As in previous centuries, the main subject, the main active creative element in the field of culture were representatives of the ruling class of nobles. Crushed by exploitation, the downtrodden and ignorant peasantry had neither the means, nor the strength, nor the time, nor the conditions for obtaining an education, for activities in the field of science, literature, and art. Therefore, it is quite understandable that here we will talk about achievements, mainly in the field of noble culture.
At the same time, the needs and consequences of the country’s socio-economic development were placed before science, education, socio-political thought, etc. tasks that went beyond the needs of the nobility. In the 18th century, this brought people from the urban philistinism, merchants, white clergy, state and economic peasants into active activity in some areas of culture. Since the time of Peter I, education in Russia has acquired an increasingly clear secular character and an increasingly definite practical orientation. At the same time, the traditional form of “learning to read and write” was still the most widespread and widespread. We are talking about teaching the reading of the Book of Hours and Psalms by sextons and other clergy.
2.1 Educational reform of Catherine II
The period of the highest development of school affairs in Russia in the 18th century. turned out to be the reign of Catherine II (1762-1796). Catherine showed special interest in the problems of upbringing and education. The ideas of the European Renaissance and Enlightenment were of particular interest to the Russian Empress. Having conceived the reform of the school system, Catherine turned to D. Diderot, who drew up the “University Plan for Russia.” The priority of school policy in the second half of the 18th century. was the satisfaction of the cultural and educational needs of the nobility. The nobility preferred to learn secular manners, enjoy theater and other arts. Special military educational institutions - the Land and Naval Cadet Corps - made noticeable progress. The development of education in Russia in the second half of the 18th century was influenced by the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II, which determined not only the growth of the network of educational institutions, but also the priority of the class principle in their recruitment. Catherine II carefully studied the experience of organizing education in the leading countries of Western Europe and the most important pedagogical ideas of her time. For example, in Russia in the 18th century the works of John Amos Comenius, Fenelon, and Locke's Thoughts on Education were well known. Hence, a new formulation of the school’s tasks: not only to teach, but also to educate. It was based on the humanitarian ideal that originated in the Renaissance: it proceeded “from respect for the rights and freedom of the individual” and eliminated “from pedagogy everything that is in the nature of violence or coercion” (P.N. Milyukov). On the other hand, Catherine’s educational concept required maximum isolation of children from the family and transfer of them into the hands of a teacher. However, already in the 80s. the focus was again shifted from education to learning. The Prussian and Austrian education systems were taken as a basis. It was supposed to establish three types of secondary schools - small, medium and main. They taught general education subjects: reading, writing, knowledge of numbers, catechism, sacred history, and the rudiments of Russian grammar (small school). In the middle, an explanation of the Gospel, Russian grammar with spelling exercises, general and Russian history, and a brief geography of Russia were added. The main course includes a detailed course in geography and history, mathematical geography, grammar with exercises in business writing, foundations of geometry, mechanics, physics, natural history and civil architecture. Comenius's class-lesson system was introduced, attempts were made to use visual aids, and in high school it was even recommended to encourage independent thought in students. But basically didactics came down to memorizing texts from the textbook. The relationship between the teacher and the students was built in accordance with the views of Catherine: for example, any punishment was strictly prohibited. In 1764, in Moscow, on Solyanka, the state-owned “Educational Home for Foundlings and Street Children” was opened - the first Moscow specialized institution for orphans. This institution was supposed to receive the bulk of its funds from charitable collections. The Empress herself donated 100 thousand rubles for the foundation of the building and allocated 50 thousand annual income from her funds, calling on her subjects to follow her example. Education took place according to the method of the famous teacher I.I. Betsky, who sought to create a “new breed of people” through closed educational institutions - educated and hardworking.
We invite you to read the article by Jan Kusber "What knowledge does a nobleman need for life? Provincial and metropolitan educational discourses of the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries." The article talks about the preferences of the capital and provincial Russian nobility in the field of education in the second half of the 18th century.
Jan Kusber. What knowledge does a nobleman need to live? Provincial and metropolitan educational discourses of the second half of the 18th and early 19th centuries
The history of the Russian nobility has long been a description of its backwardness 1 . The responsible editors of this volume refer to Mark Raeff, who more than four decades ago believed that the nobility of the Russian Empire was unable to form an estate that would define itself through common rights and group identity 2. One might add: unable, unlike noble societies in Western and Central Europe. Of course, in other regions and states of Europe, the noble class was diverse and heterogeneous. However, the history of the nobility in the Russian Empire is described as a history of shortcomings. Research following this tradition is unlikely to bring new discoveries. The “route to the province” and the view of regional lifeworlds (Lebenswelten) with their significant differences in economic sphere, cultural practice, with ethnic stripes while simultaneously forming imperial identities is undoubtedly an alternative to the often used interpretive clichés 3 .
Interest or immunity to education?
M. Raeff's view, as presented in his review work, was not focused on the "provinces". In turn, the concept of “province”, although associated with a certain image, is difficult to define unambiguously. One involuntarily imagines an idyll far from reality, called Oblomovka by Ivan Aleksandrovich Goncharov, and in the novel Demons by Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky, it is a place of conflict, the deep roots of which Raeff also explored in his works. Nevertheless, we are dealing with an imaginary province of the 19th century, the image of which Raeff transfers to the 18th century. For the 18th century, “province” is an even more vague concept. During the period when, as a result of Peter’s reforms and the transfer of the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg, new values and norms were established and a geographically new center of the empire was created 4, the problem of the “province” appeared more clearly 5. At the end of the 18th century, a stay in Moscow for “nobles” could already be associated with a stay in the provinces 6 . However, using the “center-periphery” model it is hardly possible to come closer to understanding the phenomenon of the province, especially if it is viewed through the prism of life worlds.
Raeff connects the emergence of the so-called intelligentsia in Russia with the problem of a powerful state and a passive society. Its distinctive features were both education and opposition to the state. At the same time, Raeff speaks of a certain distance between the nobility and education in the 18th century 7 . To implement its increasing tasks in the second half of the century, the state needed officials integrated into the Table of Ranks. For their official and social advancement, as well as for the qualified performance of official duties, it was necessary, in the opinion of Catherine II and - during the reign of Alexander I - Mikhail Mikhailovich
Speransky 8, appropriate education. That the nobility, and especially the provincial nobility, even in the 19th century looked at it differently, or rather had their own idea of what knowledge they needed for service and what education corresponded to noble life, was clearly shown by Susanne Schattenberg in her recently published study 9 .
Schattenberg analyzes the autobiographies of government officials of the first half of the 19th century, who felt backward against the background of the Great Reforms and felt the need to reflect on their careers. The researcher managed to create a collective biography by reconstructing the self-awareness of noble officials: the decisive role for them is played by the “sense of honor” of a representative of the authorities in the province, the chances of promotion, and ideas about the need for education to perform the service. The generational factor was also of key importance: the earlier the memoirs were written, the more clearly they reflected the officials’ satisfaction with their service. Schattenberg managed to revive the society of the Russian province of those years. The hopes and fears, mindsets and life worlds of her protagonists become tangible.
Here it is worth returning to the starting point - the era called by Reinhart Koselleck "the turning point" (Sattelzeit), the threshold of eras that occurred in the century between 1750 and 1850 10 - and asking the question of how the nobility imagined education in the second half of the 18th century . What knowledge, from his point of view, was necessary and how could it be acquired? In this case, one should take into account the difference between the benefits for the service and the nobles’ ideas about themselves. The fundamental interest of the state in the 18th century, especially in the context of the policies of Catherine II, was to attract the nobility into the service. Legislation moved towards the nobility, whose fragmentation it had previously contributed to. On the one hand, compulsory service was abolished, and on the other, in the Charter of the Nobility of 1785, the rights and privileges of the nobility were consolidated and expanded.
Thus, the state tried to support the interest of the nobles in voluntary service, which was an economic necessity for many of them. All this has repeatedly become the subject of research and discussion. For a long time, historiography in relation to the province was dominated by the characteristic of Dietrich Geier, who designated it with the formula “society as a state institution” 11. Research based on cultural-historical concepts and studying both the political sphere and the communicative spaces within which the search for compromises took place showed not only the simplification of Guyer’s assessment, but also the futility of the search for a local society in the 18th century. These searches were concentrated in the sphere of noble meetings or the work of public charity orders, 12 limited to a certain extent by descriptions of gaps and shortcomings that played into the hands of the old paradigm of backwardness. Nevertheless, it seems to me appropriate in this regard to refer to the “special time dimension” of Russian history 13 .
On the other hand, not only historians who studied the Russian nobility of the 18th century used diachronic and synchronic comparisons, but contemporaries themselves resorted to them. They looked at their life worlds and tried to determine what was required of them in changing conditions and what noble life should look like. At the same time, they turned their gaze back to the history of their families, to the region in which they lived and where their estates were located. When going to war or to the imperial court, they compared their previous surroundings with the new spaces, landscapes and ways of life that they encountered in new circumstances. However, even knowing only from hearsay about noble life in St. Petersburg or Moscow, they compared information - rumors, orders, manifestos - in order to integrate them into their everyday life. Focusing on the theoretical principles of cultural history, which emphasizes that communication is a process of finding a compromise and a form of representation, this process can be attributed to the fundamental constants of human activity.
Dialogue between the autocracy and the nobility on the benefits and needs of education
Historiographers have repeatedly addressed the problems of the stability of traditions in the noble way of life throughout the 18th century. The state’s challenge to these traditions and the need to somehow respond to it, which arose among the provincial nobility, became obvious at the latest with the convening of Catherine’s Statutory Commission. Now, unlike Peter’s times, the nobles were gathered and listened to. The “dialogue” into which the empress 14 entered was not conducted by her unilaterally, and historians should be interested in the ways of representing the noble self-consciousness presented in its course. The same applies to the discourses of noble education, which were almost simultaneously formulated by the empress and the metropolitan nobles close to the imperial court 15.
Nevertheless, if you ask the question of what place education and training occupied in the thoughts of the provincial nobility in the second half of the 18th century about what the personal education of a nobleman should look like, then to a first approximation the answer can be found in the orders received by the deputies of the Commission on the drafting of a new Code . The orders of the local elites were a reaction to the Great Order of Catherine II, and the issue of education, in comparison with other thematic complexes, was not central to them.
It is hardly possible to determine to what extent the elected deputies were familiar with the Great Order of Catherine II and who in the Russian Empire had any idea about it. Although in 1767 the Empress ordered that her Great Order be sent to all provinces and read out loud on certain days 16 (a procedure that was also practiced for other decrees), we know nothing at the moment about the implementation of this order in the provinces. Nevertheless, it can be argued that a certain reception took place: the deputies sent to the Commission received orders from their voters, in which concerns, complaints and wishes were formulated. Some of the orders contained direct references to certain sections of the Empress's Order.
In total, the deputies of the Commission had at their disposal more than 1,600 orders - and these are only those that we know about. There is no complete critical edition of the orders. Education issues were closely considered in approximately 80 orders, which indicates the low importance of this topic compared to other problems. It is not surprising, given the numerical superiority of the nobles in the Commission, that the topic of upbringing and education figured primarily in the orders of the noble deputies. A total of 223 representatives of the nobility were elected to the Commission, followed by 168 representatives of the merchant class, 42 representatives of the nobles, 20 representatives of state peasants - the last two groups were given the right to represent more than 90 percent of the population of the Russian Empire belonging to the agricultural sector of the economy (excluding serfs ). The Commission also included 42 deputies from foreigners - non-Russian peoples of the Volga region and Siberia, 35 representatives from the Cossacks and 29 representatives from central government institutions. In addition, it is striking that 35 representatives from a large group of commoners participated in the Commission. The clergy was represented by only two bishops, who were members of the Synod 17.
Along with the Commission itself, which received serious attention in the literature, deputy orders were often considered in historiography as sources on the social history and cultural history of the Russian Empire. The central themes of these studies were primarily questions about the role of the nobility and townspeople in the economy and public administration, as well as the relationship between landowners and peasants, which were considered mainly retrospectively in connection with the abolition of serfdom in 1861 18 . The Empress almost completely excluded the problems of serfdom from the Great Mandate, thus indicating the undesirability of discussing this topic within the Commission. However, deputies constantly turned to it in their discussions. Against the background of other topics considered worthy of research, the issue of education has so far been touched upon only in an article by Maya Dmitrievna Kurmacheva 19 . Following the tradition of Soviet historiography, the author believes, in particular, that the nobility, as a reactionary ruling class, sought to block discussion of the issue of access to education for the sake of its class privileges.
