The presence of a four-chambered heart; 2) upright posture; 3) the presence of an arched foot; 4) presence of nails; 5) S-shaped spine; 6) replacing baby teeth with permanent ones.
a) 1,4,6; b) 3,4,6;
c) 2,3,5; d) 2,5,6;
6.Indicate the units of the Amphibian class–
Order Scaly; 2) order Tailed; 3) squad Predatory; 4) detachment Tailless; 5) Turtle squad; 6) Legless squad.
a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 2, 6;
c) 1, 3, 4; d) 2, 3, 5;
Specify the plants of the Bryophyta department -
Kukushkin flax; 2) male shieldweed; 3) asplenium; 4) sphagnum; 5) Venus hair; 6) Marchantia.
a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 5, 6;
c) 1, 4, 6; d) 2, 3, 4;
8.Which of the listed examples can be classified as aromorphoses?
Development of seeds in gymnosperms; 2) development of a large number of lateral roots in cabbage after hilling; 3) formation of juicy pulp in the fruit of the mad cucumber; 4) release of odorous substances from fragrant tobacco; 5) double fertilization in flowering plants; 6) the appearance of mechanical tissues in plants.
a) 1, 3, 4; b) 1, 5, 6;
c) 2, 3, 4; d) 2, 4, 5;
9. Indicate the types of hereditary variability –
Mutational; 2) modification; 3)combinative; 4) cytoplasmic; 5) group; 6) specific.
a) 1, 2, 4; b) 1, 3, 4;
c) 1, 4, 5; d) 2, 3, 5;
Paleontological evidence of evolution includes -
Remaining third century in humans; 2) plant imprints on coal seams; 3) fossilized remains of ferns; 4) the birth of people with thick body hair; 5) coccyx in the human skeleton; 6) phylogenetic series of the horse.
a) 1,4,6; b) 1,3,4;
c) 2,4,5; d)2,3,6;
Part 3. You are offered test tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which
must either agree or reject. In the answer matrix, indicate the answer option “yes” or “no”. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 20 (1 point for each test task).
1 .The material for evolution is natural selection.
2. A collection of plants of the same species, artificially created by man, is called a breed.
3. With an autosomal dominant type of inheritance, the trait occurs in both men and women.
4. The variety of phenotypes that arise in organisms under the influence of environmental conditions is called combinative variability.
5 .Allopolyploidy is a multiple increase in the number of chromosomes in hybrids obtained as a result of crossing different species.
6 .When the egg matures, three guiding bodies are formed for each full-fledged cell.
7. The cavity inside the blastula is called the blastomere.
8. In spermatogenesis in the growth phase, the number of chromosomes and DNA molecules is 2n4c.
9. The coding unit of the genetic code is the nucleotide.
10. The Krebs cycle occurs on the mitochondrial membrane.
11. A plant cell contains semi-autonomous organelles: vacuoles and plastids.
12. A centromere is a section of a eukaryotic DNA molecule.
13. The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on its functional activity.
14 .Protozoan cells lack a cell wall.
15. The most common monosaccharides are sucrose and lactose.
16. According to the type of nutrition, the adult toothless fish is a biofilter.
18. Fish lack the ability to accommodate.
19. Most of the cambium cells are deposited towards the wood.
20. If the flowers are collected on the lateral axes, then such inflorescences are called complex.
Part 4: Match. The maximum number of points you can score is 25.
Establish a correspondence between a plant trait and the department to which it belongs
Signs of the plant Division
A. The life cycle is dominated by the gametophyte 1. Bryophytes
B. The life cycle is dominated by the sporophyte 2. Gymnosperms
B. Reproduction by spores
D. The presence of a well-developed root system
D. Formation of pollen grains.
Establish a correspondence between the example and the environmental factor.
Examples Environmental factors
A. Chemical composition of water 1. abiotic factors B. Diversity of plankton 2. biotic factors
B. Humidity, soil temperature
D. Presence of nodule bacteria on legume roots
D. Soil salinity.
Establish a correspondence between the features of the processes of protein biosynthesis and photosynthesis
Features of processes Processes
A. Ends with the formation of carbohydrates 1. protein biosynthesisB. Starting substances - amino acids2. photosynthesis
B. It is based on matrix synthesis reactions
D. Starting substances – carbon dioxide and water
D. ATP is synthesized during the process.
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Answer matrix 11th grade
Part 1.
| b | b | A | b | G | V | A | A | V | b |
| A | G | V | G | G | V | G | b | b | b |
| V | A | G | b | G | V | G | A | G | G |
| b | A | V | A | b |
Part 2.
| d | G | b | b | V | d | V | b | b | G |
Part 3.
| - | - | + | - | + | + | - | + | - | - |
| - | - | + | + | - | + | - | + | + | + |
Part 4.
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
| A | B | IN | G | D |
Maximum points –100
The unique properties of man confirm the history of Genesis - they were given to him as part of the ability to"possession of the earth and dominion over animals", creativity and changing the world ( Genesis 1:28 ). They reflect the gulf that separates us from the monkeys.
Science has now discovered many differences between us and apes that cannot be explained by minor internal changes, rare mutations, or survival of the fittest.
Physical differences
1. Tails - where did they go? There is no intermediate state “between the tails”.
2. Many primates and most mammals produce their own vitamin C. 1 We, as the “strongest,” obviously lost this ability “somewhere along the way to survival.”
3. Our newborns are different from baby animals. . Our babies helplessand are more dependent on parents. They can neither stand nor run, while newborn monkeys can hang and move from place to place. Is this progress?
4. People need a long childhood. Chimpanzees and gorillas mature at 11–12 years of age. This fact contradicts evolution, since, following logic, survival of the fittest should require a shorter period of childhood.
