspondence.
When writing a business letter, you must comply with the following requirements:
The performer must clearly understand the message he wants to convey and know exactly how to express it in an understandable, concise and accessible form.
The letter should be simple, logical, specific and free of ambiguity. Laconic letters written in monosyllabic words characterize the writers as good conversationalists who master the art of communication.
· The letter should be written on only one issue, and its text should be divided into paragraphs, each of which addresses only one aspect of the issue;
· The letter must be convincing and sufficiently reasoned;
· The letter should be written in a neutral tone, the use of metaphors and emotionally expressive phrases is undesirable;
· The volume of a business letter should not exceed two pages of typewritten text;
· From a grammatical point of view, a business letter must be impeccable, since spelling, syntactic and stylistic errors make a bad impression and irritate the addressee;
· A business letter must be correct and written in a polite tone.
An example of a business letter compiled according to this scheme.
Attention: “Dear ______________________________
I want to tell you something important (interesting).”
Interest: “We (I) offer you something that can significantly improve your life...”
Request: “We need the help of people who are ready to invest at least... in a noble, patriotic cause...”
Action: “We urge you to join thousands of good people...”
· the letter should be concise;
· the date must be glorified;
· the letter must not contain slanderous fabrications;
· There must be a legible signature.
Section 6. Etiquette and ethical culture of a leader
Topic 6.1 Professional ethics
Ethics- the doctrine of morality, morality. In Latin, a synonym for the word “ethics” is the word “morality”. The Russian synonym is “morality”. Subject of study of ethics– principles and norms of behavior of people in relation to others and to society.
In business communication, great importance is given to the need to take into account ethical norms and values, their influence on the efficiency of business is especially emphasized.
Professional standards are politeness, courtesy, tact, and hard work.
Professional ethics – the doctrine of the norms of behavior of a professional group in society.
Ethics of business communication has various manifestations in relations between:
1. enterprise and social environment
2. enterprises
3. leader and subordinates
4. subordinates and supervisor
5. people of equal status
The Bible says “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” This law is considered the golden rule of morality.
Relations with colleagues should be mutually considerate so as not to offend or humiliate the partner. It is necessary to develop a desire for empathy and respect for the personality of another person. The moral side of the relationship between a manager and subordinates from the latter’s point of view is especially complex. In this case, subordinates should not be mechanical performers, but thinking, creative employees who consciously support the activities of the leader and conscientiously and strictly carry out his instructions.
Subordinates should treat the manager’s comments with understanding, without perceiving them as an insult or infringement. But at the same time, subordinates must have the moral right to express critical remarks about the manager and their colleagues in an open or confidential environment.
Topic 6.2 Etiquette of business correspondence
It is impossible to imagine the activities of a business person without working with documents.
Official correspondence is an important part of business etiquette. Business correspondence helps to establish strong ties with a partner and improve the relationship between various services.
When writing a business letter, it is important to observe the following: requirements :
1. The performer must clearly understand the message he wants to convey and know exactly how to express it in a clear, concise and accessible form.
2. The letter should be simple, logical, specific and free of ambiguity. Laconic letters written in monosyllabic words characterize the writers as good interlocutors who master the art of communication.
3. The letter is written on only one issue, and the text of the letter is divided into paragraphs, each of which addresses only one aspect of this issue.
4. The letter must be convincing and sufficiently reasoned.
5. The letter is written in a neutral form of presentation.
6. The volume of a business letter should not exceed two pages of typewritten text.
7. From a grammatical point of view, a business letter must be impeccable, because... spelling, synthetic and stylistic errors make a bad impression and irritate the recipient.
8. A business letter must be correct and written in a polite tone.
Properly composed business letters follow the same pattern. The opening lines grab attention, the next one or two sentences pique the reader's interest, then two paragraphs make a request, and the last part forces the reader to take action.
The most commonly used in business are: types of business letters:
1. Resume and letter requesting employment.
4. Letter of refusal.
5. Letter of request about the progress of the case (agreement, transaction)
6. Letter of gratitude
7. Reminder letter
8. Notification letter
A business letter always bears the signature of the manager.
In addition to business correspondence traveling between organizations, each of them also has internal correspondence. The content of internal correspondence may be different, but must meet certain rules:
1. The letter should be concise.
2. The letter must be dated.
3. The letter must not contain any slanderous statements.
4. The signature on the document must be legible.
Topic 6.3 Telephone etiquette
A telephone conversation allows for two-way exchange of information regardless of distance. Poor preparation and the inability to express one’s thoughts concisely and competently take up a lot of a person’s working time. For a business person, it is necessary to learn to value your time.
1. It is useful to have a pen, notepad and calendar next to your phone.
2. After the call, quickly pick up the phone. Etiquette dictates that you pick up the phone before the fourth ring, because... exposure to telephone beeps has a negative effect on the nervous system. You should not pick up the phone without looking up. If you are doing urgent work, you can leave the phone on the phone or pick it up immediately after the call and politely ask to call back at a certain time.
3. In business communication, informative answers are preferable (who answered the phone and in what institution).
4. If during your conversation with a client the phone rang, apologize to the client, pick up the phone and, citing your busyness, ask to call back or write down the phone number of the caller and call him back as soon as you are free.
5. Business telephone conversations should be brief. The one who called ends the conversation, and therefore it is not recommended for the person receiving the call to be impatient.
6. It is important that a business telephone conversation is conducted in a calm, polite tone. During the conversation, it is necessary to create an atmosphere of mutual respect. A smile contributes to this. The interlocutor does not see it, but feels it. Voice, timbre, intonation and tone can say a lot about you. It is recommended to speak evenly, restrain emotions and not interrupt the interlocutor’s speech. If your interlocutor expresses himself in a harsh manner and is prone to arguments, then be patient and do not answer him in kind, do not object directly and openly.
7. Never talk on the phone with your mouth full. It is unacceptable to chew food, drink or talk to employees during a telephone conversation. It is not recommended to chew gum during a telephone conversation.
8. The telephone aggravates speech deficiencies, so it is recommended to monitor the pronunciation of numbers, proper names, and surnames. In a conversation, it is better not to use specific, professional terms that may not be clear to the interlocutor. No jargon allowed.
9. In case of deterioration of audibility, it is quite reasonable to call one of the interlocutors back. If the telephone connection is interrupted, the initiator of the conversation calls back.
You should end the conversation on time to avoid satiety with communication, which is expressed in the partner’s unreasonable dissatisfaction and touchiness, and sometimes irritability. At the end of the conversation, you need to thank them for the call or the information received.