Deputies sometimes received several orders. However, the composition of the deputies clearly shows that the number of orders from the nobility significantly exceeded the number of orders from the townspeople, despite regional differences in the deputy corps.
Although the lack of educational facilities was rarely addressed, the topic of education was discussed in other contexts. 25 orders for noble deputies contain indications that some nobles could not even sign the order itself, since they could neither read nor write 20. Even greater was probably the number of those for whom authorized representatives signed, or the so-called functional illiterates, that is, those who could only write their own name 21 . At the same time, in the orders of the nobility the importance of education, training and upbringing was not questioned; on the contrary, their necessity and validity were recognized. However, opinions differed on the issue of the forms of future educational institutions and the content of education. The orders of the Pskov nobility expressed optimism regarding education, which was not inferior in its pathos to the projects of the enlighteners and Ivan Ivanovich Betsky, who drew up for Catherine the most advanced training and education plans for that era, which were then published and accessible to contemporaries 22 . The Pskov nobility expressed a desire to establish gymnasiums in every city at the expense of the nobles themselves. In such an institution, the children of the nobility would receive, despite all the expenses, training that would encourage them to further military or civil service as “good and enlightened people.” As a result, “knowledge would develop in Russia in a very short time” 23 and would compensate for its backwardness in the field of education. The demand of the Pskov nobles to open gymnasiums as secondary schools can be explained by their proximity to the Baltic provinces, which, although they belonged to the Russian Empire after the Peace of Nystadt (1721), had different educational traditions. Here, in all the big cities, gymnasiums already existed, so the Baltic deputies, for example the Livonian nobles, insisted on opening new ones 24 .
In general, we can say with confidence that the cadet corps in St. Petersburg was the ideal to emulate in the eyes of the nobles 25 . What had previously been evidenced by increased demand and an increase in the number of cadets (also in comparison with other corps) was now expressed openly. For example, the Moscow nobility, instructing its deputy Pyotr Ivanovich Panin, announced their desire to have not only a cadet corps, as in St. Petersburg, but also a closed state educational institution for young noblewomen 26 following the example of the Smolny Institute. This order remained, however, the only one of its kind. If we trace how the orders of the nobility were distributed territorially, in which education was mentioned in one context or another, it turns out that Moscow and Little Russian provinces predominated among them 27 . In their orders, the nobles of these regions presented general arguments consistent with state interests, and also appealed to local traditions. The order from Sumy emphasized that the creation of educational institutions not only for children of the nobility, but also for children from other classes would benefit the fatherland: ignorance, moral corruption, superstition and schism (!) - all these dangerous phenomena for people would disappear 28. Education for the benefit of the state as a whole and for the benefit of each individual person was intertwined into a single whole. The schism mentioned in the order, which, in all likelihood, meant confessional stripes in the Ukrainian regions, was left without explanation. Enlightenment rhetoric was accompanied by condemnation of the negative qualities of an uneducated person. The drafters of the order from Akhtyrka demanded that the Kharkov college, which adopted the Jesuit-Latin educational tradition of the Kiev Academy, educate not only the children of the local nobility, but also expand educational disciplines to include civil and military subjects 29 . Orders from Ukrainian regions expressed not only the desire to have local schools for nobles who did not have the funds for expensive private or public education 30, but also the demand to open a university. The nobility of Nezhin and Baturin proposed to establish a university in precisely the region where Kirill Grigoryevich Razumovsky and Grigory Nikolaevich Teplov were already planning to open it 31 . The need for higher education was justified by the need to apply scientific achievements in public administration. In modern language, the nobles of Nezhin and Baturin derived their argument from the fruitful combination of science and teaching. In addition, they used key concepts of educational discourse: the need to improve morality and explain to the younger generation that without education there cannot be a brave soldier, a wise government official, a fair judge and a prudent head of the family 32.
Unambiguous in the orders of the nobles was the requirement to establish exclusive noble educational institutions not only in the form of corps, but also in the form of local schools, which, as indicated in the order of the Kaluga nobility, should be subordinated to the courts of the nobility 33 . Financing of education was proposed both from own funds and from the state 34 . The content of the proposed educational programs depended on the ideas of the drafters of the orders. In cases where the authors were guided by the ideals of universal education, as can be seen, for example, in some orders from the Moscow province or Ukraine, preference (if the educational canon was outlined at all) was given to a curriculum that was close to the program of the cadet corps and made it possible to study in it in further. They talked about languages, arithmetic, geography and geometry, as well as fencing and dancing 35. Other orders provided for items necessary for attending university or studying abroad 36 . Proposals were often made according to which the acquired knowledge should ensure immediate entry into service at least in the rank of officer. Similar proposals were taken into account by educational institutions that were already operating at that time. However, here education, intended, according to the idea, for moving up the social ladder 37, acquired, due to the class exclusivity of the educational institutions offered, the function of a social barrier that protected the noble class from “upstarts.”
The heterogeneity of ideas was manifested in the question of which groups of the population, in the opinion of the nobility, could generally gain access to education. The orders of the Serpukhov nobility spoke about schools both for the nobility and for clerks and merchants' children, who were supposed to be taught at least arithmetic, geometry, German and French 38 . The Sumy nobles mentioned above spoke out for the creation of separate educational institutions for children of non-noble origin, by analogy with the schools that already existed in other cities. The educational institutions of Moscow University 39 were specifically mentioned, which indicates the recognition of the university and its gymnasium as educational institutions for children of non-noble origin.
Convinced supporters of the establishment of peasant schools among the nobility of the Dmitrov district. Their order stated that it was necessary to convince landowners to finance one teacher for every 100 households in order to teach peasant children reading, writing and arithmetic, from which the landowners themselves would ultimately benefit - including in terms of social discipline 40. The issue of teachers' social affiliation was not specifically discussed. Obviously, their role was represented by the clergy, which was clearly mentioned in the order of the Yamburg nobility of the St. Petersburg province: it proposed to establish schools for peasant children at churches 41. I note that the establishment of such schools on a voluntary basis was already planned in the Spiritual Regulations of Peter I of 1721. Similar proposals were contained in the orders of the Krapiven and Pskov nobles, who at the same time drew attention to the fact that representatives of the clergy did not have the prerequisites to provide a good education. Before the clergy began to teach elementary knowledge to peasant children, they should have turned into good teachers 42. This “snapshot” shows that in most cases the provincial nobility were interested in exclusive class-based educational institutions.
If we take into account the number of noble orders in which the issue of education (for their own or other social groups) was not raised at all and where even general ideas about the school system did not appear, then it becomes obvious that the government received from the nobles specific considerations and wishes for its legislative activities, but there were no innovative ideas among them.
Of course, this was due to the fact that at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, education and educational ideals as special topics were represented in provincial discourses to a lesser extent than in the capital. In the capitals, initiatives have already emerged that were the result of the reception of Enlightenment ideals and aimed at overcoming class barriers in education. Plan I.I. Betsky, which provided for the education of “children of both sexes,” was ambitious and utopian in its goals 43 . In practice, it turned out to be unrealizable, as the experience of the social security and educational institutions he led showed. It can be assumed that, by inviting the provincial nobility to participate in the work of the Commission, Catherine set the bar too high. The terminology, as the work of Ingrid Schirle 44 and others showed, was largely new, and along with it (even if not in all cases) the content was new. In this regard, the work of the Commission also meant a search for mutual understanding regarding who is talking about what and in what connection. Thus, in the dialogue between the empress and the noble society there were elements of misunderstanding and misunderstanding. However, in the voices of the nobility briefly presented above, the moment of establishing differences is clearly visible. The desire of the nobles to socially dissociate themselves from other classes of the empire was important for the self-perception of the nobles, 45 regardless of whether this meant extending the privilege of education to other social groups in the empire or not. Consequently, Catherine II, as a legislator, should have been aware of the prejudices of the nobles regarding the secular education system, built on the all-class principle.
Interest in education and forms of training in the province
An indicator of the interest of the nobility in the area of knowledge and erudition that was provided for them by the state was the support of the upper class for the established schools. As part of the provincial reform of 1775, public charity orders were allocated a starting capital of 15,000 rubles, the proceeds from which were to be used for the construction and maintenance of schools. Historian Janet Hartley, having examined the activities of the public charity order of the Vyborg province, found that the financial resources allocated to it were often used to “stimulate the development of the local economy” and, as a result, were only indirectly invested in the maintenance of schools and other public care institutions, contrary to the financing system provided for by the provincial reform 46 .
The exception from the very beginning was the capital St. Petersburg with its function as an “experimental laboratory”. Here Catherine personally contributed to the success of the organization of schools, placing at the disposal of state secular schools part of the income received from port duties 47. This example was paradigmatic in the sense that the funding of small public schools was increasingly transferred to individual cities and their communities. Participation could be expected both from the Dumas and from city governments, merchant guilds or local nobles, since small public schools were located directly on the ground, and not in a provincial city several hundred kilometers away. On the contrary, the financing of the main public schools was carried out primarily through orders of public charity 48. These funding models varied depending on the economic strength of the community groups concerned and the size of the schools 49 . In the Tver province, for example, thanks to the rich order of public charity and the relatively wealthy nobility, the main public school with its small number of students did not experience financial needs. In 1800-1801, the nobility and merchants of the city of Tver collected 27,398 rubles in favor of state secular schools. The volume of collected amounts was almost twice as much as the receipts from the Tver order of public charity (15,000 rubles) during the specified period 50 . According to the charter of the school, its budget provided for the allocation of 1,500 rubles for salaries, materials and operating expenses for the main public school, 210 rubles for a one-class public school and 500 rubles for a two-class public school. In 1801, in the Tver province there was one main public school and 12 one-class public schools, the maintenance of which thus required 4,020 rubles per year. Accordingly, even from the sums of money allocated by order, the necessary repair work could be carried out. Of course, the nobility and merchants did not demonstrate such generosity everywhere. In the Ekaterinoslav province (Novorossiya) in 1791, an order of public charity appealed to local elites to donate to the establishment of schools. While the nobility of Poltava managed to collect 11,000 rubles, in the cities of Elizavetgrad and Yekaterinoslav the result was negative. The nobility of these cities referred to the impossibility of providing financial assistance, justifying their refusal by the economic damage caused to them by the war with the Ottoman Empire 51 . On the initiative of the Vyatka public charity order, donations in the amount of 3,000 rubles were collected to purchase a house for the main public school. A year later, only two-thirds of the required funds were collected, and therefore the governor decided to introduce a special tax in the amount of 2 kopecks for each male audit soul. However, despite these additional measures, in 1794 the Vyatka order published a repeated appeal to the nobility, calling for donations to support schools 52. As a rule, donations came from individuals 53 .
The exception was the noble assembly of the Kazan province, which accepted a voluntary obligation - all landowners to donate 10 kopecks for each male serf soul to the benefit of provincial schools. As a result of this action, almost 3,000 rubles were collected 54.
Another, much more significant indicator compared to financial support for schools was the actual attendance of educational institutions by noble children. The funding of schools by the nobility could directly depend on Catherine's expectations, clearly outlined by the Empress and communicated to the nobles. Nevertheless, the decisive factor for personal career or sense of self was the willingness of the nobility to educate their younger generation in mixed-class schools. To a certain extent, this made it possible for the nobility to resist in a form common in the provinces of the Russian Empire - not to comply with decrees and act contrary to the expectations of the empress. For example, noble boys, not to mention girls, were rarely found in the schools established by Catherine II after 1786, both in the capitals - Moscow and St. Petersburg - and in the provinces 55. Their share even decreased during the existence of these schools and remained low until the next reforms under Alexander I, while the number of children of the merchant class, clergy and others increased. Only a certain (small) part of imperial society saw these schools as an opportunity to move up the social ladder. The provincial nobility could hardly resist the creation of such schools and often acted as their sponsors 56 . However, the nobles did not consider these schools an appropriate place to raise their own children.