5. We have different skeletal structures. Man as a whole is structured in a completely different way. Our torso is shorter, while monkeys have longer lower limbs.
6. Monkeys have long arms and short legs , on the contrary, we have short arms and long legs.
7. A person has a special S-shaped spine with distinct cervical and lumbar curves, monkeys do not have spinal curvature. Humans have the largest total number of vertebrae.
8. Humans have 12 pairs of ribs, and chimpanzees have 13 pairs.
9. In humans, the rib cage is deeper and barrel-shaped , and in chimpanzees it is cone-shaped. Additionally, a cross-section of chimpanzee ribs shows that they are rounder than human ribs.
10. Monkeys' Feet Look Like Their Hands - their big toe is mobile, directed to the side and opposed to the rest of the fingers, resembling the thumb. In humans, the big toe is directed forward and not opposed to the rest.
11. Human feet are unique – they promote bipedal walking and cannot compare with the appearance and function of the ape's foot.
12. Monkeys have no arch in their feet! When we walk, our foot thanks to the archcushionsall loads, shocks and impacts.
13. The structure of the human kidney is unique.
14. A person does not have continuous hair.
15. Humans have a thick layer of fat that monkeys do not have. Thanks to this, our skin more closely resembles that of a dolphin.
16. Human skin is rigidly attached to the muscular frame, which is characteristic only of marine mammals.
17. Humans are the only land creatures that can consciously hold their breath. This seemingly “insignificant detail” is very important.
18. Only humans have the whites of their eyes. All monkeys have completely dark eyes.
19. The outline of a person’s eye is unusually elongated in the horizontal direction, which increases the field of view.
20. Humans have a distinct chin, but monkeys do not.
21. Most animals, including chimpanzees, have a large mouth. We have a small mouth, with which we can articulate better.
22. Wide and turned lips - a characteristic feature of a person; Great apes have very thin lips.
23. Unlike the great apes,the person has a protruding nose with a well-developed elongated tip.
24. Only humans can grow long hair on their heads.
25. Among primates, only humans have blue eyes and curly hair.
26. We have a unique speech apparatus , providing the finest articulation and articulate speech.
27. In humans, the larynx occupies a much lower position in relation to the mouth than in monkeys. Due to this, our pharynx and mouth form a common “tube”, which plays an important role as a speech resonator. Features of the structure and function of the sound reproduction organs of humans and monkeyshttp://andrej102.narod.ru/tab_morf.htm
28. Man has a special language - thicker, taller and more mobile than those of monkeys. And we have multiple muscle attachments to the hyoid bone.
29. Humans have fewer interconnected jaw muscles than monkeys, – we do not have bone structures for their attachment (very important for the ability to speak).
30. Humans are the only primate whose face is not covered with hair.
31. The human skull does not have bony ridges or continuous brow ridges.
32. Human skull has a vertical face with protruding nasal bones, but the skull of monkeys has a sloping face with flat nasal bones.
33. Different structure of teeth. In humans, the jaw is smaller and the dental arch is parabolic, the anterior section has a rounded shape. Monkeys have a U-shaped dental arch. Humans have shorter canines, whereas all apes have prominent canines.
34. Humans can exercise precise motor control that monkeys do not have, and perform delicate physical operations thanks tounique connection between nerves and muscles .
35. Humans have more motor neurons controlling muscle movements than in chimpanzees.
36. The human hand is absolutely unique. It can rightfully be called a miracle of design. The articulation in the human hand is much more complex and skillful than that of primates.
37. Thumb of our hand well developed, strongly opposed to others and very mobile. Monkeys have hook-shaped hands with a short and weak thumb. No element of culture would exist without our unique thumb!
38. The human hand is capable of two unique compressions that monkeys cannot do. , – precision (for example, holding a baseball) and power (grabbing the crossbar with your hand). A chimpanzee cannot produce a strong squeeze, while the use of force is the main component of a forceful grip.
39. Human fingers are straight, shorter and more mobile than those of chimpanzees.
40 Only man has true upright posture . The unique human approach requires a complex integration of the many skeletal and muscular features of our hips, legs and feet.
41. Humans are able to support our body weight on our legs while walking because our thighs meet at the knees to form the tibia.unique bearing angle at 9 degrees (in other words, we have “knees out”).
42. The special location of our ankle joint allows the tibia to make direct movements relative to the foot while walking.
43. The human femur has a special edge for muscle attachment (Linea aspera), which is absent in apes.5
44. In humans, the position of the pelvis relative to the longitudinal axis of the body is unique, moreover, the structure of the pelvis itself is significantly different from the pelvis of monkeys - all this is necessary for upright walking. Our relative width of the pelvic ilia (width/length x 100) is much greater (125.5) than that of chimpanzees (66.0). Based on this feature alone, it can be argued that humans are radically different from apes.
45. People have unique knees – they can be fixed at full extension, making the kneecap stable, and are located closer to the mid-sagittal plane, being under the center of gravity of our body.
46. The human femur is longer than the chimpanzee femur and usually has a raised linea aspera which holds the linea aspera of the femur under the manubrium.
47. A person hastrue inguinal ligament , which is not found in apes.
48. The human head is located on top of the spinal ridge , whereas in apes it is “suspended” forward, and not upward.
49. The man has a large vaulted skull , taller and rounder. The monkey skull is simplified.
50. The complexity of the human brain is much greater than that of monkeys. . It is approximately 2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes in volume and 3–4 times larger in mass.
51. The gestation period in humans is the longest among primates. For some, this may be another fact that contradicts the theory of evolution.