If you are calling, there are several recommendations where to start and how to behave:
1. Determine the purpose of the telephone conversation. Unnecessary conversations disrupt the work rhythm and interfere with the work of those nearby. If you have determined the purpose and tactics of conducting a telephone conversation, then draw up a plan for the conversation, sketch out a list of issues that you would like to resolve, because this will allow you not to lose sight of the main thing and make the conversation logical and concise.
2. Try to interest your interlocutor with your first phrase. According to telephone etiquette, it is advisable to identify yourself and say hello. If the subscriber does not answer your call, remember that after the fifth ring they hang up and the call is repeated later.
Failure to fulfill a promise to call back is considered a violation of etiquette rules.
Section 7. Psychology of conflict
Topic 7.1 The concept of conflict, its essence
A conflict is an intractable contradiction associated with acute emotional experiences; a clash of opposing goals, interests, positions, opinions. In a conflict, each side does everything to ensure that only its point of view is accepted.
The main components of the conflict are the following concepts: participants (opposing parties, opponents) are subjects (individuals, groups, organizations, states) directly involved in all phases of the conflict (conflict situation, incident), irreconcilably assessing the essence and course of the same events associated with the activities of the other party;
v opponent – is a participant in a conflict situation who has a point of view, views, beliefs, arguments that are opposite, different from the main ones, the original ones, or in comparison with the other side;
v strong opponent – this is an opponent who has a higher level of knowledge, skills, abilities and personal qualities in comparison with other participants in the conflict situation;
v conflict personality – this is a person who more often than others creates and involves others in conflict situations and conflicts;
v object of conflict - this is an object, phenomenon, event, problem, goal, action that gives rise to a conflict situation and conflict. In order to determine the object of the conflict, it is necessary to find the source (cause) of the conflict;
v problem – this is a complex task, a question that requires resolution and research;
v conflict situation – this is a situation of hidden or open confrontation between two or several participants (parties), each of which has its own goals, motives, means and ways of solving a personally significant problem; it is based on an individual or group assessment of objectively developing situations; the emergence of conflict situations is facilitated by a more or less long period of hidden, mutual or unilateral dissatisfaction.
The essence of the conflict - This is an intergroup or interpersonal confrontation based on a contradiction realized by each of the parties. This is a clash of principles, opinions, assessments, characters or standards of human behavior. The basis of any conflict is a conflict situation, including:
· conflicting positions of the parties on any issue;
· opposing goals and means of achieving goals;
· discrepancy between interests, desires, and hobbies of opponents.
Conflict formula:
Conflict = participants + object + conflict situation + incident
Despite their specificity and diversity, conflicts generally have common stages of occurrence .
The main content of the conflict is the incompatibility of actions and goals . Subordinates want an increase in wages - management does not consider this possible; the manager strives to reduce the number of employees - the staff is convinced that the lists of everyone’s responsibilities are too voluminous and require the introduction of new positions; the wife considers her husband’s earnings insufficient - the husband is sure that his wife’s demands are excessive. The causes and internal content of conflicts coincide at all social levels, be it international, intergroup or interpersonal conflicts.
Conflicts on type of relationship structure divided into vertical and horizontal. IN horizontal employees of equal status take part in the conflict, i.e. are not subordinate to each other. Vertical conflicts involve employees in a subordinate relationship. If both relationships are involved in the situation, such a conflict can be considered mixed. For a manager, vertical conflicts are the most difficult to resolve, because he himself becomes involved in the conflict and an objective assessment is difficult.
Division into constructive And destructive conflicts. Reflects a focus on creation, changing the current situation in order to improve it, or a tendency to resolve, remove the cause of the contradiction. The results of the consequences of destructive conflicts are usually serious due to the harsh development scenario.
Intrapersonal conflict caused by various psychological factors in the inner world of the individual, often seeming or being incompatible: needs, interests, desires, feelings, values, motives, etc. Depending on which internal aspects of the personality come into conflict, the following forms are distinguished: motivational, moral, unfulfilled desire, role, adaptation, inadequate self-esteem.
Interpersonal conflict – the most common form of conflict in organizations. This is usually a struggle for limited resources: material resources, time to use equipment, or project approval. At the same time, everyone believes that it is he, and not someone else, who needs the resources. Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself in a clash of different types of character and temperament. Character traits such as impulsiveness, hot temper, desire to dominate, unceremonious behavior, etc., create tension in human relationships and, ultimately, can lead to conflicts. It is also difficult for two leaders in one organization to coordinate their actions.
Conflict between individual and group occurs when a group member deviates from the established norms of behavior and work in the group. Another common conflict of this type is between the group and the leader. These conflicts occur most acutely when the leadership style is inappropriate to the level of maturity of the team, due to a discrepancy between the competence of the manager and specialists, and due to rejection of the moral character and character of the manager.
Intergroup conflict arises between different (formal and informal) groups in an organization, between higher and lower levels of management.
The causes of the conflict in general are caused by:
Labor process;
Psychological characteristics of human relationships, i.e. their likes and dislikes, cultural, ethnic differences between people, the actions of the leader, poor psychological communication, etc.;
Personal uniqueness of group members, for example, inability to control their emotional state, aggressiveness, lack of communication, tactlessness, etc.
Stages and causes of conflict in the communication process
Despite the specificity and diversity, conflicts generally have common stages:
1) potential formation of conflicting interests, values, norms;
2) the transition of a potential conflict into a real one or the stage of the participants in the conflict realizing their correctly or falsely understood interests;
3) conflicting actions;
4) removal or resolution of the conflict;
5) post-conflict situation, which can be functional (constructive) and dysfunctional (destructive).
Let us consider the features of human behavior in a conflict situation, primarily in the process of business communication.
Disagreements may arise due to a discrepancy between your reasoning and the reasoning of the other side. Sources of conflict can also be instability, irregularity of professional activity or management errors. Uneven load and overstrain lead to chronic fatigue, decreased performance and partial errors. Load instability creates tension, accompanied by negative emotions, which find expression in interpersonal conflicts.
Topic 7.2 Methods of conflict management and characteristics of people’s behavior in conflict
There is more than one way to manage a conflict situation. All methods can be divided into two categories: structural and interpersonal.
Structural ones include:
· clarification job requirements. The manager conveys them to his subordinates so that they understand what is expected of them in a given situation; explains what results are expected from each employee and each department; who presents and who receives various information, who has what powers and responsibilities;
· coordination and integration mechanisms. This means establishing a hierarchy of authority that streamlines people's interactions, decision-making, and information flows within the organization. The principles of unity of command facilitate the use of hierarchy to manage a conflict situation, since the subordinate knows whose decision he must carry out.
Cross-functional groups and interdepartmental meetings are used as integration tools. Such intermediate services coordinate the work of interdependent units between which there is a conflict.