When publishing the Charter of Public Schools 57 in 1786, Catherine personally introduced an addition to it, emphasizing the goals of this provision - universal education and all-class training. In the preliminary draft developed by the Commission, the Empress made a fundamental change concerning the teaching of foreign languages. According to the amendment, French was relegated to the sphere of home education, since Catherine did not consider it compulsory for public service. If the nobles absolutely wanted their children to master the French language, then they had to pay for the education from their own pockets.
In contrast to the French language, the empress considered the state interests to take into account the ethnic specifics of her multinational empire: Greek was to be taught in the Kiev, Azov and Novorossiysk provinces, Chinese in the Irkutsk province, and Arabic and Tatar in the territories where Muslims lived. languages 58. The schools established under the Charter of 1786, apart from their socially disciplinary aspect, were clearly not schools for the nobility.
The nobility, in turn, needed knowledge that would facilitate career advancement in the provinces or, even better, in large cities. It also needed knowledge befitting its status and distinguishing it as such. These interpersonal skills, essential to the noble lifestyle, took on new forms during the 18th century. The processes of the second half of the 18th century, during which court customs changed in the capitals and a complete reorientation to the French model took place, were also observed in the provinces. However, to some critics, the outdated customs of their ancestors seemed more appropriate than the way of life of the capital's nobility. Perhaps the most famous denouncer of “damaged morals” was Mikhail Mikhailovich Shcherbatov 59 . However, in the works of such active statesmen in the literary field as Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin, one can discern changes in the life world of the nobility - with all the inherent elements of inertia and adaptation 60. The life of “secular society” - St. Petersburg nobles or families from the ruling class (rulingfamilies) 61 - found a response in the provinces, they tried to copy it - at least partially - or reject it.
Not only simple considerations of benefits for service were decisive for the nobility on the issue of education. In their specific way of life, the provincial nobility was oriented, on the one hand, to St. Petersburg, and on the other, to a special regional and local identity. Certain aspects of this ambivalence also affected the work of the Commission.
However, where could a nobleman receive an education that seemed to him consistent with his status and the spirit of the times? Here we should mention, first of all, home education 62. For a provincial nobleman, hiring a home teacher was often the only opportunity to give his children a modern education. Andrei Timofeevich Bolotov clearly described this in his memoirs 63. The distance from the capital, as well as the wealth of the family, affected the quality of education and the competence of the home teacher. Bolotov shows that in the middle of the 18th century, his father’s wealth was enough to hire a home teacher 64. Both boys and girls were equally taught French, and in some cases German or English 65 . However, subjects such as geography and history were taught mainly to young men. Even if in St. Petersburg they laughed at the fact that applicants for the position of home teacher often did not have the necessary qualifications, the home education system could not do without this group, supposedly numbering several thousand people. Historians are only approaching the study of this specific form of education, widespread among the provincial nobility, who certainly sought to use the acquired knowledge in their local life. An example of such research is the monograph by Olga Yuryevna Solodyankina 66. If, however, we want to understand what knowledge was considered necessary, then the instructions for home teachers 67, which were translated or compiled in the second half of the 18th century according to German or French models, can be of little help here. Much more important and informative sources are written contracts concluded with home teachers. In the examples of such agreements known to me, educational material was recorded that was recognized as mandatory for study 68 .
Along with the foreign languages already mentioned, not only mythology, history, and natural science, but also military science could be taught. In rare cases, large families have dance and fencing teachers. In addition, “moral teaching”—lessons of good manners—was taught almost everywhere. At the end of the 18th century, a cheap version of this type of education also spread: both boys and girls were sent to boarding schools for several years, which seemed to be the best alternative to secular public school education 69 . Catherine's educational commission was aware of this problem and sought to regulate both the quality and content of education, conducting inspections of schools from time to time and closing certain unsatisfactorily functioning institutions, which were headed, as a rule, by foreigners 70. For home teachers, state exams at Moscow University or the St. Petersburg Academy were provided as a condition for teaching. However, only a few of the home teachers had the appropriate certificate.
Only in the initial period of Catherine's school reform - in September 1784 - did the school commission decide on systematic audits of all private educational institutions in Moscow and St. Petersburg in order to prevent their uncontrolled growth 71. An audit of 23 boarding schools with 720 students (501 male and 219 female) and 17 private schools with 159 students, undertaken in the same year in St. Petersburg, revealed serious shortcomings in the conditions of placement of students and the quality of teaching. As a result, all schools and boarding schools (in some cases, however, only temporarily) were closed 72. A year later, an audit of all private educational boarding houses in Moscow was carried out. Although the commission created for this purpose recommended first suspending the activities of all Russian-language private boarding houses and schools, only the French school boarding house was closed 73 . More stringent actions in St. Petersburg are explained, on the one hand, by the status of the metropolis, whose educational institutions served as a model for the province, and on the other hand, by the clearly limited influence of the commission on the implementation of educational programs in the province 74.
To summarize what has been said, we note that this educational sector, due to the fragility of boarding houses and rare inspections, was not subject to state control. One might assume that noble children received exactly the education that their parents provided for them. However, this assumption should also be treated with caution. Parents, like government inspectors, were very rarely interested in the quality of education. Children “disappeared,” as a rule, for several years in a boarding school in provincial towns, and little was known about their educational success.
A prerequisite for a successful career in the service was literacy. Where, however, it was purchased was left to the nobleman to decide for himself. Catherine's public schools, with their standardized curricula, remained unattractive. All-class schools turned into schools without nobles, while the nobles preferred to educate their younger generation informally. As for women's education, Catherine's concept - to give general educational skills to children of both sexes - was not destined to come true. The nobility - and here we can refer to the example of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, which served as a model for the provinces - preferred to teach future wives and mothers literature and needlework 75 .
Cadet corps 76 were promising in career terms and eagerly attended. Their establishment was also envisaged in the provinces, which increased the chances of the younger generation from less wealthy noble families to receive an education. The Land Noble Cadet Corps (established in 1732), as well as the Marine Noble Corps (1752, from 1762 - the Naval Cadet Corps) and Page Corps (1759), opened in the era of Elizabeth Petrovna, were followed by the founding of additional cadet corps in provincial cities at the end of the 18th century. - beginning of the 19th century 77. The degree of popularity of these institutions even at the beginning of the reign of Alexander I is evidenced, in particular, by the history of the establishment of Kharkov University: Vasily Nazarovich Karazin managed to obtain donations from the Kharkov nobility for a new university in the amount of 100,000 rubles under the pretext of establishing a cadet corps in Kharkov 78 . The corps, despite the harsh atmosphere that reigned in them, was considered among the nobles to be a suitable place for receiving a proper education 79 . In turn, graduates of the corps largely contributed to the spread of the French “noble model”: if in 1732 and a few years later, of the first 245 Russian students of the cadet corps, 237 studied German and 51 French, then soon this ratio became exactly the opposite 80.
Reconstructing the historical life-worlds of the provincial nobility in the 18th-century Russian Empire remains a difficult undertaking, the success of which can only be achieved through microhistorical research. The problem of the impact of education on the development of individualism among the provincial nobility at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries 81 needs further study. The answer to the question of what education was considered appropriate from the point of view of the nobility seeking to position itself in the imperial space of the 18th century depends on different contexts. If a noble landowner was looking for a worthy position for himself and his family within the framework of the district noble assembly, then his answer would certainly be different from those that would have been given by nobles who moved in the provincial city or sought to get into the service in St. Petersburg. All of them were guided by the situation and chose educational models taking into account dignity, benefit, group social norms and state requirements, while following the logic of subjective rationality. The latter certainly did not coincide with the rationality of the enlighteners, headed by Catherine II in Russia. In turn, the adaptation of “Western” models of noble life and noble education was not a straightforward and uniform process at the level of the entire empire 82. Nevertheless, until the beginning of the 19th century, all this was of considerable importance for the stability and further development of the educational traditions of the nobility. In conclusion, I hope that my brief overview of noble ideas about the patterns and meaning of education in the 18th century will serve as an impetus for further research in these areas.
Translation by Natela Kopaliani-Schmunk
1 See, for example, the socio-historically oriented review by Manfred Hildermeier: Hildermeier M. Der russische Adel von 1700 bis 1917 // Wehler H.-U. (Hrsg.) Europäischer Adel 1750-1950. Göttingen, 1990. S. 166-216.
2 See the introductory article in this volume.
3 Gerasimov I., Kusber J., Glebov S., Mogilner M., Semyonov A. New Imperial History and the Challenges of Empire // Gerasimov I., Kusber J., Semyonov A (Ed.)
Empire Speaks out? Languages of Rationalization and Self-Description in the Russian Empire. Leiden, 2009. P. 3-32; Vierhaus R. Die Rekonstruktion historischer Lebenswelten. Probleme moderner Kulturgeschichtsschreibung // Lehmann H (Hrsg.) Wege zu einer neuen Kulturgeschichte. Göttingen, 1995. S. 7-25.
4 Raeff M. Transfiguration and Modernization: The Paradoxes of Social Disciplining, Paedagogical Leadership, and the Enlightenment in I8th Century Russia// Bödeker H.E. (Hrsg.) Alteuropa, Ancien regime und frühe Neuzeit. Probleme und Methoden der Forschung. Stuttgart, 1991. S. 99-116.
5 Hughes L. Russian Culture in the Eighteenth Century // Lieven D. (Ed.) The Cambridge History of Russia Vol. 2: Imperial Russia Cambridge, 2006. P. 67-91 here p. 88-90.
6 Lotman J. Rußlands Adel. Eine Kulturgeschichte von Peter I. bis Nikolaus I- Köln, 1997.
7 Raeff M. The Origins of the Russian Intelligentsia The Eighteenth Century Nobility. New Haven (Conn.), 1966.
8 Speransky M.M. Projects and notes. M., 1961. S. 274-279; Gooding J. The Liberalism of Michael Speransky // SEER. l. 64. 1986. P. 401-424.
9 Schattenberg S. Die korrupte Provinz? Russische Beamte im 19. Jahrhundert. rankfurt a. M., 2008.
10 Koselleck R. Einleitung // Brunner O., Conze W., Koselleck R. (Hrsg.) Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe. Bd. 1. Stuttgart, 1972. S. 15.
11 Geyer D. Gesellschaft als staatliche Veranstaltung. Bemerkungen zur Sozialgeschichte der russischen Staatsverwaltung im 18. Jahrhundert // Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas. Bd. 14. 1966. S. 21-50.
12 For example: Hartley J. The Boards of Social Welfare and the Financing ol Catherine II "s State Schools // SEER. Vol. 67. 1989. P. 211-227; Eadem. Katharinas Reformen der Lokalverwaltung - die Schaffung städtischer Gesellschaft in der Provinz? // Scharf C. (Hrsg.) Katharina II., Rußland und Europa Beiträge zur internationalen Forschung. Mainz, 2001. S. 457-477.
13 Schmidt Chr. Russian Geschichte, 1547-1917. München, 2003. S. 2.
14 Isabel de Madariaga speaks in her fundamental monograph on Catherine II about “national dialogue” - see: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. New Haven (Conn.), 1981. P. 137 (Russian translation: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the era of Catherine the Great. M., 2002. P. 229). 8, in turn, Cynthia Whittaker, speaking about elites, uses the more cautious expression “political dialogue” in the title of her new book: Whittaker S. Russian Monarchy: Eighteenth-Century Rulers and Writers in Political dialogue. DeKalb (III.), 2003. About Catherine II, see: Ibid. P. 99-118.
15 Wed. about this: Marasinova E.H. Psychology of the elite of the Russian nobility in the 2nd third of the 18th century (based on correspondence). M., 1999; Kissel W.St. Europäische Bildung und aristokratische Distinktion: Zum Habitus des russischen Hochadels im 18. Jahrhundert // Lehmann-Carli G., Schippan M., Scholz W.. Brohm S. (Hrsg.) Russische Aufklärungs-Rezeption im Kontext offizieller Bildungskonzepte (1700-1825 ). Berlin, 2001. S. 365-383.
16 Chechulin N.D. (Ed.) The order of Empress Catherine II given to the Commission on the drafting of a new code. M., 1907. S. CXLV1I.