52. Human hearing is different from that of chimpanzees and most other apes. Human hearing is characterized by a relatively high sensitivity of perception - from two to four kilohertz, and chimpanzees' ears are tuned to sounds that reach a maximum value at either one kilohertz or eight kilohertz.
53. Selective ability of individual cells located in the auditory zone of the human cerebral cortex:“A single human auditory neuron...(can)...distinguish subtle differences in frequencies, up to one-tenth of an octave - and this compares with the sensitivity of a cat of about one octave and half a full octave in a monkey.”This level of recognition is not needed for simple speech discrimination, but is necessary forto listen to music and appreciate all its beauty .
54. Human sexuality is different from the sexuality of all other animal species . This long-term partnerships, co-parenting, private sex, undetectable ovulation, greater sensuality in women, and sex for pleasure.
55 Human sexual relations have no seasonal restrictions .
56. Only humans are known to go through menopause. (except for the black dolphin).
57. Humans are the only primate whose breasts are visible even during periodswhen he is not feeding it to his offspring.
58. Monkeys can always recognize when the female ovulates. We are usually not capable of this. Face-to-face contact is very rare in the mammalian world.
59. A person has a hymen , which no ape has. In monkeys, the penis contains a special grooved bone (cartilage),which a person does not have.
60. Since the human genome includes about 3 billion nucleotides,even a minimal difference of 5% represents 150 million different nucleotides , which equates to approximately 15 million words or 50 huge books of information. The differences represent at least 50 million individual mutation events, which is impossible for evolution to achieve even on an evolutionary time scale of 250 thousand generations -This is simply unrealistic fantasy! The evolutionary belief is untrue and contradicts everything science knows about mutations and genetics.
61. The human Y chromosome differs from the chimpanzee Y chromosome as much as it does from the chicken chromosomes.
62. Chimpanzees and gorillas have 48 chromosomes, while we only have 46.
63. Human chromosomes contain genes that are completely absent in chimpanzees. This fact reflects the difference that exists between the immune systems of humans and chimpanzees.
64. In 2003, scientists calculated a difference of 13.3% between the areas responsible for the immune systems.
65. A 17.4% difference in gene expression in the cerebral cortex was identified in another study.
66. The chimpanzee genome was found to be 12% larger than the human genome. This difference was not taken into account when comparing DNA.
67. human geneFOXP2(playing an important role in the ability to speak) and monkeynot only differ in appearance, but also perform different functions . The FOXP2 gene in chimpanzees is not speech at all, but performs completely different functions, exerting different effects on the functioning of the same genes.
68. The section of DNA in humans that determines the shape of the hand is very different from the DNA of chimpanzees. Science continues to discover their important role.
69. At the end of each chromosome is a strand of repeated DNA sequence called a telomere. In chimpanzees and other primates there are about 23 kb. (1 kb is equal to 1000 nucleic acid base pairs) repeating elements.Humans are unique among all primates in that their telomeres are much shorter, only 10 kb long.
70. Genes and marker genes in the 4th, 9th and 12th chromosomes of humans and chimpanzeesare not in the same order.
71. In chimpanzees and humans, genes are copied and reproduced in different ways. This point is often silent in evolutionary propaganda when discussing the genetic similarities between apes and humans. This evidence provides tremendous support for reproduction "after its own kind" ( Genesis 1:24–25).
72. People are the only creaturescapable of crying, expressing strong emotional feelings . Only a person sheds tears in sadness.
73. We are the only ones who can laugh when reacting to a joke or expressing emotion. The “smile” of a chimpanzee is purely ritual, functional and has nothing to do with feelings. By showing their teeth, they make it clear to their relatives that there is no aggression involved in their actions. The “laugh” of monkeys sounds completely different and is more reminiscent of the sounds made by a out of breath dog, or an asthma attack in a person. Even the physical aspect of laughter is different: humans laugh only while exhaling, while monkeys laugh both while exhaling and inhaling.
74. In monkeys, adult males never provide food for others , in humans, this is the main responsibility of men.
75. We are the only creatures that blush due to relatively unimportant events.
76. Man builds houses and makes fire. The lower monkeys do not care about housing at all; the higher monkeys build only temporary nests.
77. Among primates, no one can swim as well as humans. We are the only ones whose heart rate automatically slows down when immersed in water and moves around in it, and does not increase, like in land animals.
78. The social life of people is expressed in the formation of the state is a purely human phenomenon. The main (but not the only) difference between human society and the relations of dominance and subordination formed by primates is the awareness by people of their semantic meaning.
79. Monkeys have a fairly small territory,and the man is big.
80. Our newborn children have weakly expressed instincts; They acquire most of their skills through training. Man, unlike monkeys,acquires its own special form of existence “in freedom” , in an open relationship with living beings and, above all, with people, while an animal is born with an already established form of its existence.
81. “Relative hearing” is an exclusively human ability . Humans have a unique ability to recognize pitch based on the relationship of sounds to each other. This ability is called"relative pitch". Some animals, such as birds, can easily recognize a series of repeated sounds, but if the notes are moved slightly down or up (i.e., changing the key), the melody becomes completely unrecognizable to birds. Only humans can guess a melody whose key has been changed even a semitone up or down. A person's relative hearing is another confirmation of the uniqueness of a person.
82. People wear clothes . Man is the only creature that looks out of place without clothes. All animals look funny in clothes!
|
Similarities |
Features of difference |
Conclusion |
|
1. Large body size. 4. Similar skull structure. 5. Well developed head 7. We support the same people "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days. |
2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. various movements. |
6. HYPOTHESIS OF “CHIPANZOIDITY” OF THE HOMINID ANCESTOR. FETALIZATION HYPOTHESIS OF PAIN. COMPARATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMANS AND APEES. QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCE OF HUMAN FROM REST OF THE ANIMAL WORLD.