· corporate overarching goals. Effective implementation of these goals requires the compatibility of two or more employees, departments or groups. When setting comprehensive goals, the efforts of all participants are directed towards achieving a common goal, and greater coherence is observed in the activities of all personnel.
· reward system structure. It should be such that, first of all, people are rewarded who contribute to the achievement of organizational comprehensive goals and help other groups in the organization. Rewards may be in the form of bonuses, commendations, recognition or promotions. It is also important that the reward system does not reward unconstructive behavior by individuals or groups.
Conflict resolution styles
In real life, it is not so easy to find out the true cause of the conflict and find an adequate way to resolve it.
In this regard, the studies of K. W. Thomas and R. H. Kilman are interesting, which indicate five main styles of behavior in conflict:
· competition or rivalry;
· compromise;
· device;
· ignoring or avoiding;
· cooperation.
The most typical is competition style . Statistics say that 70% of all cases in conflict are a desire for one-sided gain, satisfaction first of all of one’s own interests. From this stems the desire to put pressure on a partner, to impose one’s interests, using power through coercion. This style can be effective if the manager has a lot of power over subordinates, must make an unpopular decision and has enough authority to choose that step; interact with subordinates who prefer an authoritarian style. However, educated staff may resent this style. This strategy rarely brings long-term results, since the losing party may not support a decision made against its will, or even try to sabotage it.
Essence style of compromise lies in the fact that the parties try to resolve differences by making mutual concessions. In this regard, it is somewhat reminiscent of the style of cooperation, but it is carried out on a more superficial level, since the parties are inferior to each other in some way. This style is most effective when both parties want the same thing but know that simultaneous desires are impossible, such as wanting the same position or the same hang-up for a job. This ability is highly valued in management situations, as it minimizes ill will, which often makes it possible to quickly resolve a conflict, leading to the satisfaction of both parties. The disadvantage of this style is that one of the parties may exaggerate its demands in order to later appear generous or give in before the other.
The compromise style can be used in the following situations:
1) both sides have equally convincing arguments and have equal power;
2) satisfying the desires of one of the parties is not too important for it;
3) a temporary solution is possible, since there is no time to develop another; or other approaches to solving the problem turned out to be ineffective;
4) a compromise will allow you to gain at least something rather than lose everything;
Style devices means that you act jointly with the other side, but do not try to defend your own interests in order to smooth out the atmosphere and restore normalcy. In this case, you sacrifice your own interests in favor of the other party. But this does not mean that you must give up your interests. You just have to kind of put them aside for a while, and then, in a more favorable environment, return to their satisfaction through concessions on the part of your opponent or in some other way.
The most typical situations in which this style is applicable are the following:
1) the most important task is to restore calm and stability, and not resolve the conflict;
2) the subject of disagreement is not important for one of the participants;
3) good relationships are more preferable to one’s own point of view;
4) the participant does not have enough power or chances to win.
It should also be remembered that with this style, as a result of “forgetting” the problem underlying the conflict, peace and quiet may come, but the problem will remain, and ultimately an “explosion” may occur.
Ignoring or avoiding . Typically, this style is chosen if the conflict does not affect the direct interests of the parties and they do not need to defend their rights and waste time on resolving it. The style is also applicable when dealing with a conflicted personality. The conflicting party uses an evasive style if it:
1) believes that the source of disagreement is insignificant compared to other more important tasks;
2) knows that he cannot or even does not want to resolve the issue in his favor;
3) has little power to solve the problem in the way she wants;
4) wants to buy time to study the situation and obtain additional information before making any decision;
5) believes that solving the problem immediately is dangerous, since open discussion of the conflict can only worsen the situation;
6) subordinates can resolve the conflict themselves;
7) when the conflict involves people who are difficult from the point of view of communication - rude people, complainers, whiners and the like.
Collaboration style , this is the most difficult of all styles, but at the same time the most effective in resolving conflict situations; it is the joint development of a solution that satisfies the interests of both parties. In the process, joint experience and broad information are acquired for subsequent integration, and an atmosphere of cooperation is created. The parties acknowledge differences of opinion and are willing to engage with other points of view in order to understand the causes of the conflict and find a course of action acceptable to all. Someone who uses this style does not try to achieve their goal at the expense of others, but rather looks for the best solution.
Section 8. Labor psychologyTopic 8.1 Man as a subject of labor
Labor psychology- a field of psychology that studies the patterns of manifestation and formation of various psychological mechanisms in work. The following main areas of research are highlighted: rationalization of work and rest, dynamics of working capacity, formation of professional motivation and professional suitability, optimization of relations in work teams.
Work– an activity that results in a socially valuable product. It is regulated by social norms, rules and traditions. The work uses tools that have cultural and historical origin. In work, people enter into special interpersonal production relationships with each other.
professional monotony. character, gender
self-awareness
individual characteristics.
People are not born subjects of labor and do not automatically become them - efforts are required on the part of society in terms of labor, moral and civic education.
From the moment the subject of work begins independent work, he gains professional experience. It is part of an individual’s life experience and consists of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities to solve professional problems. Professional experience makes adjustments to previously established value orientations, personal attitudes, and gives special colors to the experiences and semantic sphere of the subject.
Topic 8.2 Psychology of professions
Profession - an occupation for which a person is specifically trained.
E.A. Klimov developed a classification of professions:
1) Types of professions by subject content of work – H-H(person - person),
Ch-P(man-nature), H-T(man - technology), W-W(man is a sign system),
· Ch-H(a person is an artistic image).
- H-H(person - person) - all professions related to communication with people.
- Ch-P(man-nature) – all professions related to plant and animal organisms, microorganisms.
- H-T(person - technology) - work with inanimate, technical objects of labor (technician, electrician, technologist)
- W-W(man – sign system) – languages, conventional signs, symbols, numbers, formulas.
- Ch-H(person - artistic image) - phenomena and facts of artistic reflection of reality (musician, artist, actor, singer, dancer)
2) Classes of occupations by predominant purpose of work tasks–
P– transformative, G– Gnostic, AND– sophisticated.
3) Groups of professions according to the tools used– R– manual,
M– mechanized,
A– automated, F– functional.
4) Groups of professions according to working conditions and their requirements for people–
B- living conditions
labor, ABOUT– work outdoors, N– unusual working conditions associated with the presence of health hazards, M– special requirements of the profession for the moral qualities of labor subjects.
Classification of types of professions into subtypes (Gavrilov V.E.)