17 For more details on the class-legal composition and economic status of deputies, see: Belyavsky M.T. The peasant question in Russia on the eve of the uprising of E.I. Pugacheva (formation of anti-serfdom thought). M., I S. 72-85.
18 A common place for research on the second half of the 18th century is references to the Statutory Commission. An example of unsuccessful research is the monograph: Sacke G. Die gesetzgebende Kommission Katharinas II. Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte des Absolutismus in Rußland. Breslau, 1940. Of the fundamental and interesting works, it should be mentioned: Omeyachenko O.A. “Legitimate Monarchy” of Catherine the Second: Enlightened absolutism in Russia. M., 1993. The influence of the Commission’s work on the formation of noble identity in Russia is discussed in the article: Kamensky A. B. Russian nobility in 1767 (to the problem of consolidation) // History of the USSR. 1990. No. I. P. 58-87. On the nobility, see also: Dukes R. Catherine the Great and the Russian Nobility. Cambridge, 1967; Jones R.E. The Emancipation of the Russian Nobility, 1762-1785. Princeton (N.J.), 1973, pp. 123-163; and also a good review: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great. P. 139-183 (Russian translation: Madariaga I. de. Russia in the era of Catherine the Great. P. 230-300). 19 Kurmacheva M.D. Problems of education in the Statutory Commission of 1767 // Nobility and serfdom in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. M., 1975. pp. 240-264.
20 This was stated in orders from Kostroma, Sudislavl, Medyn, Kaluga, Lublin, Yuryev, Maloyaroslavets, Zaraysk, Serpukhov, Tarusa, Obolensk, Vereya, Suzdal. Mozhaisk, Vladimir, Beloozero, Dorogobuzh, Parfenyev, Galich, Arzamas, Akhtyrka, Usman, Kozlov, Insar, Kasimov. Temnikov, Rylsk and Ufa. Robert Jones pointed out this problem in his time, but he did not pay much attention to issues of education, cf: Jones R. The Emancipation. P. 59.
21 Sat. RIO. T. 14. St. Petersburg, 1875. S. 253, 258. 443, 444, 466; T. 93. St. Petersburg, 1894. P. 10.
22 Kusber J. Eliten- und Volksbildung im Zarenreich Während des 18. und in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts. Studien zu Diskurs, Gesetzgebung und Umsetzung- Stuttgart, 2004. S. 118-136; Eroshkina A.H. Administrator from culture (I.I. Betskoy) // Russian culture of the last third of the 18th century - the time of Catherine the Second. M., 1997. P. 71-90.
23 Sat. RIO. T. 14. P. 401. The argumentation in the order of the nobles of the Novgorod district was built in the same vein (cf.: Ibid. P. 346).
24 Sat. RIO. T. 18. St. Petersburg, 1876. P. 257. It was about the need to establish “a larger number of socially useful gymnasiums” (Ibid. T. 68. St. Petersburg, 1889. P. 72). The orders of the townspeople of the Baltic provinces contained a demand to revive gymnasiums and academies in the form in which they existed before the age of 21 (see: Rozhdestvensky S.V. Essays on the history of popular petition systems in the 18th-19th centuries. St. Petersburg, 1912. P. 287 ).
25 For example, in the orders of nobles from Belev (Belgorod province), Dorogobuzh and Smolensk (Smolensk province), Kashin (Moscow province) and Ryazhsk (Voronezh province) - see: Sat. RIO. T. 8. St. Petersburg, 1871. P. 484; T.14 pp. 327, 422, 433; T. 68. P. 388, 610.
26 Ibid. T. 4. St. Petersburg, 1869. P. 231.
27 For requests from nobles to establish schools and universities, see: Ibid. T. 68. S 130, 150, 176, 193.
28 Ibid. P. 276.
29 Sat. RIO. T. 8. St. Petersburg, 1871. P. 484; T. 14. P. 327, 422, 433; T. 68. P. 257
30 In particular, the Kursk (Ibid., p. 549) or Chernigov (Ibid., p. 236) nobility.
31 [Teplov G.N.] Project for the establishment of Baturin University // Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities. M., 1863. Book. 2. pp. 67-68
32 Sat. RIO. T. 68. P. 137.
33 Ibid. T. 4. P. 289.
34 The solution proposed in one of the orders of the nobles of the Arkhangelsk province can be called almost Solomonic - to give the “high authorities” the right of final determination (see: Ibid. T. 14. P. 490, 495).
35 Sat. RIO. T. 4. P. 362-364; T. 14. P. 275, 346. The solution to the question of teachers was proposed in only one order: it was about “suitable individuals”, see: Ibid. T. 68. P. 549.
36 Ibid. pp. 130, 150-153. The order of the Tula nobles spoke about the opportunity to attend a university or academy (Ibid. T. 4. P. 406).
37 The wishes of the officers of the Samara Hussar Regiment were similar: after graduating from the university or cadet corps, their children should receive all the rights of hereditary nobility (Ibid. T. 93. P. 54).
38 Ibid. T. 4. P. 63.
39 Ibid. T. 68. P. 276.
40 Sat. RIO. T. 8. pp. 500-507.
41 Ibid. T. 14. pp. 244, 249. The establishment of schools was intended to improve virtues and (which also corresponded to the interests of landowners) to improve knowledge of laws.
42 Ibid. T. 8. P. 557; T. 14. P. 395.
43 Along with the Russian edition, there is a German translation by August Ludwig Schlözer, as well as a French edition: Les plans et les Statuts, des differents etablissements ordonnes par sa majeste imperiale Catherine II Pour l "education de lajeunesse. 2 vols. Amsterdam, 1775.
44 Schierle I. Zur politisch-sozialen Begriffssprache der Regierung Katharinas II. Gesellschaft und Gesellschaften: "obscestvo" // Scharf C. (Hrsg.) Katharina II., Rußland und Europa Beiträge zur internationalen Forschung. S. 275-306; Eadem. "Otecestvo" - Der russische Vaterlandsbegriff im 18. Jahrhundert // Pietrow-Ennker B. (Hrsg.) Kultur in der Geschichte Russlands. Räume, Medien, Identitäten, Lebenswelten. Göttingen, 2007. S. 143-162.
45 See: Lotman J.M., Uspenskij B.A. The Role of Dual Models in the Dynamics of Russian Culture // Lotman J.M., Uspenskij B.A The Semiotics of Russian Culture. Ann Arbor (Mich.), 1984, pp. 3-35.
46 Hartley J. The Boards of Social Welfare and the Financing of Catherine II's State Schools // SEER. Vbl. 67. 1989. P. 211-227, here p. 211-213, 215.
47 Ibid. P. 214, 217; Le Donne J. Absolutism and Ruling Class. The Formation of the Russian Political Order. New York, 1991. P. 249.
48 Collection of materials for the history of education in Russia, extracted from the archives of the Ministry of Public Education. T. I. St. Petersburg, 1893. pp. 255-278, 287-296, 299-310.
49 Data for 1802, see: Rozhdestvensky S.V. Essays. pp. 598-600.
50 Ibid. P. 602. Tver society showed greater generosity than Moscow society during the same period.
51 Chernyavsky I.M. Materials on the history of public education in the Ekaterinoslav governorship under Catherine II and Paul I, 1784-1805. Ekaterinoslav, 1895. P. 3.
52 Yuriev V.P. Public education in the Vyatka province during the reign of Empress Catherine II. Materials on his centenary (1786-1886). Vyatka, 1887. P. 17, 28-31,33, 36.
53 For example, the main public school in Voronezh received 100,000 rubles from the Crimean Khan Shagin-Girey, who lived there in exile - see: Pylnev Yu.V., Rogachev S.A. Schools and education of the Voronezh region in the 18th century. Voronezh, 1997. P. 36.
54 Unfortunately, we do not have data at our disposal on whether all landowners participated in this action, see: Rozhdestvensky S.V. Essays. pp. 602-604.
55 For data on Moscow, see, for example: Lepskaya L.A. The composition of students in Moscow public schools at the end of the 18th century. // Vestn. Moscow un-ta. Ser. 9. 1973. No. S. 88-96, here p. 92; Gobza G. Centenary of the Moscow First Gymnasium, 1804-1904. M., 1903. P. 12; RGIA. F. 730. Op. 2. D. 101. L. 45.
56 Kusber J. Eliten- und Volksbildung. S. 239-275.
57 Charter of public schools in the Russian Empire, laid down during the reign of Empress Catherine II. St. Petersburg, 1786; RGIA. F. 730. Op. 1. D. 27 L. 1-67.
58 Catherine allocated 5,000 rubles for the preparation of appropriate teaching aids (cf.: PSZ. Collection 1st. T. 21. No. 15523. P. 685).
59 Shcherbatov M.M. About the damage to morals in Russia. M., 1858; Raeff M. State aßnd Nobility in the Ideology of M.M. Shcherbatov // Slavic Review. Vol. 19. 1960. 363-379.
60 Derzhavin G.R. Notes. St. Petersburg, 1872; Bauer A. Dichtung und Politik. Gavriil Derzavin als Repräsentant der Aufklärung im Zarenreich an der Wende vom 18. zum 19. Jahrhundert: Magisterarbeit. Mainz, 2007.
61 Le Donne J. Ruling Families in the Russian Political Order // Cahiers du monds russe et sovietique. Vol. 28. 1987. P. 233-322. See also: Lotman Yu.M. Conversations about Russian culture. Life and traditions of the Russian nobility (XVII - early XIX century). St. Petersburg, 1994.
62 On this, see first of all: Röbel G. Kärner der Aufklärung. Hauslehrer im Russland des 18. Jahrhunderts // Lehmann-Carli G., Schippan M., Scholz ß Brohm S. (Hrsg.) Russische Aufklärungs-Rezeption im Kontext offizieller Bildungs-konzepte. S. 325-343; Raeff M. Home, School and Service in the Life of an 18th Century Nobleman // SEER. Vol. 40. 1960. P. 295-307.
63 The life and adventures of Andrei Bolotov, described by himself for his descendants. 1738-1793: In 4 volumes. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1870. Stb. 38.
64 Ibid. Stb. 55-56.
65 Röbel G. Kärner der Aufklärung. S. 330.
66 Solodyankina O.Yu. Foreign governesses in Russia (second half of the 18th century - first half of the 19th century). M., 2007. See also: Roosevelt P. Life on the Russian Country Estate: A Social and Cultural History. New Haven (Conn.), 1995 (Russian translation: Roosevelt P. Life in a Russian estate. Experience in social and cultural history / Translation from English. St. Petersburg, 2008).
67 See, for example: Büsching A.F. Unterricht für Informatoren und Hofmeister. 3- Aufl. Hamburg, 1773.
68 Bemerkungen über Esthland, Liefland, Rußland, Nebst einigen eiträgen zur Empörungs-Geschichte Pugatschews. Während eines achtjährigen Aufenthaltes gesammelt von einem Augenzeugen. Prag; Leipzig, 1792. S. 175; Juskeviu A.P (Hrsg.) Der Briefwechsel Leonhard Eulers mit Gerhard Friedrich Müller, 1735-1767. Berlin, 1959. S. 277.
69 Sergeeva S.B. Formation and development of private school education in Russia (Last quarter of the 18th century - first half of the 19th century): Dis. ... Dr. ped. Sci. M., 2003. pp. 233-323.
70 RGIA. F. 730. Op. 1. D. 70. L. 1-111; Op. 2. D. 3. L. 150-190; Otto N. Materials for the history of educational institutions of the Ministry of Public Education: Vologda Directorate of Schools before 1850. St. Petersburg, 1866. P. 15-18.
71 Rozhdestvensky S.V. The significance of the Commission on the establishment of public schools in the history of public education policy in the 18th-19th centuries // Description of the files of the Archive of the Ministry of Public Education. Pg., 1917. T. 1. P. XXXI-LI, here p. XLIX.