The most common point of view is that evolution
the human line took no more than 10 million years, and the ape ancestor
the hominid had features similar to chimpanzees, was essentially a “chimpanzee-
similar." This position is substantiated by biomolecular and ethological
technical data. On a family tree built on the basis
molecular facts, humans find themselves in the same cluster with chimpanzees
ze, while the gorilla occupies a separate independent branch.
As a “model ancestor” of human and chimpanzoid lichens,
Some anthropologists consider the pygmy chimpanzee -
bonobo (Pan paniscus) - a small pongid from the Equatorial jungle
Africa, discovered by the American scientist G. Coolidge in 1933. However
There is another view of bonobos - as a specialized form,
acquired dwarf body dimensions and a number of associated characteristics in
conditions of isolation.
Several possibilities can be raised against the “chimpanzoid hypothesis”:
injuries. Since there is a discrepancy between the rates of genetic, chromo-
somatic and morphological evolution, biomolecular similarity of human
century and chimpanzees is not in itself a sufficient basis for
in order to attribute a chimpanzoid morphotype to a common ancestor or
method of locomotion.
A purely biological concept of human evolution was put forward in 1918 by the anatomist L. Bolk. It is called the “fetalization hypothesis.” According to L. Bolk, a person is like an “immature” monkey. Many characteristics of an adult human - a large brain relative to a small face, the absence of hair on the body and its presence in the form of hair on the head, weak pigmentation in some races - correspond to those of the chimpanzee embryo. The phenomenon of slow development (retardation) of the embryo is known in many animals. The loss of life cycle in animals of the adult stage, when the larva reproduces, is called neoteny. Thus, a person, according to L. Bolk, is a sexually mature embryo of a monkey (for more details, see: Kharitonov V.M., 1998. pp. 119-121). This concept has been subject to serious criticism. For example, a slowdown in development cannot explain the large absolute size of the human brain. It is now clear that the provisions of the fetalization hypothesis cannot be taken literally. However, the comparative material collected by L. Bolk cannot be rejected, and the ideas of evolution due to embryonic changes find their followers.
A comparison of anatomical features convincingly suggests that the human body is nothing more than the body of an ape, specially adapted for walking on two legs. Our arms and shoulders are not much different from the arms and shoulders of chimpanzees. However, unlike apes, our legs are longer than our arms, and our pelvis, spine, hips, legs, feet, and toes have undergone changes that allow us to stand and walk with our bodies upright (Great apes can stand on two legs, only bending your knees, and walk on your feet, staggering from side to side.)
Adapting our feet to this new function meant that we could no longer use our big toes like our thumbs. The thumbs on our hands are comparatively longer than those of the great apes, and can, when bent over the palm, touch their tips to the tips of other fingers, which provides the precision of grasping that we need when making and using tools. Walking on two legs, more developed intelligence and a varied diet - all this contributed to the emergence of differences in the skull, brain, jaws and teeth in humans and apes.
Compared to body size, the human brain and cranium are much larger than those of the monkey; in addition, the human brain is more highly organized, and its comparatively larger frontal, parietal and temporal lobes jointly carry out the functions of thinking, controlling social behavior and human speech. The jaws of modern omnivores are significantly shorter and weaker than those of great apes, which eat a largely vegetarian diet. Monkeys have shock-absorbing supraorbital ridges and bony cranial ridges to which powerful jaw muscles are attached. Humans lack the thick neck muscles that support the protruding snout in adult monkeys. The rows of our teeth are arranged in the form of a parabola, differing in this from the dental rows of apes arranged in the shape of the Latin letter U; in addition, the fangs of monkeys are much larger, and the crowns of the molars are much higher than ours. But human molars are covered with a thicker layer of enamel, which makes them more wear-resistant and allows them to chew harder food. Differences in the structure of the tongue and pharynx between humans and chimpanzees allow us to produce a greater variety of sounds, although facial features can take on different expressions in both humans and chimpanzees.
|
Similarities |
Features of difference |
Conclusion |
|
1. Large body size. 2. Lack of tail and cheek pouches. 3. Facial muscles are well developed. 4. Similar skull structure. 5. Well developed head the brain, especially the frontal lobes, a large number of convolutions in the cerebral cortex. 6. Similar in Rh factor and blood groups (ABO). 7. We support the same people "human diseases". 8. Pregnancy - 280 days. 9. More than 95% similarity of genes. 10. High level of development of higher nervous activity. 11. Similarities between the stages of embryogenesis |
1. Only humans are capable of true upright walking. 2. The person has: a) long and powerful legs; b) arched foot; c) wide pelvis; d) S-shaped spine. 3. Flexible hand and movable human fingers ensure precise and various movements. 4. The human brain has a complex structure, the average volume is 1350 cm 3 (for a gorilla - 400 cm 3). 5. The person is capable of articulate speech |
Man is a biosocial being occupying a high level of evolutionary development, possessing consciousness, speech, abstract thinking and capable of social work. |
The qualitative difference between humans and other representatives of the animal world.
One of the main differences between man and animal is his relationship with nature. If an animal is an element of living nature and builds its relationship with it from the position of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not simply adapt to the natural environment, but strives to subjugate it to a certain extent, creating tools for this. With the creation of tools, human lifestyle changes. The ability to create tools to transform the surrounding nature indicates the ability to work consciously. Labor is a specific type of activity inherent only to humans, which consists in influencing nature in order to ensure the conditions of one’s existence.