1) Socionomic professions
§ Medical service
§ Education and training
§ Household services
§ Information service
§ Protection of society and state
2) Technonomic professions
§ Creation, installation, assembly of technical devices
§ Operation of technical equipment
§ Repair of technical devices
3) Bionomic professions
§ Study, research and analysis of the state and living conditions of plants and animals
§ Caring for plants and animals, their cultivation
§ Prevention of plant and animal diseases, control of pests and pathogens, treatment of sick people
4) Signonomic professions
§ Texts in your native language and languages of different countries
§ Numbers, formulas, tables
§ Drawings, maps, diagrams
§ Sound signals
5) Artonomic professions
§ Creation, design, modeling of works of art
§ Reproduction, production of various products in a single copy
§ Reproduction, copying, duplication of works of art in mass production.
Typology of George Goland.
It is based on the connection between personality type and professional environment:
1) Artistic (talent)
2) Enterprising (responsibility, independence)
3) Conventional (strict compliance with regulations, norms)
4) Realistic (product manufacturers)
Information sources
1. Averchenko L.K., Zalesov G.M. Psychology of management. Lecture course. M.: Infrma-M, 1997.
2. Avdulova T.P. “Psychology of Management”, Akadema, 2003.
3. Woodcock M, Francis D. “The Uninhibited Manager”, M., Delo, 1994
4. “Laws of Success” (ed. Christy Lee), M., 1998.
5. Krichevsky R.L. “If you are a leader”, M., 1993.
6. Kishkel E.N. "Managerial Psychology", Higher School, 2002.
7. Lebedev VL. Psychology and management. - M.: VO Agropromshdat, 1990.
Managerial psychology is a field of psychological science that studies psychological patterns in managerial work. This is the structure, features and specificity, ways of using psychological aspects to solve various managerial problems. Every day a leader is faced with a variety of tasks, tasks, and problems. It’s not at all difficult to get lost in this whirlpool, but difficulties, as we know, often await you at the most inopportune moment, and you need to constantly be prepared to resolve them.
It is noteworthy that there is absolutely no system in the occurrence and unforeseen circumstances, however, if you set a goal, you can develop an algorithm of actions for the case when something goes wrong. Indirectly, this includes drawing up a work plan, keeping all current affairs in order, so that in the event of an undesirable situation, hitches do not arise that could be foreseen and prevented.
The difficulty of a manager’s job, by and large, lies in the fact that he constantly needs to organize and systematize the moments and actions that are necessary for the successful operation of the company. The manager understands that he needs to make many decisions every day, and they must turn out to be correct. Psychologically it is very difficult.
Managerial psychology teaches one to master one’s activities and realize oneself as a part of it. The activity of each person consists of small components, and they need to be known perfectly, including their psychological structure. A leader who is well acquainted with the main components of psychology has a number of advantages. For example, he sees the main thing that needs to be done to achieve a particular goal. He also knows how close the goal is and how much time is left until it is reached. An experienced manager can adjust the course of solving a problem and get the desired result in the most beneficial way for himself and the company.
Psychology involves the following components:
- Clearly setting clear goals, ideally for all employees. Each employee must clearly understand what specific contribution he must make to achieve the common goal.
- Motivation is something without which ordinary employees will not make efforts to solve any problem. The fact is that usually any company is the business of the manager, his ambitions, and for most employees, a way to earn money.
- Delegation of authority - transfer of control over the progress of task execution in each department.
- Reflection.
Managerial psychology teaches how to create conditions for the subordination of the main components of a manager’s activity. Such conditions can be expressed in terms of requirements for the manager's skills.
Control is perhaps the main point that managerial psychology requires. Moreover, you need to control both the work of all employees and your own activities.
Goal setting is an understanding of the psychological weight of goals, the ability to clearly formulate and correctly convey upcoming goals to employees, the ability to effectively plan one’s activities and the implementation of this useful skill in the enterprise.
Motivation - ideally, you need to know the character and characteristics of your subordinates, be aware of their lives in order to determine what is interesting to everyone and what can captivate a group of workers.
Statement of the task - you need to know what is needed for fruitful work, what may be needed in the future and how much the previously completed tasks helped. It is also necessary to determine the stages of work and their time frames, to know how the achieved goal is consistent with other possible ones, and how it will fit into the work of the company.
Delegation involves transferring some powers to local managers, but not all powers can be entrusted to others.
Thus, the activities of a manager require a wide base of knowledge and skills and their constant improvement.
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Introduction…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………….
1. Management psychology: its object and
item………………………………………
2. Psychological patterns
management activities……………….
2.1. Psychology of management on the threshold of the third
millennium………………………
3. Personality as an object
management…………………………………………………….
1. The concept of personality and
its structure…………………………………………………………………….
2. Some
psychological schools of personality study………………………
3. Motivation as a factor
personality management…………………………………
4. Psychology of conflict
………………………………………………………………..
4.1. The nature and social role of conflicts.
The reasons for their occurrence……..
4.2. Classification of conflicts. Types of human behavior
in a conflict situation………………………………………………………………………………….
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………
Literature………………………………………………………………………………….
Introduction
Psychology
management as a science produces psychological knowledge used in
solving the problem of managing the activities of the workforce.
Personality
employee is studied by a number of psychological disciplines, such as general
psychology, labor psychology, engineering psychology. At the same time, working
group or work collective is studied by social and pedagogical
psychology.
Distinctive
The peculiarity of management psychology is that its object is
organized activities of people. Organized activities are not easy
joint activities of people united by common interests or goals,
sympathies or values, this is the activity of people united in one
organization,
obeying the rules and
standards of this organization and performing the joint work assigned to them in
in accordance with economic, technological, legal, organizational and
corporate requirements.
the norms and requirements of the organization presuppose and give rise to special psychological
relationships between people that exist only in an organization are
management relations of people.
Socio-psychological
relationships act as relationships between people, mediated by goals, objectives
and the values of joint activities, i.e. its real content.
Management relationships constitute organized joint activities,
make it organized. In other words, this is not a relationship due to
activity, but relationships that form joint activity.
social psychology, the individual worker acts as a part, as an element
the whole, i.e. social group, outside of which his behavior cannot be
management psychology and the individual worker, and the social group, and the team
act in the context of the organization in which they belong and without which their analysis
in terms of management it turns out to be incomplete.
Studying the employee's personality in
organizations, analysis of the organization’s influence on the socio-psychological structure
and team development - all this and much more constitute the relevance of my
works that pushed me to more
thorough study of management psychology.