72 RGIA. F. 730. Op. 1. D. 70. L. 1-111; Op. 2. D. 3. L. 150-190. For a description of individual pensions, see: Stolpyansky P.N. Private schools and boarding schools in St. Petersburg in the second half of the 18th century // ZhMNP. 1912. Dept. 3. pp. 1-23
73 See instructions to Moscow Governor Ya.A. Bruce (PSZ. Collection 1st. T. 22. No. 16275. P. 464). For a description of Moscow boarding houses, see: Sivkov K.V. Private boarding houses and schools in Moscow in the 80s of the 18th century. // Historical archive. 1951. No. 6. P. 315-323.
74 For example, private schools, financed by funds from subscriptions to the magazine “Morning Light” published by Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov and distributed in the provinces (for example, in Tver, Irkutsk and Kremenchug), were integrated as public schools into the public school system. At the same time, however, it was expected that private donors would continue to participate in the financing of these schools (see: Jones W.G. The Morning Light Charity Schools, 1777-80 // SEER Vol. 56. 1978. P. 47-67, here p. 65).
75 Likhacheva E. Materials for the history of women's education in Russia. T. 1. St. Petersburg, 1890. P. 159, 171, 210; see also memoirs: Schoolgirls. Memoirs of students of the institutes of noble maidens. M., 2008. See also: Nash S. Educating New Mothers: Woman and Enlightenment in Russia // History of Education Quarterly. Vol. 21. 1981. P. 301-316; Eadem. Students and Rubles: The Society for the Education of Noble Girls (Smol"nyj) as a Charitable Institution // Bartlett R., Cross A.G., Rasmussen K. (Ed.) Russia and the World in the Eighteenth Century. Newtonville (Mass. ), 1988. P. 268-279.
76 Hoffmann P. Militärische Ausbildungsstätten in Russland als Zentren der Aufklärung // Lehmann-Carli G., Schippan M., Scholz V., Brohm S. (Hrsg.) Russische Aufklärungs-Rezeption im Kontext offizieller Bildungskonzepte. S. 249-260, here S. 256-259.
77 For example, in Grodno (1797/1800), in Tula (1801) and in Tambov (1802) - see: Krylov I.O. Cadet corps // Domestic history. M., 1994. No. - P. 434-437.
78 Bagalei D.I. Educational activities of Vasily Nazarovich Karazin. Kharkov, 1891; Flynn J.T. V.N. Karazin, the Gentry, and Kharkov University // Slavic Review. Vol. 28. 1969. P. 209-220.
79 Aypopa H.H. Ideas of enlightenment in the 1st Cadet Corps (end of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century) // Vestn. Moscow un-ta. Ser. 8. 1996. No. 1. P. 34-42; It's her. The system of teaching in military educational institutions in the 18th century. // Research on the history of Russia in the 16th-18th centuries. M., 2000. P. 105-114.
80 Beskrovny L.G. Military schools in Russia in the first half of the 18th century. FROM. T. 42. 1953. pp. 285-300.
81 Marasinova E.H. Psychology of the elite of the Russian nobility. pp. 158-202, etc.; It's her. Power and personality: essays on Russian history of the 18th century. M., 2008.
82 Doronin A.B. (Compiled) “Introducing European morals and customs into the European Family,” to the problem of adapting Western ideas and practices in the Russian Empire. M., 2008.
On the verge of the 19th century. in Russia there were 550 educational institutions and 62 thousand students. These figures show the rise of literacy in Russia and at the same time its lag in comparison with Western Europe: in England at the end of the 18th century. There were more than 250 thousand students in Sunday schools alone, and in France the number of primary schools in 1794 reached 8 thousand. In Russia, on average, only two people out of a thousand studied. The social composition of students in secondary schools was extremely varied. In public schools, the children of artisans, peasants, artisans, soldiers, sailors, etc. predominated. The age composition of students was also different; in the same classes, both children and 22-year-old men studied.
In Russia in the 18th century there were 3 types of schools: soldiers' schools, closed noble educational institutions, theological seminaries and schools. training of specialists was also carried out through the Academic Universities, established in 1725 under the Academy of Sciences and existing until 1765, Moscow, founded in 1755 at the initiative of Lomonosov, and Vilensky, which was formally opened only in 1803, but actually operated as a university since the 80s of the 18th century.
Under Elizabeth (), military educational institutions were reorganized. In 1744, a decree was issued to expand the network of primary schools. The first gymnasiums were opened: in Moscow (1755) and in Kazan (1758). In 1755, on the initiative of I. I. Shuvalov, Moscow University was founded, and in 1760, the Academy of Arts. In the second half of the 18th century, two trends in education can be traced: the expansion of the network of educational institutions and the strengthening of the principle of class. During the years, school reform was carried out. In 1782, the Charter of public schools was approved. In each city, main schools with 4 classes were established, and in county towns, small public schools with 2 classes. Subject teaching, uniform start and end dates for classes, and a classroom lesson system were introduced; teaching methods and unified curricula were developed. The Serbian teacher F.I. Jankovic de Mirievo played a major role in carrying out this reform. By the end of the century, there were 550 educational institutions with thousands of students. The system of closed educational institutions was developed by Catherine II together with the President of the Academy of Arts and the Chief of the Land Noble Corps I. I. Betsky. Secondary educational institutions at this time included public schools, gentry corps, noble boarding schools and gymnasiums.
Moscow University An outstanding event in the life of the country was the creation in 1755 of the first Moscow University in Russia on the initiative and project of M. V. Lomonosov with the active support of the enlightened favorite of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna I. I. Shuvalov, who became its first curator. On the initiative of I. I. Shuvalov, the Academy of Arts was created in 1757, which before moving to St. Petersburg in 1764 was located at Moscow University. From the day of its foundation, Moscow University seemed to rise above the class school. In accordance with the ideas of the founder of the university, education there was classless (children of serfs could be admitted to the university after receiving their freedom from the landowner). M.V. Lomonosov wrote that “the university was created for general training of commoners.” Lectures at the university were given in Russian. M. V. Lomonosov saw one of the most important tasks of the university in the dissemination of scientific knowledge. The printing house and library of the university, as well as public lectures by its professors, began to play a prominent role in this matter.
Brief biography Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov () - Russian scientist, chemist, physicist, artist, poet. Born in Denisovka, Arkhangelsk province. In Lomonosov’s biography, he managed to learn to read and write as a child. Then, driven by the desire for knowledge, he comes to Moscow on foot, where he enters the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Lomonosov's life there is very difficult and poor. However, thanks to perseverance, he manages to complete the entire 12-year course of study in 5 years. Among the best students he goes to study in Germany. For Lomonosov, the biography of those times was very rich. He studies many sciences, conducts experiments, and gives lectures. Even with such a busy schedule, Lomonosov still has time to write poems. In 1741 he returned to his homeland, from that time on in his biography M. Lomonosov was appointed adjunct of physics at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. After 3 years he became a professor of chemistry. Lomonosov's contribution to such sciences as physics, chemistry, geography, astronomy, mineralogy, soil science, geology, cartography, geodesy, meteorology is very great. Lomonosov's literary work contains works in different languages. This is “Russian History”, the tragedies “Tamara and Selim”, “Demophon”, many poems by Lomonosov. In 1754, he developed a project for Moscow University, which was later named Lomonosov University in his honor. In addition, in the biography of Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov, the law of conservation of matter was discovered, works on color theory were written, and many optical instruments were built.
Soldiers' schools Soldiers' schools are general education schools for soldiers' children, successors and continuers of digital schools of Peter the Great's time. Soldiers' children made up the bulk of students at Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. National military schools, opened in the second half of the 18th century, also belonged to the soldier type. in the North Caucasus (Kizlyar, Mozdok and Ekaterinograd).
Closed noble educational institutions Closed noble educational institutions are private boarding houses, gentry corps, institutes for noble maidens, etc. in total there are more than 60 educational institutions, where about 4.5 thousand noble children studied. Class educational institutions included noble boarding schools, private and public: the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Noble Boarding School at Moscow University, etc. These educational institutions enjoyed the greatest financial support from the government.
Theological seminaries and schools There were 66 of them; people studied in them. These were also estate schools intended for the children of the clergy; commoners were not accepted into them. The main task of these schools was to train priests devoted to the church and the tsar, but seminary students also received general education and often became agents of literacy in their parishes.
Natural sciences M.V. Lomonosov created the Geographical Department in 1739, and under Catherine II he compiled the first land use cadastre. In addition, he proposed ideas about the continuous change in the face of the Earth under the influence of internal and external forces, about the movement of air masses, about the layers of the earth, etc. Geographical science received materials from many expeditions, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Russian Empire” in 1745. Geology. In this area, rich materials have been accumulated about deposits of coal, ore, oil, etc. At the end of the century, the first geological maps of various regions appeared.
Medicine Notable successes can be seen in the development of medicine. If during the time of Peter I there was only one medical school in Russia, then by the end of the century there were three. In addition, a Medical-Surgical Academy was opened in the capital, and a medical faculty was opened at Moscow University. The fight against epidemics of plague and smallpox was particularly acute in Russia. In 1768, Catherine invited an English physician to Russia and was the first to vaccinate against smallpox. Smallpox vaccination at that time (variolation), although it did not eliminate the disease, significantly reduced the number of deaths. The works on the plague by D.S. have received worldwide recognition. Samoilovich, which was the result of studying the epidemic that raged in Russia in the years. His conclusion that the plague is transmitted not by air but by contact was of great practical importance, since it made it possible to outline effective means of combating the epidemic.
Academic expeditions The study of the country's natural resources received close attention. Systematic scientific research of the country's natural conditions, organized by the state, began already under Peter I. For this purpose, the practice of organizing complex expeditions that explored various regions of Russia was resumed. There was exploration of the riches of the European center of the country, the Pechora basin, Yakutia and other areas. A total of 5 expeditions were sent, united by a common goal and plan. Among them is an expedition led by a soldier’s son, Academician I.I. Lepekhin. Its route ran from Moscow to Astrakhan, and from there through Guryev and Orenburg to the mining factories of the Urals and the shores of the White Sea. Rich material was collected by Professor N.Ya. Ozeretskovsky, who traveled around the north of the country and the region of Lake Ladoga. The published reports of expedition leaders contain a wealth of material about flora and fauna, rivers and lakes, relief, descriptions of cities and towns with their attractions, economic characteristics of areas and industrial enterprises. Ethnographic material, including those related to the peoples of the North, Siberia, the Caucasus and other regions: information about clothing, homes, rituals, tools, etc., is of enormous scientific value. Academic expeditions are complemented by expeditions of industrial people who set out to explore the islands of the Pacific Ocean, as well as the shores of America. Along with the economic development of new lands and the restoration of the local population to Russian citizenship, the expeditions compiled more advanced maps of the islands and a detailed description of their flora and fauna. Among researchers, G.I. Shelikhov occupies an outstanding place, who compiled in the 80s. 18th century description of the Aleutian Islands and organized the development of Russian America (Alaska).
The strengthening of the economic and military power of Russia during the period of Peter I, the military victories of Russia during the reign of Catherine II, led to the growth of the national self-awareness of the Russian people and, as a consequence, to the rise of Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. The dominant trend in Russian culture in the second half of the 18th century. - early 19th century becomes classicism
. Its ideological basis was the struggle for powerful national statehood and national culture.
Education. In the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II carried out reforms in the sphere of management, economics, class organization, and education. But Catherine II attached special importance to educational reform, since she understood that the success of social transformations depended on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability and desire to perceive new things.
Catherine II entrusted I.I. with carrying out reforms in the field of education. Betsky, his personal secretary and president of the Academy of Arts. In 1763, he presented Catherine II with a plan for school reform - “The General Institution for the Education of Both Sexes of Youth”, which was based on the idea, popular in Europe, of “raising a new breed of people”, free from vices, who would then, through the family, spread the principles of the new education to the whole society. According to the author’s plan, a network of closed schools should be created in Russia, where Russian youth from 4-6 to 18-28 years old would be educated in complete isolation from the bad influence of society. Schools had to be class-based. For all new educational institutions I.I. Betskoy developed special regulations, according to which it was forbidden to beat and scold children, and the development of their natural qualities and inclinations, interest in learning was supposed to be encouraged.