The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only together with other people. This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of performing them a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e. his work activity became possible only as a result of his involvement in the system of relationships with other people. Thus, any work, even one that seems at first glance to be purely individual, requires cooperation with other people.
Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities. These differences were that, firstly, the unification of primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is characteristic to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e. through collective work.
Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level of development of communication between members of the community. The higher the level of development of communication between members of a community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. Thus, the highest level of human communication - speech - has determined a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of words. A person who is able to communicate using words does not need to come into physical contact with the objects around him to form his behavior or ideas about the real world. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.
It should be noted that it was precisely the characteristics of human communities, consisting in the need for collective work, that determined the emergence and development of speech. In turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since human thought always has a verbal (verbal) form. For example, a person who, by a certain coincidence of circumstances, ended up in childhood with animals and grew up among them, does not know how to speak, and the level of his thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of modern man.
Thirdly, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable for the normal existence and development of human communities. The collective nature of work and the development of communication not only entailed the development of thinking, but also determined the formation of specific laws of existence and development of the human community. These laws are known to us as the principles of morality and ethics. At the same time, it should be emphasized that such a logical sequence is only a hypothesis presented from a rationalistic position. Today there are other points of view on the problem of the emergence of human consciousness, including those presented from irrational positions. This is not surprising, since there is no consensus on many issues in psychology. We give preference to the rationalistic point of view not only because similar views were held by the classics of Russian psychology (A.N. Leontiev, B.N. Teplov, etc.). There are a number of facts that make it possible to establish the patterns that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans.
First of all, we should pay attention to the fact that the emergence of human consciousness, the appearance of speech and the ability to work were prepared by the evolution of man as a biological species. Upright walking freed the forelimbs from the function of walking and contributed to the development of their specialization associated with grasping objects, holding them and manipulating them, which generally contributed to the creation of the ability for humans to work. At the same time, the development of sense organs occurred. In humans, vision has become the dominant source of information about the world around us.
We have the right to believe that the development of the sense organs could not occur in isolation from the development of the nervous system as a whole, since with the emergence of man as a biological species, significant changes were noted in the structure of the nervous system, and primarily the brain. Thus, the volume of the human brain is more than twice the volume of the brain of its closest predecessor, the great ape. If the average brain volume of an ape is 600 cm 3 , then in a human it is 1400 cm 3 . The surface area of the cerebral hemispheres increases in an even greater proportion, since the number of convolutions of the cerebral cortex and their depth in humans are much greater.
However, with the advent of man there is not only a physical increase in the volume of the brain and the area of the cortex. Significant structural and functional changes in the brain occur. For example, in humans, compared to the apes, the area of projection fields associated with elementary sensory and motor functions has decreased in percentage terms, and the percentage of integrative fields associated with higher mental functions has increased. Such a sharp growth of the cerebral cortex and its structural evolution are primarily related to the fact that a number of elementary functions, which in animals are carried out entirely by the lower parts of the brain, in humans already require the participation of the cortex. There is further corticalization of behavior control, a greater subordination of elementary processes to the cortex compared to what is observed in animals. It should also be noted that the nature of structural changes in the human brain was affected by the results of the evolution of motor organs. Each muscle group is closely associated with specific motor fields of the cerebral cortex. In humans, motor fields associated with a particular muscle group have different areas, the size of which directly depends on the degree of development of a particular muscle group. When analyzing the ratios of the size of the area of motor fields, attention is drawn to how large the area of the motor field associated with the hands is in relation to other fields. Consequently, the human hands have the greatest development among the organs of movement and are most associated with the activity of the cerebral cortex. It must be emphasized that this phenomenon occurs only in humans.
Thus, the complex structure that the human brain has and which distinguishes it from the brain of animals is most likely associated with the development of human labor activity. This conclusion is classic from the point of view of materialist philosophy. However, we will not focus our attention on theoretical disputes, but will only note that the emergence of consciousness in humans as the highest known form of mental development became possible due to the complication of the structure of the brain. In addition, we must agree that the level of development of brain structures and the ability to perform complex work operations are closely related. Therefore, it can be argued that the emergence of consciousness in humans is due to both biological and social factors. The development of living nature led to the emergence of man, who has specific body structure features and a more developed nervous system compared to other animals, which generally determined man’s ability to engage in work. This in turn led to the emergence of communities, the development of language and consciousness, i.e. that logical chain of patterns discussed above. Thus, work was the condition that made it possible to realize the mental potentials of the biological species Homo Sariens.
It must be emphasized that with the advent of consciousness, man immediately stood out from the animal world, but the first people, in terms of the level of their mental development, differed significantly from modern people. Thousands of years passed before man reached the level of modern development. Moreover, the main factor in the progressive development of consciousness was labor. Thus, with the acquisition of practical experience, with the evolution of social relations, work activity became more complex. Man gradually moved from the simplest labor operations to more complex types of activity, which entailed the progressive development of the brain and consciousness. This progressive development testifies to the social nature of consciousness, which is clearly manifested in the process of development of the child’s psyche.
7. AUSTRALPITHECINES: GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY OF DISTRIBUTION. MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF MASSIVE AND GRACIAL AUSTRALOPITHESIS. RECONSTRUCTION OF A WAY OF LIFE ACCORDING TO DATA OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHEOLOGY. MAIN REPRESENTATIVES OF THIS TAXON.
Autralopithecines are considered the oldest hominids. The earliest finds date back to 6-7 million years ago in Toros Menalla (Republic of Chad). The latest dating is 900 thousand years ago - finds of massive australopithecines in Svartkranes (South America). The first skeletal remains of Australopithecines were discovered in 1924 in southern Africa, which is reflected in the name (from the Latin “australis” - southern and the Greek “pithekos” - monkey). This was followed by numerous finds in East Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Afar Desert, etc.). Until recently, the oldest (age 3.5 million years) skeleton of an upright human ancestor was considered to be a female skeleton, which is known throughout the world as “Lucy” (found in Afar in the 1970s).