1. Psychology
management: its object and subject
management psychology, unlike labor psychology, for example, is not relevant
the problem of employee compliance with his profession, not the problem of professional
selection and professional guidance, and the problem of employee compliance
organization, the problem of selecting people into the organization and their orientation towards
characteristics of this organization.
management psychology, in contrast to social psychology of labor, is the object
studying are not just the relationships of people in a team or social
group, and the relationships of people in the organization, i.e. in conditions where actions
each participant in the joint activity are specified, prescribed, subordinated to the general
order of work,
when participants are connected to each other
friend not only by mutual dependence and mutual responsibility, but also
responsibility before the law.
studying management psychology are people involved in financial and
legal relations into independent organizations whose activities
focused on corporately beneficial goals.
to understanding the subject of management psychology are diverse, which to a certain extent
indicates the complexity of this phenomenon. Thus, psychologists E.E. Vendrov and L.
I. Umansky identifies the following aspects of the subject of management psychology:
socio-psychological issues of production groups and teams;
Psychology of activity
manager; - psychology of the leader’s personality; - psychological problems
selection of management personnel; - psychological and pedagogical problems of training and
retraining of management personnel.
Psychologists
V. F. Rubakhin and A. V. Filippov include in the subject of management psychology:
functional-structural analysis of management activities;
socio-psychological analysis of production and management teams
and the relationships between people in them;
psychological problems of relationships between the leader and subordinates and
All that has been said, we can conclude that the subject of management psychology is
a set of mental phenomena and relationships in an organization, in particular:
psychological factors of effective performance of managers;
psychological characteristics of making individual and group decisions; -
psychological problems of leadership; - problems of motivation of behavioral acts
subjects of management relations and more.
It can be argued that in
the subject of studying management psychology organically includes traditional
socio-psychological phenomena (leadership, psychological climate,
psychology of communication, etc.), psychological problems of work activity
(mental states within the framework of work activity, for example), general
psychology (psychological activity theory, personality theory, theory
development), and other applied areas of psychology.
specialists in the field of management psychology have achieved unity regarding
ideas about the most relevant psychological problems for the organization. TO
these include the following:
increasing the professional competence of leaders (managers) of all
levels, i.e. improvement of management styles, interpersonal communication,
decision making, strategic planning and marketing, overcoming
stress and more;
increasing the efficiency of training and retraining methods for management
personnel;
Search and activation
human resources of the organization; - assessment and selection (selection) of managers for
the needs of the organization; - assessment and improvement of the socio-psychological climate,
rallying staff around the goals of the organization.
Psychology
management as a science and practice is designed to provide psychological training
managers, form or develop their psychological management
culture, create the necessary prerequisites for theoretical understanding and
practical application of the most important management problems that should be addressed
include: - understanding the nature of management processes; - knowledge of the basics
organizational structure; - a clear understanding of the manager's responsibilities
and its distribution by levels of responsibility; - knowledge of ways to increase
management efficiency; - knowledge of information technology and tools
communications necessary for personnel management; - oral and written skills
Express your thoughts; - competence in people management, selection and
training specialists capable of leadership, optimization of official and
interpersonal relationships among employees of the organization;
ability to plan and forecast the activities of the organization with
use of computing and computer technology;
the ability to evaluate one’s own activities, draw the right conclusions and improve
their qualifications, based on the requirements of the current day and expected changes in
Developed
understanding of the characteristics of organizational behavior, the structure of small
groups, motives and mechanisms of their behavior.
2. Psychological
patterns of management activities
As is known,
management is carried out through the interaction of people, so the manager in
in its activities, it is necessary to take into account the laws that determine the dynamics
mental processes, interpersonal relationships, group behavior. TO
Some of these patterns include the following. Law
response uncertainty. Other
its formulation is law
dependence of people’s perception of external influences on the differences between them
psychological structures. The fact is that different people and even one person in
Different people can react differently to the same influences at different times. It may
lead and often leads to a misunderstanding of the needs of subjects
managerial relations, their expectations, peculiarities of perception of this or that
specific business situation and, as a result, to the use of models
interactions,
inadequate either to the characteristics of psychological structures in general, or to the mental
the state of each of the partners at a particular moment in particular.
The law of inadequacy of human representation
person. Its essence is that no person can
comprehend another person with such a degree of certainty that would be
sufficient to make serious decisions regarding this person.
This is explained
super-complexity of the nature and essence of man, which is constantly changing in
in accordance with the law of age asynchrony. In fact, at different moments
in his life, even an adult of a certain calendar age can
be at different levels of physiological, intellectual,
emotional, social, sexual, motivational-volitional decision. More
Moreover, any person consciously or unconsciously protects himself from attempts to understand him
features to avoid the danger of becoming a toy in the hands of a person prone to
manipulating people.
even the fact that often a person himself does not know himself is important
quite complete.
Thus, any person, no matter what he is, always hides something about himself,
weakens something, strengthens something, denies some information about himself, something
replaces, attributes something to himself (invents), places emphasis on something and
etc. Using such defensive techniques, he demonstrates himself to people not
as he really is, but as he would like him to be
others have seen.
less than any person as a private representative of objects of social reality
can be known. And scientific principles are currently being successfully developed
approach to man as an object of knowledge. Among these principles one can
note, in particular, such as the principle
universal talent (“there are no incapable people, there are people
busy with something other than their own"); principle
development (“abilities develop as a result of changing conditions
personal life and intellectual and psychological training"); principle
inexhaustibility (“not one
The law of inadequacy of self-esteem. Case
is that the human psyche is an organic unity, integrity
two components - conscious
(logical-mental) and unconscious (emotional-sensual,
intuitive) and how these components (or parts of the personality) relate to each other
just like the surface and underwater parts of an iceberg.
The law of splitting the meaning of management
information. Any management information (directives,
resolutions, orders, orders, instructions, instructions) has an objective
tendency to change meaning in the process of moving up the hierarchical ladder
management. This is due, on the one hand, to the allegorical possibilities
the natural language of information used, which leads to the emergence
differences in interpretation of information, on the other hand, differences in education,
intellectual
development, physical and
especially mentally
the state of the subjects of analysis and transmission of management information. Change
the meaning of information is directly proportional to the number of people through whom it
passes.
Law of self-preservation. His
the meaning is that the leading motive of the subject’s social behavior is
managerial activity is the preservation of his personal social
status, his personal worth, self-esteem.
The nature and direction of behavior patterns in the management system
activities are directly related to taking into account or ignoring this circumstance.
Law of compensation. At
high level of incentives for this work or high environmental requirements for
a person lacks any abilities for successful specific activities
offset by other abilities or skills. This compensatory mechanism
often works unconsciously, and a person gains experience through trials and
errors. However, it should be borne in mind that this law is practically not
works at fairly high levels of managerial complexity
activities.
management, naturally, is not limited to the above psychological
laws. There are many other patterns, the honor of whose discovery
belongs to a number of outstanding specialists in the field of management psychology, whose
names and assigned to these discoveries. These are Parkinson's laws, Peter's principles,
Murphy's laws and others.