Back in 1752, the Marine Noble Corps was opened for the children of nobles. In 1759, the Corps of Pages was opened, preparing nobles for court service. In 1764, the “Educational Society of Noble Maidens” was opened in St. Petersburg at the Smolny Monastery (Smolny Institute) for 200 girls. This was the first women's educational institution in Russia for girls from noble families. The Smolny Institute enjoyed the special patronage of Catherine II and I.I. Betsky, high society nobles. In 1766, the reformed Land Noble Corps was opened for noble children.
For children of other classes, vocational schools with a secondary special educational course were created. In 1772, in Moscow, at the Orphanage, a Commercial School was opened for the children of merchants and townspeople at the expense of P.A. Demidova. The Catherine Institute was opened in Moscow for girls from families of merchants and townspeople. Pedagogical schools were opened at the Smolny Institute (1765) and the Land Noble Corps (1766). Orphanages were opened for orphans in Moscow (1764), St. Petersburg (1770) and other cities. A special educational program was developed to transform orphans into people who absorbed the best ideas of the Enlightenment.
In the second half of the 18th century. The opening of vocational art schools continues. In 1757, the Academy of Arts was founded in St. Petersburg. The Academy became the first higher art institution in Russia, within whose walls highly professional architects, sculptors, painters and graphic artists grew up. In 1773, a Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage.
The opening in 1755 of the country's first higher civil educational institution, Moscow University, was of great importance for the spread of education in Russia. Its curator was the influential nobleman I.I. Shuvalov, but M.V. played a huge role in the opening of the university. Lomonosov. He developed a project for organizing the university; he sought to ensure that the university was a classless and secular educational institution. In the first year of its opening, Moscow University admitted students to three faculties: philosophy, law and medicine. The first students were predominantly from the common community. A special gymnasium with two departments was created at the university - one for the children of nobles, the other for the children of merchants and commoners. Four years later, the same gymnasium was opened in Kazan.
A qualitatively new fact in the development of education in Russia was the emergence of a comprehensive school. Separately created educational institutions have not yet formed a system of public education. In 1772, by decree of Catherine II, a Commission was created on the establishment of schools, which included prominent teachers from Europe specially invited to Russia. The commission developed a plan for the creation of four-year schools in provincial cities and two-year schools in district towns. The training programs included mathematics, history, geography, physics, architecture, Russian and foreign languages. As a result, a comprehensive school system began to take shape in Russia. In 25 provincial cities, main four-year schools were opened, similar in type to a secondary school. Small two-year schools were opened in district towns. For the first time, unified curricula and a class-lesson system were introduced in schools, and teaching methods and disciplines were developed. Continuity in education was achieved by the commonality of the curricula of small schools and the first two classes of main schools.
By the end of the 18th century. there were 550 educational institutions in the country with a student population of 60-70 thousand people. So, in the second half of the 18th century. A system of public education was created in Russia.
The appearance of new textbooks was important for the development of education. Professors from Moscow University and scientists from the Academy of Sciences took an active part in their writing. In 1757, “Russian Grammar” was published by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the already outdated grammar of M. Smotritsky as the main textbook on the Russian language. The great Russian scientist also wrote a textbook on mining, “The First Foundations of Metallurgy, or Mining.” In the 60s A student at Moscow University, D. Anichkov, compiled a textbook on mathematics, which remained the main textbook on mathematics in schools until the end of the 18th century. In 1776, professor at Moscow University H.A. Chebotarev wrote a textbook on geography. For a long time, all schools and gymnasiums used the book “On the Positions of Man and Citizen,” compiled by Catherine II and I.I., as a textbook. Betsky. The book popularly outlined the views of Western European enlighteners on such concepts as “soul,” “virtue,” and man’s duties towards God, society, the state, and his neighbors.
Book business. In connection with the spread of education in the second half of the 18th century. Interest in books is growing in society. To satisfy the demand for printed products, in 1783 Catherine II issued a decree “On Free Printing Houses,” which for the first time granted everyone the right to open printing houses. Private printing houses were opened not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, however, during the period of the struggle of Catherine II and Paul I against the penetration of the ideas of the French Revolution into Russia, all private printing houses were closed.
The topics of books changed, and the number of original scientific and artistic publications increased. In 1768, in St. Petersburg, on the initiative of Catherine II, the “Meeting for the Translation of Foreign Books” was created. It was engaged in the translation and publication of works of ancient classics and French enlighteners and operated until 1783. In 1773, the famous educator N.I. Novikov organized a “Society Trying to Print Books” in St. Petersburg, but its activity was short-lived, since N.I. Novikov faced great difficulties, primarily with the weak development of the book trade, especially in the provinces.
The main centers for publishing books and journals were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The academic printing house printed mainly educational and scientific literature. On the initiative of M.V. Lomonosov began publishing the first Russian literary and scientific journal, “Monthly Works for the Benefit and Entertainment of Employees” (1755). The first private magazine “Hardworking Bee” (1759), published by A.P., was also published in the academic printing house. Sumarokov.
In the second half of the 18th century. Periodicals are appearing not only in capital cities, but also in provincial cities. In 1786, the magazine “Solitary Poshekhonets” began to be published in Yaroslavl, and in 1788 in Tambov, the weekly provincial newspaper “Tambov News”. Since 1789, the magazine “The Irtysh Turning into Ippokrena” was published in Tobolsk.
A special role in the publication and distribution of books belonged to the outstanding Russian educator and public figure N.I. Novikov (1744–1818). N.I. Novikov, like other Russian educators, considered education to be the basis of social change, so he saw the spread of education as a service to society. From 1779 to 1789 he rented the printing house of Moscow University, in which he published about a third of all books published in Russia at that time (approximately 1000 titles). These were textbooks, magazines, political and philosophical treatises of Western European thinkers, collected works of Russian writers, works of folk art, and Masonic literature.
N.I. Novikov contributed to the development of the book trade, especially in the provinces. At the end of the 18th century. There were about 40 bookstores in Moscow and St. Petersburg, bookstores already existed in 17 provincial cities.
In the second half of the 18th century. The number of libraries at universities, gymnasiums, and closed educational institutions is growing. The library of the Academy of Sciences continued to operate. In 1758, the library of the Academy of Arts was opened, in which not only students of the Academy, but also anyone could work.
In the 80s - 90s. XVIII century The first public libraries appeared in some provincial cities (Tula, Kaluga, Irkutsk). Paid libraries appeared at bookstores in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
The science. In the second half of the 18th century. The largest scientific centers in Russia were the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. The brilliant professors S.E. taught at Moscow University. Desnitsky, D.S. Anichkov, N.N. Popovsky, A.A. Barsov and many others.
The spread of education in Russia and the rapid development of world natural science contributed to the formation and development of Russian science. But in those years the Academy of Sciences was dominated by invited Germans. German scientists prevented the promotion of Russian scientists, so Russians were practically absent from the Academy of Sciences.
The first Russian scientist to become a full Russian professor at the Academy of Sciences was M.V. Lomonosov . He was born in 1711 in a distant Pomeranian village near Kholmogory. Already as an adult young man, in 1730 Mikhail Lomonosov, having obtained an annual passport, set off with one of the fish trains to distant Moscow. There he, hiding his origin, entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. Having successfully graduated from the Academy, Lomonosov, along with 11 other graduates, was sent in 1736 to take a course in science at the St. Petersburg Academy. Soon he was sent to Germany, to Marburg, to Professor Wolf, and then to Freiburg to the famous metallurgist, Professor Henkel. The five years spent abroad were years of serious independent study for Lomonosov. In June 1741 M.V. Lomonosov returns to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and becomes an adjunct professor of physics Kraft. In 1745 he was confirmed as a professor of chemistry and became a full member of the Academy. In 1748, overcoming the resistance of German scientists, he achieved the creation of a chemical laboratory. Range of interests of M.V. Lomonosov as a scientist was enormous. He conducted research in physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy and other sciences. M.V. Lomonosov was the creator of the atomic-molecular theory of the structure of matter, which served as a solid basis for the further development of fundamental natural sciences in the 18th century. In 1748, in a letter to L. Euler, for the first time in the world, he formulated the general law of conservation of matter and motion, which is of great importance for understanding the entire process of the universe. In 1756, he carried out classical experiments that experimentally substantiated the law of conservation of matter, and formulated an assumption explaining the phenomenon of heating of bodies as a consequence of the movement of particles. This brilliant guess was far ahead of its era. The great Russian scientist worked a lot on issues related to the mysteries of the origin of the Universe; he was responsible for the discovery of the atmosphere on Venus and a number of other important observations in the field of astronomy. He was a brilliant experimenter and inventor, an innovator in many fields of technology, mining, metallurgy, porcelain and glass production, salts and paints, and construction equipment. His multifaceted talent also manifested itself in the humanities. He was an outstanding poet and theorist in matters of versification. His contribution to the formation of the Russian literary language is enormous. M.V. Lomonosov was interested in both the art of mosaics and the study of the history of his homeland. The result of his works on history were the “Brief Russian Chronicler” and “Ancient Russian History” created by him. M.V. Lomonosov contributed to the promotion of national personnel in Russian science. The first professors of Moscow University N.N. Popovsky and A.A. Barsov were his students.
Academic expeditions of the 60s-70s were of great importance for the development of natural science. XVIII century. Academician P.S. Pallas undertook expeditions to the regions of the Volga region, the Urals, and Crimea. Academician I.I. Lepekhin explored the Urals region and the White Sea coast. Academician Falk studied the regions of Eastern Russia and the North Caucasus. Berdanes explored the Kyrgyz steppe, I.S. Georgi - Ural, Bashkiria, Altai, Baikal. Academician S.G. Gmelin studied the Don basin, the lower Volga, and the shores of the Caspian Sea. Scientist N.Ya. Ozertsovsky explored the north-west of Russia, V.F. Zuev - Black Sea region and Crimea. The rich materials on zoology, botany, ethnography and archeology collected during these expeditions contributed to the scientific study of the nature and culture of the peoples of Russia. In 1745, the Atlas of the Russian Empire was published; this became a scientific event of world significance, since by the middle of the 18th century. Only France had such an atlas. By the end of the century, the promotion of geographical knowledge increased significantly. In the 70s The Geographical Lexicon of the Russian State, the first geographical dictionary in Russia, was published. Geography has become a compulsory subject in all educational institutions.
The development of manufacturing production contributed to the development of technical thought. In 1760, R. Glinkov invented a mechanical engine for spinning machines, which replaced the labor of 9 people. I.I. Polzunov(1728-1766) - a genius, master of the Kolyvanovo-Voznesensky plant in Altai - first put forward the idea of using steam power as an engine. In 1765, he designed the world's first universal steam engine. A few days before its launch, I.I. Polzunov died. The machine worked for several months, and only as a result of a minor breakdown it failed. Another self-taught mechanic - I.P. Kulibin(1735-1818) was an unrivaled watchmaker. He created a clock that showed the seasons, months, hours, minutes, seconds, phases of the moon, the time of sunrise and sunset in St. Petersburg and Moscow. He also invented many original devices and instruments, improved the grinding of glass for optical instruments, and created a semaphore telegraph. But these inventions, like the inventions of I.I. Kulibin, also did not have wide practical application.
Of the humanities, the greatest development occurred in the 18th century. received history. The main achievements of historical thought of that time are associated with the activities of M.V. Lomonosov and V.N. Tatishcheva. M.V. Lomonosov first raised the question of the origin of the Slavs and highly appreciated their ancient culture. His "Brief Russian Chronicle" was the main history textbook. Labor V.N. Tatishchev's "Russian History" was the first attempt at scientific coverage of Russian history. An important fact of Russian historiography of the 18th century. became the historical works of M.M. Shcherbatov (1733-1790) and I.N. Boltin (1735-1792), in which an attempt was also made to give a general concept of Russian history. Increased attention to history was expressed in the dissemination of historical literature, the revival of interest in folk legends and songs, and the emergence of historical themes in literature and art. This was a significant moment in the formation of national identity.
Journalism. The emergence of journalism is associated with Moscow University. Assessor of Moscow University, poet M.M. Kheraskov began publishing the first magazine in Russia, “Useful Amusement.” At the same time, university history professor I. Reichel published the magazine “Collected Best Works,” in which the talented playwright D.I. collaborated in his youth. Fonvizin.