The area of settlement of Australopithecines is also very large: all of Africa south of the Sahara and, possibly, some territories to the north. As far as is known, Australopithecines never left Africa. Within Africa, Australopithecus sites are concentrated in two main areas: East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia) and South Africa. Isolated finds were also made in North Africa; Perhaps their small number is due more to the burial conditions or poor knowledge of the region, rather than to the actual distribution of australopithecines. It is clear that within such a wide time and geographical framework, natural conditions changed more than once, which led to the emergence of new species and genera.
Australopithecus gracile.
Fossils have been discovered in multiple localities in Kenya, Tanzania and Ethiopia. gracile australopithecus.
Gracile australopithecines were upright creatures about 1-1.5 meters tall. Their gait was somewhat different from the gait of a person. Apparently, Australopithecus walked with shorter steps, and the hip joint did not fully extend when walking. Along with the fairly modern structure of the legs and pelvis, the arms of Australopithecus were somewhat elongated, and the fingers were adapted for climbing trees, but these features can only be an inheritance from ancient ancestors. Like the early members of the group, the gracile australopithecus had a very ape-like skull, combined with the rest of the skeleton that was almost modern. The Australopithecus brain was similar to that of apes in both size and shape. However, the ratio of brain mass to body mass in these primates was intermediate between that of a small ape and that of a very large human.
During the day, Australopithecines roamed the savannah or forests, along the banks of rivers and lakes, and in the evening they climbed trees, as modern chimpanzees do. Australopithecines lived in small herds or families and were capable of moving quite long distances. They ate mainly plant foods, and usually did not make tools, although they were not far from bones one of the types Scientists found stone tools and antelope bones crushed by them.
The most famous finds are from the Hadar site in the Afar Desert, including a skeleton nicknamed Lucy. Also, in Tanzania, fossilized traces of upright walking creatures were discovered in the same layers from which the remains of Australopithecus afarensis are known. In addition to Australopithecus afarensis, other species probably lived in East and North Africa between 3 and 3.5 million years ago. In Kenya, a skull and other fossils were found in Lomekwi, described as Kenyanthropus platyops(Kenyanthropus flat-faced). In the Republic of Chad, in Koro Toro, a single jaw fragment was discovered, described as Australopithecus bahrelghazali(Australopithecus bahr el-ghazal). At the other end of the continent, in South Africa, numerous fossils known as Australopithecus africanus(Australopithecus africanus). The first discovery of an Australopithecus belonged to this species - the skull of a cub known as "Baby of Taung". Australopithecus Africanus lived from 3.5 to 2.4 million years ago. The latest gracile Australopithecus - dated to about 2.5 million years ago - was discovered in Ethiopia in Bouri and named Australopithecus garhi(Australopithecus gari).
Massive Australopithecus.
The oldest stone tools are known from several sites in Ethiopia - Gona, Shungura, Hadar - and date back to 2.5-2.7 million years ago. At the same time, new species of hominids arose that had a large brain and were already classified in the genus Homo. However, there was another group of late australopithecines that deviated from the line leading to humans - the massive australopithecines.
Paranthropus were large - weighing up to 70 kg - specialized herbivorous creatures that lived along the banks of rivers and lakes in dense thickets. Their lifestyle was somewhat reminiscent of the lifestyle of modern gorillas. However, they retained a bipedal gait and may even have been able to make tools. In the layers with Paranthropus, stone tools and bone fragments were found, which hominids used to tear up termite mounds. Also, the hand of these primates was adapted for the manufacture and use of tools.
Paranthropus relied on size and herbivory. This led them to ecological specialization and extinction. However, in the same layers with Paranthropus, the remains of the first representatives of hominins were found - the so-called “early Homo"– more advanced hominids with large brains.
The oldest massive australopithecines are known from Kenya and Ethiopia - Lokalea and Omo. They date back to about 2.5 million years ago and are called Paranthropus aethiopicus(Paranthropus Ethiopian). Later massive australopithecines from East Africa - Olduvai, Koobi Fora - with dates ranging from 2.5 to 1 million years ago are described as Paranthropus boisei(Beuys' paranthropus). In South Africa - Swartkrans, Kromdraai, Drimolen Cave - are famous Paranthropus robustus(Paranthropus massive). The massive Paranthropus was the second species of Australopithecine to be discovered. When examining the skull of Paranthropus, one notices the huge jaws and large bone ridges that served to attach the chewing muscles. The maxillary apparatus reached its maximum development in East African Paranthropus. The first discovered skull of this species even received the nickname “Nutcracker” due to the size of the teeth.
The similarity of many anatomical and physiological features testifies to the relationship between great apes (anthropoids) and humans. This was first established by Charles Darwin’s colleague, Thomas Huxley. After conducting comparative anatomical studies, he proved that the anatomical differences between humans and higher apes are less significant than between higher and lower apes.
There is much in common in the appearance of humans and apes: large body sizes, long limbs in relation to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, one should note a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of a vermiform appendix of the cecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc.
An exceptionally close similarity is noted in biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, diseases. Apes in the wild easily become infected by humans. Thus, the reduction in the range of the orangutan in Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan) is largely due to the mortality of monkeys from tuberculosis and hepatitis B acquired from humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for the study of many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans. 48 in chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutan), their shape and size. There is much in common in the primary structure of such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.