2.1. Psychology
management on the threshold of the third millennium
world socio-economic processes with inexorable logic makes it clear that
the problems of modern management are no longer solved on the basis of rigid
differentiated disciplinary approaches that the old style of management is no longer
even gives satisfactory results.
Leaving
in the past, the management paradigm (model) dominated for several hundred years. Her
the basis was the confidence that in order to understand the dynamics of behavior of any
a complex system is enough
study the properties of its parts.
The new paradigm requires an understanding of individual elements based on analysis
dynamics of the system as a whole.
Traditional
management model focused the manager's attention almost exclusively on
economic goals. The new model, reflecting the growing integration of economic and
social processes, puts the focus of attention, introduces the manager into the range of goals and
social tasks - ensuring
employment, humanization of working conditions, increased participation in management and more.
system of thinking operated on the principles of unlimited growth, which
was understood in purely quantitative terms - as profit maximization and
increase in gross
national product. The new system of thinking operates with the concept
"equilibrium", i.e. a state of society in which
Satisfying current needs should not reduce the chances of future
generations for a decent life. Manager acting within the framework of a new concept
thinking, will examine the impact of any action in terms of its
consequences for the state of equilibrium.
3. Personality as an object of management
3. 1. The concept of personality and its structure
the question more accurately reflects reality: who or what does the leader manage? Whom
Does the manager have in mind primarily the individual or the group? Difficult for sure
answer this question, maybe
Perhaps both are true?..
In many manuals
management, books on management, personality was not previously the subject of presentation,
since all attention was paid to planning, economics, marketing,
organizational and technical side. And only later, after realizing the role of groups
and its constituent members in the labor process, began to actively study the basic
characteristics of groups, human factor, individual behavior.
The largest
The merit of many management researchers has been the study of man, his
personal qualities. Many managers and entrepreneurs in turn
used in their activities the discoveries and achievements of psychology in the study
personality.
approach to management is increasingly based on recognition of the priority of the individual over
production, before profit, before the interests of the enterprise, firm, institution.
It is precisely this formulation of the question that now constitutes the culture of management. That's why
one cannot do without psychological knowledge about personality. Famous American
manager Lee Iacocca believed that the knowledge of personality psychology that he
received, while simultaneously attending the medical faculty of the university, a lot
helped him in his world famous career. Now just intuition, personal
interest is not enough, because the manager needs scientific knowledge about
employee personality, professional approach to working with personnel. That's why in
A number of large companies consider it necessary to have not a personnel department, but a service
human resource management, an entire personnel management system. So, in
70s, the personnel service at US enterprises was transformed into the "Service
human resources." The essence of these changes is that people are persons, individuals
Viewed as competitive wealth
a company that needs to be created, protected and multiplied. Are created and exist
assessment centers in which workers are subjected to careful examination
as individuals. It is no coincidence that the slogan of the famous company "Matsushita"
is: "The firm first produces qualified people, and then
products."
Personality
man has always been and remains one of the most intriguing mysteries that worried and
exciting not only outstanding minds. For example, the famous Russian philosopher
N.A. Berdyaev wrote: “The origins of man can only be partially understood and
rationalized. The secret of personality, its uniqueness, is not clear to anyone until
end. The human personality is more mysterious than the world. She is the whole world.
Man is a microcosm and concludes
everything is in itself."
while pretending to reveal this secret, we can still cite some
generally accepted provisions.
It is perhaps necessary to show the difference between the concepts: “man”,
"personality", "individuality".
Man is
a generic concept indicating (from a materialistic point of view)
the attribution of a creature to the highest stage of development of living nature - to the human
family Man is a specific, unique unity
biological and social. As a biological being, he obeys
biological and physiological laws, as a social being - he is part
society and product of public
development.
Personality is
the most important thing in a person, his most important social characteristic. If a man -
bearer of a variety of properties, then personality is its main property, in
which manifests itself
its social essence. Personality expresses a person’s relationship to
a certain society, a certain historical era, culture, science, etc.
Individuality is
the unity of the unique personal properties of a particular person. it's the same
the originality of his psychophysiological structure (type of temperament, physical
data, mental characteristics), intelligence, worldview; combination
family, household, production and social functions, originality
life experience. Individuality is an indispensable and most important attribute
personality.
The origin of the word “personality” itself is interesting. In Russian
in literary speech it originally meant negative and even offensive
characteristics of a person. In the Academic Dictionary of 1847 one can read that
this word means
"the relationship of one person to another." Here is the norm of that time:
“No individual should be tolerated in the service.” The second one is also given,
apparently preserved to this day, the meaning of the word “personality” is “a caustic response to
bill, insult" (remember, during disputes sometimes the call is made "don't
become personal").
Etymological analysis
the origin of the term in a number of languages gives an interesting result. In Russian the word
"personality" goes back to the root "mask",
“false mug” that buffoons put on themselves. Personality in English,
personnalite in French, Personlichkeit in German - all these terms
come from the Latin persona, and it comes from the Etruscan phersu - mask,
characteristic of God
other world. The Latin word "persono" means "to pronounce", to speak.
hole in the mask. The actor used it when portraying a character in the ancient theater.
The mask here was an expression of a certain type of human character and
at the same time predetermined the role. In ancient Rome this word already meant
civilian". However, the slave was not a person, was not a carrier
rights, had no role, no character recognized by society - he did not
had a public mask.
With the development of social relations, the term became scientific. IN
psychological science has several generally accepted provisions regarding
personality. At least we can talk about four axioms:
1) personality is inherent in every person;
2) personality is what distinguishes a person from
animals that have no personality;
3) personality is a product of historical development,
those. arises at a certain stage of the evolution of a human being;
4) personality is individually distinctive
characteristic of a person, i.e. that which distinguishes one person from another.
When communicating with people, we first of all focus on the characteristics of their personal
to say that the concept of “personality” in the East and West is still
is interpreted differently. In European culture based on Christianity,
a saint, a righteous man, an ascetic was considered a person. In Eastern culture
in fact, people have been talking about personality since the time of Confucius (554 - 479 BC),
for which
the person was a “noble husband”, i.e. actively involved in
management of the state, caring for its welfare. In modern times, Western personality
This is, first of all, individuality, as it were
standing above society, and the ideal of the Eastern personality is a person who voluntarily
dedicated to service
to society.
In general, personality structure
maybe in
theoretically - is represented by the following diagram, which, of course,
very conditional:
1) universal human properties (sensations, perceptions,
thinking, memory, will, emotions);
2) socially specific features (social
attitudes, roles, value orientations);
3) individually unique traits (temperament,
combination of roles, self-awareness).
3. 2. Some psychological schools of study
personalities
Problem
personality has been and remains the subject of close attention of social scientists.