In the 60-70s of the 18th century. In journalism, the satirical direction became widespread, to which Catherine II also made her contribution. In 1769, the Empress founded the satirical magazine "All Things", the official editor of which was her Secretary of State G.V. Kozlovsky. She needed this publication in order to express her point of view on socially significant problems. She published several articles in the magazine in which she explained in an allegorical form the reason for the failures of the Statutory Commission. She also needed the magazine to ridicule various vices in the spirit of the ideas of the Enlightenment. This gave rise to a lively debate in society about the role of satire in society - whether it should fight abstract vices or their specific carriers. The main opponent of the empress was N.I. Novikov. During these same years, he published his satirical publications "Drone" (1769-1770) and, especially, "Painter" (1772-1773). In his satirical sketches N.I. Novikov began to develop the peasant theme in Russian artistic culture, which turned out to be deep and fruitful. The pages of the magazines were full of sincere sympathy for the difficult and powerless existence of the Russian peasant breadwinner. Even the epigraph to the magazine "Drone" - "They work, and you eat their work" - immediately attracted the attention of his contemporaries. From now on, compassion for the poverty and misfortune of ordinary “villagers” will become the “eternal theme” of Russian journalism, as well as the entire culture.
Socio-political thought. Second half of the 18th century. characterized by the growth of Russian national consciousness. There is a growing interest in society in the historical past of Russia, in the role and place of the Russian people in world history. Gradually, the main currents of Russian social and political thought began to take shape, finally taking shape in the 19th century.
Catherine II expressed an optimistic view of Russian history. On this issue, one of her main opponents was Prince M.M. Shcherbatov is a statesman and historian, the author of the multi-volume “Russian History” and a number of journalistic works. He expressed his attitude to the surrounding reality in the pamphlet “On the Damage to Morals in Russia,” which was first published only in the middle of the 19th century. "Free Russian Printing House" A.I. Herzen in London. For Shcherbatov of the 18th century. - a time of general decline in morals, to which he contrasted the ideals of pre-Petrine Rus'. Essentially, M.M. Shcherbatov became the forerunner of the Slavophiles.
Another direction of Russian social thought of the second half of the 18th century. became Freemasonry- a religious and ethical movement that arose in England at the beginning of the 18th century. In Russia, the first Masonic lodges appeared in the 1730s. Freemasonry became most widespread in Russia in the middle of the 18th century, when the most prominent statesmen became members of Freemasonry - the Chernyshev brothers, the Panin brothers, R.I. Vorontsov and others. The poets A.P. were also Freemasons. Sumarokov, M.M. Kheraskov, V.I. Maikov, architect V.I. Bazhenov and many others. The Masons proclaimed the construction of a society of free people through self-purification and self-improvement, liberation from all class and national boundaries. In Russia, the practical activities of the Freemasons were aimed at educating the people, which attracted famous people of that time to the ranks of the Freemasons.
At first, Catherine II treated Freemasonry as a fashionable eccentricity that quickly passed away. But in the 70s. Freemasons become disillusioned with the ideas of enlightenment; mystical knowledge begins to dominate in their spiritual quests; they believed that by discovering some mystical secret of the universe they would be able to accomplish what they could not do with the help of reason. These new ideas, combined with mysterious rituals, attracted a fairly large number of supporters to Freemasonry. And then it became dangerous from the point of view of the authorities - after all, it was almost about a new ideology with a religious connotation. After this, Catherine II decided to ban Masonic organizations in Russia.
The fate of N.I. became an example for others. Novikov, who for many years rented it since the late 70s. The printing house of Moscow University, in addition to books of an educational nature, published many Masonic publications. When hundreds of copies of prohibited Masonic works were discovered in his warehouses in 1792, N.I. Novikov was arrested and put on trial. Until Paul's accession to the throne, he will be imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress.
Another direction of Russian social thought of this time is associated with the name A. N. Radishcheva(1749–1802). It is generally accepted that the formation of revolutionary ideology in Russia began with his socio-political views. Having received an education abroad and becoming a fan of the ideas of the Enlightenment, Radishchev gave them a radical character. Such views formed a decisive rejection of the existing order in the country and, above all, serfdom. In general, a critical attitude to reality, generated by the ideas of the Enlightenment, developed in Europe, but there the bourgeoisie, fighting for its rights, became the bearer of revolutionary ideology. Radishchev did not see any differences in the historical development and position of Russia and Europe. It seemed to him that a revolutionary coup could solve all the problems of society and bring true freedom to the people. These ideas were expressed by Radishchev in his “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow,” published in “1790 (Radishchev printed the book in 600 copies, only 25 copies went on sale). The book aroused “great curiosity of the public.” Catherine II , having familiarized herself with this work, wrote in its margins: “...A rebel, worse than Pugachev." The Empress was outraged not by the criticism of serfdom as such (she herself was thinking about abolishing it), but rather by the rebellion against her superiors, against her power. Radishchev argued that that things were bad in the state, that the people were living much worse than she thought. Catherine was convinced that this was a lie and slander and, no matter how bad serfdom was, her subjects simply could not be unhappy. By order of the empress, the book was printed was confiscated, and its author was exiled to the Ilimsk prison (completely amnestied only in 1801 by Alexander I).
Thus, A.N. Radishchev was the first in Russia to connect the problem of the abolition of serfdom with the need to eliminate the autocracy.
Literature. Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century. was predominantly aristocratic. Due to the specific nature of working conditions, folk art was oral; it included such genres as songs, tales, satirical tales, and humoresques. The satirical genre of folk art was extremely rich and varied. The stories “The Tale of Princess Kiselikha”, “The Tale of the Pakhrinskaya Village of Kamkina”, the soldier satire A Sorrowful Tale”, “The Petition of the Crimean Soldiers”, etc. became widely popular among the people.
Noble literature developed in the genre of classicism. During this period, a new fiction emerged with a developed system of genres (ode, elegy, fable, tragedy, comedy, story, novel). A new system of versification and literary language became essential elements of this literature. For the first time principles syllabic-tonic versification formulated by the outstanding literary critic, historian, founder of Russian philology V.K. Trediakovsky (1703-1768). This system, which replaced syllabic verse, is based on the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. It lies at the basis of Russian poetry to this day.
“The name of the founder and father of Russian literature,” according to V.G. Belinsky, rightfully belongs to M.V. Lomonosov. Poetic creativity occupied a large place in the spiritual world of the great Russian scientist. As a result of studying ancient, New Latin, German and French lyrics, M.V. Lomonosov established in Russian poetry the poetic genres of European literature of that time: religious and philosophical ode, solemn ode, etc.; epic poem, epistle, idyll, epigram, etc., as well as various poetic meters. He created the theory of the “three calms”. M.V. Lomonosov taught Russian poets that “calm” can be “high, medium, low.” He must write speeches, odes, and poems of heroic content in a high style. A high syllable should be distinguished by pathos. Tragedies, satires, and elegies are written in “medium calm.” In these genres M.V. Lomonosov allowed “sayings” that are common in the Russian language. Using such words, one should still “be careful not to descend into meanness.” And, finally, in the works of “low calm” - comedy, song, epigram, fable - “common people’s low words” could be used “by consideration”. The original composition of the poem “Conversation with Anacreon” (from the 50s to the early 60s of the 18th century) formulated the main features of Lomonosov’s poetry: citizenship, patriotism, recognition of Russia’s peaceful mission in modern politics, the poet’s high self-esteem. Written in the spirit of the classic Roman tragedy Seneca, Lomonosov's plays "Tamira and Selim" and "Demophon" were an attempt to create a Russian tragedy. Lomonosov developed iambic tetrameter and hexameter, the classic ten-line odic stanza, and precise and figurative language, which have remained in Russian poetry for a long time. Personality M.V. Lomonosov, his scientific and literary activities played a primary role in the development of the consciousness of Russian society and left a deep mark on the history of Russian culture.
The founder of the new Russian dramaturgy was A.P. Sumarokov (1717 ―1777), poet and playwright. He came from an old noble family, studied at the Land Noble Corps, where he began to write poetry, imitating V.K. Trediakovsky. Poems by A.P. Sumarokov bear a strong stamp of M.V. Lomonosov, but soon the poet chose a different genre, which brought him popularity - love songs. From the songs of A.P. Sumarokov moved on to love tragedies in verse. Before his first tragedies - "Khorev" (1747), "Hamlet" (1748), "Sinav and Truvor" (1750) - Russian drama lived in the traditions of the so-called. school drama of the 17th century. with its allegorical plots and conventionally mythological characters. A.P. For the first time in the history of Russian theater, Sumarokov combined love themes with social and philosophical issues. The appearance of tragedies served as an incentive for the emergence of the Russian Theater, whose director A.P. Sumarkov was in 1756-1761. In the late 50s - early 60s. Sumarokov writes fables directed against bureaucratic tyranny, bribery, and inhumane treatment of serfs by landowners. In the 70s he writes his best comedies - “Cuckold by Imagination”, “Mother - Daughter’s Companion”, “Crazy Woman” (all 1772), and tragedies “Dmitry the Pretender” (1771), “Mstislav” (1774). Sumarokov's works contributed to the education of human dignity, humanism, high morality and honor. Being a supporter of serfdom, he criticized its extremes.
Creativity D.I. Fonvizin (1745–1792) marked the beginning of the accusatory-realistic direction of Russian literature. In his works he criticized certain shortcomings of serfdom. In 1764 he composed his first poetic comedy, Corion. The action in it takes place in a village near Moscow and consists of a presentation of the sentimental story of lovers Corion and Xenovia, separated by a misunderstanding and happily united in the finale. In the 1760s D.I. Fonvizin came up with the idea of an original Russian satirical comedy. The first example of this kind was his comedy "The Brigadier" (1766-69), in which ignorance, bribery, and servility to all foreign "noble class" were ridiculed. Fonvizin gained fame and universal recognition from the comedy “The Minor” (1779–1781). This is a “comedy of manners”, depicting the domestic life of a wild and dark family of provincial landowners. At the center of the comedy is the image of Mrs. Prostakova, a tyrant and despot in her own family and among her peasants. Her cruelty in dealing with others is compensated by her unreasonable and ardent tenderness for her son Mitrofanushka, who, thanks to such maternal upbringing, grows up spoiled, rude, ignorant and completely unfit for any business. Prostakova is confident that she can do whatever she wants, because a decree on “noble freedom” has been given for this. Opposed to her and her relatives, Starodum, Pravdin, Sophia and Milon believe that the freedom of a nobleman lies in the right to study, and then serve society with his mind and knowledge, which justifies the nobility of the noble title. In the finale, retribution comes: Prostakova is cut off from her estate and abandoned by her own son.
The largest poet of the late 18th century. was G.R. Derzhavin(1743–1816). He created his own poetic style, which found its most vivid expression in the poems “Ode on the Death of Prince Meshchersky” (1779), “Ode to Felitsa” (1782), “God” (1784), “Autumn during the Siege of Ochakov” (1788) , “Vision of Murza” (1789), “Waterfall” (1791–94), etc. The first “Ode to Felitsa,” which established Derzhavin’s poetic fame, aroused rave reviews from many contemporaries. It brilliantly reflected some important features characterizing the reign of Catherine II: the growth of Russian statehood, the heroism of military victories, national patriotism. Derzhavin's poetic innovation manifested itself in the destruction of the purity of the classic genre: he combined elements of ode and satire in one poem. The combination of the themes of ode and satire within one work led to a combination of “high” and “low” “calm”. Derzhavin introduced elements of lively colloquial speech into poetic language. He angrily condemned social vices and denounced high-ranking officials (“To Rulers and Judges,” 1780–87, “Nobleman,” 1774–94). In the last years of his life, Derzhavin also turned to drama. Beginning in 1804, he wrote a number of tragedies and other plays ("Dobrynya", "Pozharsky", "Herod and Miriamne", "Eupraxia", etc.). Since 1811, Derzhavin was a member of the literary society "Conversation of Lovers of the Russian Word." Here he “noticed” young A.S. Pushkin.