However, there are also significant differences between humans and anthropoids, largely due to human adaptation to walking upright. The human spine is S-shaped, the foot has an arch, which softens shaking when walking and running. When the body is in a vertical position, the human pelvis takes on the pressure of the internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the pelvis of anthropoids: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the hand. The human thumb is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of varied and subtle movements. Anthropoids, due to their arboreal lifestyle, have hook-shaped hands and a grasping type of foot. When forced to move on the ground, apes rely on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully erect position.
Differences between anthropoids and humans are observed in the structure of the skull and brain. The human skull does not have bone ridges and continuous brow ridges, the brain part predominates over the facial part, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, the fangs are small, and there is a chin protrusion on the lower jaw. The development of this protrusion is associated with speech. Monkeys, on the contrary, have a highly developed facial part, especially the jaws. The human brain is 2-2.5 times larger than the brain of apes. The parietal, temporal and frontal lobes, in which the most important centers of mental functions and speech are located, are highly developed in humans.
Humans are characterized by accelerated development in the early stages of embryogenesis. This is explained by the fact that the human embryo must be implanted into the wall of the uterus as soon as possible, since its position in the uterus, due to the straightness of the mother’s body, characteristic of humans, is unreliable until fixation.
At later stages of prenatal ontogenesis, a progressive slowdown in human development is observed. Compared to other mammals, primate newborns are small and helpless, and humans at birth lag behind newborn monkeys in terms of somatic development. In terms of its physical condition, a newborn baby of the lower narrow-nosed monkey corresponds to a child of 3-4 years old, and a chimpanzee - to a 4-5 month old, although the body weight of newborns in large anthropomorphic monkeys is relatively less than in humans. In humans it is 5.6% of an adult’s body weight, in an orangutan - 4.1, in a gorilla - 2.6, in a chimpanzee - 4.0%.
After birth, monkeys grow and develop faster than humans. A baby monkey is in a helpless state only during the first 2-3 months, and a baby chimpanzee is in a helpless state for 5-6 months.
In monkeys, ossification of the wrist and teething occur faster than in humans. So, in a gorilla, the wrist bones ossify by 3 years, in humans - by 12-13 years. In macaques, milk teeth erupt in the interval from 0.5 to 5.5 months, in chimpanzees - from 2.5 to 12.3, in gorilla - from 3 to 13, in humans - from 7.5 to 28.8. Permanent teeth erupt in macaques in the range from 1.8 to 6.4 years, in chimpanzees - from 2.9 to 10.2, in gorilla - from 3 to 10.5, in humans - from 6.2 to 20.5 years.
Monkeys reach puberty faster than people: lower monkeys - by 3-6 years, higher ones - by 8-10. In humans, the pubertal leap (growth acceleration during puberty) is better expressed than in monkeys, which is not characteristic of other mammals at all. The increase in the time between the end of feeding and puberty and, as a consequence of this, the appearance of the pubertal leap played an important role in the process of anthropogenesis, since it thereby increased the time for the maturation of the associative zones of the cerebral cortex, and also lengthened the period of childhood, i.e. period of study.
General growth in lower apes ends by 7 years, in large anthropoids by 11, in humans by 20 years. In humans, all periods of life are longer, and its total duration is longer: lower narrow-nosed animals live on average 25, anthropomorphic - 35 years...
The slowdown in the development of the human body in comparison with monkeys is due to the fact that an adult retains some “embryo” structural features, i.e. those that are characteristic of the fruits of humans and monkeys, but then the latter are lost. This phenomenon is called fetalization (foetus - fetus). These features include some features of the human skull, which bring it closer to the skulls of great apes in the fetal period and their young forms: shortened facial and large brain regions, straight convex forehead, curvature of the base of the skull, foramen magnum shifted forward, thin walls, poorly defined relief on the surface of the bones, absence of a continuous bone ridge above the orbits, wide open palatal arch, long-term preservation of sutures.
We also find similarities between humans and the fruits of anthropomorphic monkeys in some features of the structure of the foot (relative thickness of the first metatarsal bone), in a well-developed big toe, in the large width and curvature of the pelvic bones, in depigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, the absence of continuous hair, large thickness of lips, etc.
These facts served as the basis for the creation of L. Bolk's theory of the origin of man through slow development and preservation of the embryonic features of primates in adulthood. Bolk saw the reason for the retardation of human development in the activity of the endocrine glands.
A detailed criticism of Bolk's theory was given by Ya.Ya. Roginsky. Along with criticism of Bolk’s general theoretical ideas that the evolution of the structure of the human body was determined only by internal morphogenetic reasons, Ya.Ya. Roginsky showed that in the process of anthropogenesis, while the development of some characteristics was delayed, the development of others took place. Thus, the large human brain is a consequence of both its longer growth and the enormous acceleration of growth after birth: in the first two years of life, the volume of the gorilla’s skull increases by 36% (from 280 to 380 cm 3), in chimpanzees by 33% (from 240 cm 3). up to 320 cm 3), in humans - by 227% (from 330 to 1080 cm 3).
In humans, earlier than in higher apes, the premaxillary bone fuses with the maxillary bone, very early (in the 3rd month of intrauterine life) the central carpal bone fuses with the scaphoid (in monkeys they are separated throughout life or fuse very late), the length of the legs increases much more , the mastoid processes of the skull grow earlier and more, the segments of the sternum and pelvic bones fuse earlier, etc.
In addition, the direction and rate of change of a particular trait may be different in different periods of ontogenesis. In human evolution, there was also the appearance of such completely new features as the external bony nose, the mental protuberance, some facial muscles, the third peroneal muscle, etc.