Thus, psychologists have created many of their own theories of personality. The most famous and
The theories of three main schools are considered applicable to management:
1) psychoanalysis 3. Freud (Karl went through this school
Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Harry Sullivan, Erich Fromm and other outstanding
psychologists);
2) learning theory, or behavioral school (to
whose theorists include I.P. Pavlov, American psychologists John B.
and B.F. Skinner);
3) growth theory, or “humanistic”
psychology" (prominent representatives of which are American
psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers).
Psychoanalysis
based on the ideas of the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Sigmund Freud (185G
1939). In recent years in Russia,
after the abolition of the censorship "taboo" on Freud's works, part of it
works have been published in Russian, although many remain inaccessible to our
reader (the most complete collection of his works - London - includes
24 volumes). For those who wish to understand and assimilate more deeply
his ideas, one should, of course, study his works such as
“I” and “It”, “Introduction to Psychoanalysis”, “Totem and Taboo”,
"Interpretation of Dreams".
Psychoanalysis is one of the most complete teachings about human
individuality. In short, it is based on two doctrines of 3. Freud. First
The doctrine of mental determinism. It says
that there is no inconsistency in mental life. Every thought that arises
a memory, feeling or action has its cause. Every mental event
even if it seems to arise spontaneously, is caused consciously or
unconsciously and determined by previous events. Be able to see the reasons
to understand them means to understand a person’s real motives. So, any
mental phenomenon
has a specific reason.
Freud's doctrine is that unconscious processes play a more important role
significant role in the formation of thinking and behavior than conscious, and
In general, most of consciousness is unconscious. This is where the main
determinants of personality, here is the source of mental energy, motivation and
instincts. A person often does not know his true desires and motives. Based on
From this, Freud developed the method of free association, with which he
revealed hidden aspirations. The seeming chaos of instincts in man he tried
arrange. Thus was born the “structural hypothesis” of the organization
mental life of the individual. The personality structure, according to Freud, consists of three
hypostases, instances: “Id” (Id), or “It”, “Ego” (Ego), or “I”, and “Super-Ego”
(Super-Ego), or "Super-I".
the initial, basic, most central part of the personality structure, it
contains everything inherited at birth. Contents of "Eid" almost
entirely unconsciously. "Ego", on the contrary, obeys the principle
reality, is constantly in connection with the external environment and produces
effective ways to communicate with the outside world. "Super-Ego" is actually
moral principles of a person,
determining the acceptability or unacceptability of a particular method for him
behavior. This last part of the structure develops not from the “Id”, but from
Psychology of management- the science of managing team activities, solving problems related to personnel and management. Management psychology has some specific differences. The object of management psychology is the organized activity of people working in a team, having a common goal of activity and performing joint work. Management psychology examines the problems of professional compliance of personnel with an enterprise and position.
Management psychology includes the following areas:
Psychology of activity and personality of a leader;
Psychological aspects of personnel selection;
Social and psychological issues of teams and groups in organizations;
Psychological and pedagogical problems of training or retraining of personnel.
The subject of management psychology is multifaceted. It includes mental relationships and phenomena in the organization, such as:
Functional and structural analysis of the manager’s activities;
psychological problems arising between the manager and subordinates,
Social and psychological analysis of teams and groups, as well as the relationships that arise in them, and much more.
The study of management psychology allows us to understand the essence of management processes; analyze and regulate the socio-psychological structure of the organization. The manager gains the skills to express his own thoughts and knowledge in the field of personnel management. awareness of technology and communications.
Management psychology methods are divided into research, diagnostic, correctional, and consulting.
The main methods of management psychology are:
Observation– purposeful and organized perception and recording by the observer of what is happening. The difficulty of applying this method in management psychology lies in the impossibility of monitoring the activities of the entire organization.
Experiment– a method of confirming or refuting hypotheses. This is a purposeful modeling of the situation. allowing to identify and study a socio-psychological phenomenon. In management psychology, the result of an experiment makes it possible to verify the correctness of certain management decisions.
Tests- a standardized test where you need to answer questions or complete a task. In psychology, management is used to study the personal qualities of a leader. applicant for the position. Allows you to quickly identify professionally significant qualities.
The following tasks of management psychology for a manager can be identified:
Possess the principles of proper personnel management of an enterprise. This problem is solved at the time of teaching management psychology.
Know when and how to apply the fundamentals and principles of management psychology. This task is carried out in the specific activities of the manager.
Thus, the task of management by a leader is knowledge and competent use of methods of management psychology.
Objectives of management psychology as sciences are presented as follows:
Psychological analysis of management activities - in order to implement proper management of the team and successfully complete the production task, the manager must be aware of his actions, the correct analysis of which is the basis for making the right management decisions.
Study of the mechanisms of mental regulation of the activities of the work collective in normal and extraordinary conditions. Solving this problem allows you to correctly manage the enterprise and its team both in normal operating conditions and in extreme ones.
Study of leadership qualities and mental characteristics of a leader. The task is manifested in the study of the leadership process, during which an individual influences a team and determines the direction of its activities. Managers must have leadership qualities to organize management and adjust the activities of personnel.
Development of psychological recommendations for the practical application of acquired knowledge in the field of team management, resolving conflict situations in groups, regulating the psychological microclimate in the team.
Study of group interaction processes. Frequently arising contradictions in work groups. disputes and conflicts harm the achievement of a common goal. The leader takes on the role of a regulator in group conflicts and must transfer the conflict into a productive direction or resolve it. In such a situation, it helps to set a common goal, clarify the degree of responsibility and area of activity of each individual employee. It is the leader who must achieve a stable microclimate within the team.
Studying the mechanisms of motivation of team members. Motivation is a set of processes that generate and direct the behavior of a team. Stimulating the motivational component of an employee allows one to achieve higher performance results. Motivation is carried out taking into account specific personal characteristics and the specifics of the goal. One of the main indicators of attitude towards work is the indicator of job satisfaction. Properly created motivation can increase the feeling of satisfaction among employees.
To date psychology of management occupies one of the most important places in modern society. It allows you to study the processes of management and leadership in a work team, provides knowledge about the processes within a team working towards one common goal. This branch of science contributes to the formation of competent management staff of the organization, the formation of a positive microclimate in the group and the creation
So, management psychology deals with the study of psychological mechanisms of management. Psychology is interesting and useful mainly because, when managing personnel, managers are convinced that in most cases, even a clearly expressed, direct and specific order within the terms of a signed contract can be carried out differently by different people, at different times, with different quality, and sometimes it is not fulfilled at all. The subjects of management themselves, observing themselves and other managers, feel that orders and instructions for subordinates often contain emotional, personal components that would seem not required in the context of business interaction.
Thus, the actual practice of managerial interaction contains a pronounced psychological component, and managers expect that psychological science will provide them with the knowledge and technologies that will allow them to more effectively implement professional management activities.
In accordance with the theory of mental reflection, which has deep roots in the domestic psychological tradition, changes in the characteristics of a system can and do occur as a result of the interaction of the system with the external environment, as well as subsystems within the system. In this case, the second case will be considered. The result of interaction is mutual reflection, i.e. fixation in their states by interacting subsystems of certain characteristics of each other.
In a management situation, the control subsystem (managers) is interested in technologies for such interaction that would ensure that the managed subsystem (personnel) acquires some purposefully specified characteristics. In a more easily understandable form, the task of management is to know the characteristics of the personnel at the moment, to know and organize interaction so that the desired change occurs. But the staff consists of different people with their own individual characteristics. In addition, management is more often carried out in relation to the group as a whole, and not to each individual, and this group has its own socio-psychological characteristics due to the group affiliation of the enterprise, gender, ethnic, religious and other characteristics. Consequently, the management task becomes very difficult.
In psychology, a number of forms of psychological influence are known, which implement direct and indirect methods used by the manager when solving problems of personnel management. The nature of the influence of the form of managerial interaction is usually not analyzed by managers, although such an analysis would allow both to assess the effectiveness of managerial influence in different situations and to optimize the work of managers.
There are many psychological reasons that determine the negative result of managerial influence. Here are just a few of them:
- misunderstanding (incomplete understanding) by the performer of the contents of the instruction, order;
- misunderstanding (incomplete understanding) of what could be called the spirit of command, i.e. the manager’s ideas about the form of execution by the staff of the order;
- exceeding the requirements of the performer's capabilities (general cultural, communicative, speed, intellectual, etc.);
- unconscious resistance due to inconsistency with the requirements of the performer’s deep motivation;
- deliberate evasion due to the discrepancy between the requirements and the goals of the performer;
- disorganization of activities caused by stress, fatigue, and other unfavorable conditions experienced by the performer before receiving an order or provoked by the manager himself;
- conscious avoidance due to pressure exerted by a significant group.
If the manager in each individual case of managerial interaction knew in advance what barriers his order would encounter, he could easily bypass them. But since he often does not know about them, and sometimes barriers arise unexpectedly in the process of work, the manager will try to achieve the fulfillment of his orders, based on his ideas about the staff and using those methods of influence to which he is accustomed and (or) which have proven themselves well in his life and professional experience. These types of influence, with all their diversity, can be grouped on two grounds: the openness or closedness of the manager’s intentions for staff and the predominant use of emotional or rational means in managerial interaction. This approach can be represented using mapping technology, which will be used repeatedly in the manual (Fig. 1.3).
Rice. 1.3.
D - pressure; M - manipulation; B - influence; U - actual control
Before characterizing these types of psychological influence, let us outline the general structure of the influence in a sequence of stages:
- 1) the intention of the subject of influence;
- 2) organization of influence, i.e. the main way of translating intention into activity;
- 3) implementation of intentions in one way or another and in one form or another;
- 4) acceptance of the impact by the recipient;
- 5) changes in the characteristics of the recipient’s attitudes or behavior;
- 6) perception and assessment of the results of the impact produced by the subject of management;
- 7) changes in the state of the subject of influence as a consequence of the perceived effects of the effect carried out.
Thus, at the stage of organizing influence, the question of whether to disclose your intentions (motivation, goals, their validity) to recipients is key. This issue can be resolved consciously or according to the established habit of openness or closedness of interaction (with the exception of special cases, for example, lack of time, when management is usually carried out directively without clarification of intentions and this is normally perceived by recipients). Much more important are the reasons why the decision to close or open intentions is made under normal conditions. It can be assumed with a reasonable degree of confidence that this decision depends on the attitude of the subject of management to the person. If a person in the production and management system is perceived as a cog, a factor, a means, then it is not necessary to spend time and effort on revealing to him the meaning of the requirements - the main types of influence in this case will be pressure and manipulation. If a person is considered as a resource, and even more so as capital, value, then such forms of influence as influence and management proper are chosen.
The question of how and how adequately recipients can perceive the intentions of the subject of management has not yet been considered here. This is a separate task. For now, let us characterize the forms of influence on the part of the subject of management.
- 1. Psychological pressure. The subject of control does not reveal his true intentions; his orders are highly emotional. Closedness is a consequence of the attitude towards the performer (low rating, mistrust, neglect). Emotionality is a consequence of a personal, not a business position, uncertainty (often closedness is a consequence of uncertainty in the strength of one’s own arguments), the desire to add an additional energy impulse to the performer’s work, to frighten, to overcome incipient or expected resistance.
- 2. Manipulation. The subject of management deliberately hides his true intentions and gives false reasons for his orders and instructions. Sometimes, when they talk about manipulation, they emphasize the one-sidedness of the interests of the subject of influence. It is not always so. The fact is that behind manipulation there is always the conviction of the subject of manipulation in his own superiority over the recipient. And it, in principle, can be based on considerations of benefit for the recipient. But he, in the opinion of the subject, due to age, intellectual or other limitations, is not able to understand the subject’s intention or his own benefit, so he simply has to take care of him without entering into a constructive dialogue.
- 3. Psychological influence. In the case of psychological influence of this kind, the subject of influence does not hide his intentions, but since the emotional component predominates, they may not be presented in a meaningful, detailed way - the recipient can easily guess about them. The emphasis on the emotional component is made by the subject due to personal involvement in the goals and content of the activity in question, as well as the desire to make this activity emotionally attractive for the recipient, the performer.
- 4. Actually management. The intentions of the subject of management are open. He is confident in his arguments, has positive goals, and is ready for a constructive dialogue with the performer, whom he perceives as a person capable of understanding ideas and arguments, and accepting goals that contribute to the development of the organization. The control subject thinks rationally, developing reliable operating algorithms. Just as pressure often supports manipulation, with the help of influence the effectiveness of that influence, which here is called control itself, can be enhanced.
In real management practice, it is unlikely that influences constructed in pure form according to one of the listed types will often be encountered. More common, of course, are mixed types, which can be figuratively represented using Fig. 1.4.
Rice. 1.4. Expert assessment of real psychological impact according to the type of management itself (A) and manipulative type (b)
In conclusion, we note that psychological influence in management can be spontaneous, habitual, stereotypical and planned, implemented on the basis of a previously created model. The process of such modeling is useful and interesting, since it is built according to certain rules and includes not only the words and actions of the subject of control, but also specially organized socio-psychological, design, sensory factors that enhance the control effect due to psychological components.