At the same time, it turned out that some structural features of the human body associated with upright walking are formed in the early stages of ontogenesis... This is shown for the development of the calcaneus and talus bones, as well as for the muscles of the lower limb. Thus, the distribution of growth rates of the muscles of the hind limb, in contrast to the muscles of the forelimb, in the postnatal period is similar in different mammals. This is apparently explained by the greater uniformity of movements of the hind limbs compared to the front ones and their greater significance in locomotion...
The proportions of the limbs in humans and anthropomorphic monkeys in adulthood differ more than in their fetuses. A newborn human has relatively longer arms and shorter legs than an adult, and in this way he resembles an ape.
It has been shown that in the prenatal ontogenesis of mammals, the limbs grow faster than the body, and a craniocaudal gradient is observed in the growth of the limbs - the forelimbs outstrip the hind limbs in growth and development. Within each limb, the distal parts grow faster than the proximal ones. Moreover, in the early stages of the uterine period, the hand grows “at the expense” of the wrist and has short fingers; in later stages, the fingers grow rapidly. After birth, the growth pattern of the limbs and their segments changes differently in different mammals depending on their mode of locomotion. In primates, after birth, the limbs continue to grow faster than the body, with the hind limbs especially growing; the hand and foot are relatively shortened; the brush is made narrower (only on the gorilla, which has a very wide brush, it expands); the length of the forearm increases in relation to the length of the shoulder (except for humans and gorillas, which have the shortest forearm among primates) and in most primates the length of the lower leg increases in relation to the length of the thigh; the relative length of the thumb decreases in all anthropomorphic monkeys, except for the gorilla, in which, like in humans, it increases.
In the ontogenesis of primates, two main periods of elongation of the limbs in relation to the body are observed: in the middle of the uterine period, when the forelimbs are especially lengthened, and immediately after birth, when the hind limbs are most lengthened.
This explains why a person is born relatively long-armed and short-legged and why, in terms of the proportions of his limbs, his fetus is similar to an anthropomorphic monkey. It turned out that anthropomorphic monkeys acquire their characteristic long-armedness during the first period of limb elongation, enhancing the growth gradient characteristic of this period; a person becomes especially long-legged after birth. Moreover, the intermembral index decreases in the postnatal period of growth in all primates (except for gibbons, which have exceptionally long arms): in the monkey - from 121 to 106, in chimpanzees - from 146 to 136, in humans - from 104 to 88.
This fact, along with some others, brought Ya.Ya. Roginsky to the formulation of the proposition that the body proportions of a particular animal species change by strengthening or weakening growth gradients characteristic of the large group to which this species belongs. This rule applies to changes in other signs as well.
Thus, in all monkeys, an intensive increase in brain weight is observed immediately after birth. It is during this period that a sharp difference in brain mass is formed between humans and anthropomorphic monkeys due to the particularly high rate of brain growth in humans. After birth, the masticatory apparatus is intensively formed in connection with the function of chewing, and it is during this period that a difference develops between humans and monkeys in the degree of expression of the facial part of the skull.
Significant differences lead to the idea that modern apes could not be the direct ancestors of humans.
Differences in the structure and behavior of humans and animals
Along with similarities, humans have certain differences from monkeys.
In monkeys, the spine is arched, but in humans it has four curves, giving it an S-shape. A person has a wider pelvis, an arched foot, which softens the shaking of internal organs when walking, a wide chest, the ratio of the length of the limbs and the development of their individual parts, the structural features of the muscles and internal organs.
A number of structural features of a person are associated with his work activity and the development of thinking. In humans, the thumb on the hand is opposed to the other fingers, thanks to which the hand can perform a variety of actions. The cerebral part of the skull in humans prevails over the facial part due to the large volume of the brain, reaching approximately 1200-1450 cm 3 (in monkeys - 600 cm 3), the chin is well developed on the lower jaw.
The great differences between monkeys and humans are due to the adaptation of the former to life in trees. This feature, in turn, leads to many others. The significant differences between man and animals are that man has acquired qualitatively new features - the ability to walk upright, freeing his hands and using them as labor organs for making tools, articulate speech as a way of communication, consciousness, i.e. those properties that are closely related to the development of human society. Man not only uses the surrounding nature, but subjugates it, actively changes it according to his needs, and creates the necessary things himself.
Similarities between humans and apes
The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.
Monkeys tenderly caress their babies.
Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.
Monkeys have a well-developed memory.
Monkeys are able to use natural objects as simple tools.
Monkeys have concrete thinking.
Monkeys can walk on their hind limbs, supporting themselves on their hands.
Monkeys, like humans, have nails on their fingers, not claws.
Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - just like humans.
Humans and monkeys have common diseases (influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).
Humans and apes have a similar structure of all organ systems.
Biochemical evidence of the affinity between humans and apes:
the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;
Cytological evidence of the proximity of humans and monkeys:
Humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48, and gibbons have 44;
in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region
All of the above facts indicate that humans and apes descended from a common ancestor and make it possible to determine the place of humans in the system of the organic world. Humans belong to the phylum of chordates, the subtype of vertebrates, the class of mammals, and the species Homo sapiens.
The similarity between humans and monkeys is proof of their relatedness and common origin, and the differences are a consequence of different directions of evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of transformation of a monkey into a human.
F. Engels drew attention to this feature of human evolution in his essay “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man,” which was written in 1876-1878. and published in 1896. He was the first to analyze the qualitative uniqueness and significance of social factors in the historical formation of man.
The decisive step for the transition from ape to man was taken in connection with the transition of our earliest ancestors from walking on all fours and climbing to an upright gait. In work activity, articulate speech and human social life developed, with which, as Engels said, we enter the realm of history. If the psyche of animals is determined only by biological laws, then the human psyche is the result of social development and influence.