At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. in Russian literature is formed sentimentalism
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marked by an emotional perception of the world around us, an increased interest in a particular person and his feelings. The hero of works of art is a simple man. The flourishing of sentimentalism is associated with the work of N.M. Karamzin (1766-1826) - Russian thinker, historian, poet. In 1792, his story “Poor Liza” was published, which became one of the first works of Russian sentimental literature of the 18th century. The love story of the poor girl Lisa and the nobleman Erast found a wide response in the hearts of readers. For the first time in Russian literature N.M. Karamzin showed a living person with his natural feelings and experiences. The expression “even peasant women know how to love” was perceived by the reader as the discovery of their own world of feelings and experiences, the ability to love and suffer.
Enlightenment literature of the 18th century at its core carried a humanistic and satirical beginning. But at the same time, meeting the requirements of the era, the literature of Russian classicism created the image of a new man - a patriot and citizen. She contributed to the establishment of the extra-class value of man and resolutely fought against the cruelties of serfdom.
Theater. Mid-18th century - an important stage in the development of the national theater. In 1756, the first Russian dramatic professional theater was created in St. Petersburg, the basis of which was a troupe of Yaroslavl actors led by F.G. Volkov(1729–1763). F.G. Volkov was born into a wealthy merchant family in Yaroslavl. The hopes of his relatives to introduce him to the merchant business were not justified, since from a young age he lived with the idea of theater. In 1750 F.G. In Yaroslavl, Volkov organized an amateur drama troupe. The troupe's performances were so successful that rumors of its success reached the capital. In 1752, Yaroslavl residents were called to St. Petersburg to organize a Russian public theater. In 1756, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna issued a decree on the creation of the Russian Public Theater, which included a significant part of F.G.’s troupe. Volkova. In this theater F.G. Volkov occupied the position of the first tragedian. The first director of this theater was the famous poet and playwright A.P. Sumarokov. Inspired play by F.G. Volkova captivated the audience, but his life was short-lived: having caught a cold in the bitter February frost during a masquerade procession on the occasion of the coronation of Catherine II, he died in 1763 at the age of 34 years.
In the second half of the 18th century. Free, amateur and serf theaters operated in St. Petersburg. Widely known were the imperial theater, the theater of the “small court” (Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich), the school theater at the Land Noble Corps, the theaters of the Academy of Arts, and the Institute of Noble Maidens. In 1779, a private theater arose on Tsaritsyn Meadow (Field of Mars), directed by the poet I.A. Dmitrievsky. The plays of D.I. were staged for the first time on the stage of this theater. Fonvizina. The theater did not last long: in 1783 it was closed by decree of Catherine II. Italian, German and French troupes continued to flourish in the northern capital.
In Moscow, regular theatrical performances were performed at the university by the Italian troupe D. Locatelli. The theater was under the authority of the director of Moscow University M. M. Kheraskov, who himself wrote plays for it. Russian actors were also invited to the theater; among them were university students. It was in this theater that the later famous playwright and writer D.I. began his career as an actor (they were recruited from students to play in Russian plays). Fonvizin. In 1780, the Petrovsky Theater was opened, whose repertoire included drama, opera and ballet performances. Theater troupes existed in capitals and some provincial cities.
A peculiar phenomenon of Russian culture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. was serf theater. Drama and opera performances were successfully staged in the serf theaters of A.L. Naryshkina, N.S. Titova, G.A. Potemkin, the Yusupovs, the Shuvalovs. Some of the serf theaters, for example Count N.P. Sheremetev in Ostankino, Prince N.B. Yusupov in Arkhangelsk, were widely known among theater lovers. Many talented actors and musicians performed on the fortress stage; at the Sheremetev Theater she was famous for her magnificent performance by P.I. Kovalev-Zhemchugova (1768-1803).
Music. In the second half of the 18th century. The musical life of Russia has changed dramatically. While maintaining its original appearance, it became more European. Choral partes singing is in decline. This was due to the appearance of highly educated Italian musicians in Russia, who brought the genre of secular music to Russia.
At the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. Folk song has taken a strong place in Russian song culture, with adherents in all levels of society. About this time the poet G.R. Derzhavin said: “It was an age of songs.” In everyday life, songs were sung “folk”, “bookish”, Russian, gypsy, peasant, urban, amateur and professional, “Russian” and imported from the West.
At the end of the 18th century. a genre has appeared chamber lyrical song (romance), the text of which was usually borrowed from Russian poetry. The flourishing of this genre is associated with the work of two wonderful Russian musicians - F.M. Dubyansky and O.A. Kozlovsky. F.M. Dubyansky went down in the history of Russian art as the author of only six romances, but which are the pinnacles of this genre. His romances are a world of intimate experiences, combining sophistication and open emotionality, which was then highly valued by song lovers. F.M. Dubyansky “woke up famous” after the sentimental romance he composed “The Gray Dove Moans” to the verses of I.I. Dmitrieva:
The blue dove moans;
He groans day and night;
His dear little friend
Flew away for a long time.
He doesn't coo anymore
And he doesn’t bite the wheat;
Everything is sad and sad
And quietly sheds tears.
“The Gray Dove” is sung in Russia to this day.
O.A. Kozlovsky was the author of symphonic, theatrical, chamber and march music. A Pole by nationality, he came to Russia as a young man, and in Russia his talent as a musician was fully revealed. The composer took part in the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791. and rose to the rank of prime minister. Great glory to O.A. Kozlovsky was brought a polonaise “Thunder of Victory, Ring Out!” based on poems by G.R. Derzhavin, dedicated to the capture of the Turkish fortress Izmail by Russian troops in 1789. Before the appearance of the official Russian national anthem "God Save the Tsar!" in 1833 the polonaise was sung as the national anthem. The composer also wrote music based on poems by famous poets of that time - A.P. Sumarokova, Yu.A. Neleditsky-Meletsky, G.R. Derzhavina. The exaggerated pathos and excessive sentimentality of his music were in great demand at that time.
Opera becomes the leading musical genre. The theatrical repertoire was dominated by comic opera - a special genre, opera with dialogue, where vocal numbers alternate with conversations of the characters. The operas featured serfs offended by their landowners, evil and good nobles, cunning millers, naive and beautiful girls. The most beloved musical comedy of the 18th century. became the opera by M.M. Sokolovsky to the text of the writer A.O. Ablesimov “The Miller is a sorcerer, a deceiver and a matchmaker” (posted in 1779 in Moscow, then in St. Petersburg). The plot of "The Miller..." is entertaining and simple. The characters of the play are the smart and cunning miller Thaddeus, the naive girl Anyuta, the always quarreling peasant couple Ankudin and Fetinya, and the handsome village guy Filimon. The Miller, the main character of the opera, was truly a rogue. He pretended to be an all-powerful sorcerer and completely fooled his simple-minded neighbors. But it all ends with the cheerful wedding of Anyuta and her fiancé Filimon. The music of the opera was composed by M. M. Sokolovsky from Russian songs; it is assumed that since 1792 the opera was performed with music by E. I. Fomin. Also popular was the opera by V.A. Pashkevich to the words of M.A. Matinsky "St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor, or As you live, so you will be known" (1792).
In the last third of the 18th century, the Russian school of composition was born: Russian musicians created an independent professional tradition that became an integral part of European artistic culture. Its formation is associated with the names of M.S. Berezovsky, V.A. Pashkevich and I.E. Khandoshkina.
During the time of Catherine II, Russian choral music began to develop in a secular direction. The origins of the new style of choral music were M.S. Berezovsky(1745–1777). The pinnacle of his creative quest was the still famous concert “Do not reject me in my old age,” created in the second half of the 70s. The work was based on the text of the 70th Psalm of David from the Old Testament “Psalter”: “Do not reject me in times of passion; when my strength fails, do not forsake me... Let those who are hostile to my soul be ashamed and disappear; let those who seek be covered with shame and dishonor I'm angry." The pathos of this psalm is timeless. The pathos of prayer found perfect embodiment in the four movements of Berezovsky's concert. The main feature of the concert is that in all four parts of the concert the general thought is “do not reject me..”, a request - a prayer calling on the Almighty. And this was the enormous emotional power of this work. With the creation of this work M.S. Berezovsky reached the pinnacle of perfection, knew success and glory. Among his other famous choral concerts are “The Lord reigns!”, “In the beginning are you, Lord!”, May God rise again!”, etc.
V.A. Pashkevich(1742–1797) - one of the first Russian opera composers. His first Russian opera "Misfortune from the Coach" based on the text by Ya.B. Princess. The plot of the opera had an anti-serfdom meaning: in order to buy a fashionable carriage, the landowner wanted to sell his serf as a recruit. Composers of comic operas have always faced the problem of which lines of the libretto to set to music and which to save for the spoken dialogue of the characters. V.A. Pashkevich found a simple but effective principle of the relationship between music and conversational genres. With this opera the national musical theater was born. The best work of Pashkevich is considered to be the opera “St. Petersburg Gostiny Dvor” (another name is “As you live, so you will be known”, 1792) based on the comedy by M.M. Matinsky. This is the first opera to show the life of a merchant. The morals of this environment did not evoke much sympathy from Matinsky, who described such vices as greed, a tendency to deceive and cheat, malice and betrayal. The essence of the plot is as follows: the merchant Skvalygin gives his daughter Khavronya in marriage to the official Kryuchkodey. Together with his future son-in-law, he embarks on all sorts of frauds - forges business papers, deceives people. Negative characters are contrasted with positive ones: merchant Khvalimov, officer Pryamikov. In the end, the tricks of Skvaligin and Kryuchkodey are exposed, justice triumphs. V.A. Pashkevich was also at the origins of the development of Russian national symphonic music. He was one of the first to try to embody the original sound of Russian folk instruments - horns, pipes, balalaikas, gusli - in the orchestral music of his operas.
I.E. Khandoshkin(1747 - 1804) - "Russian Paganini" - known as a violinist with unique technical abilities, as an outstanding composer and teacher, as a conductor and collector of folk songs. His creative heritage includes dozens of works. His father was a serf, but, having been freed, in 1740 he settled in St. Petersburg. At the age of 13, he was enrolled in the Oranienbaum orchestra as a student violinist, then transferred to the court troupe of musicians. Since 1762 I.E. Khandoshkin is appointed director of the court ballet orchestra. 70-80s ― the period of the most intense performing activity. All his life he was devoted to one instrument - the violin. During these same years he wrote his first compositions. His performing technique was very high; there was no violinist equal to him at that time. I.E. Khandoshkin managed to introduce into his performance elements of technique coming from national instrumental traditions. He writes a grandiose cycle of 40 variations on the theme of the folk "Kalinushka", during the performance of which he shows a wide variety of performing techniques. In his music, for the first time, there was an organic fusion of European instrumental language and Russian folklore.
Another major composer of the late 18th - first quarter of the 19th century. was D.S. Bortnyansky(1751–1825). The development of church music is associated with his name. He was born in the city of Glukhov, from where the court chapel drew young recruits. At the age of 7 he came to St. Petersburg and was sent to be raised in the Court Singing Chapel. Empress Elizaveta Petrovna herself drew attention to the talented boy, and at the age of 17 he went as a pensioner to Italy, where he stayed for 10 years. He wrote operas, sonatas, cantatas. Upon arrival in Russia, he was appointed conductor of the court choir. 80s - a genuine creative takeoff. During the reign of Emperor Pavel Petrovich, in 1796, B. was made director of the court singing chapel. The main achievements of D.S. Bortnyansky are associated with choral polyphonic church music. He followed the path of musical classicism. The court chapel was staffed by the best voices of Russia, the choral performance was conducted by D.S. Bortnyansky was brought to perfection of execution. The main thing is D.S. Bortnyansky energetically opposed the licentiousness of singing that reigned in Orthodox churches, when arias from Italian operas were introduced into church singing. He established order in church singing. His music does not contain those spectacular and artificial techniques that could entertain the worshiper.
The composer's musical heritage includes 35 concerts for a four-voice choir and 10 concerts for two choirs. The composer's works amaze with the variety of feelings and moods. There are solemn, festive, majestic and epic concerts. The most poetic is concert No. 25 “We will never be silent”, concert No. 32 “Tell me, Lord, my death”, No. 7 “Cherubimskaya”. He also writes the opera "The Feast of the Senor" to the libretto of Count G.I. Chernyshev, "Falcon" to the libretto by Lafermière, his best opera "The Rival Son, or the New Stratonic" to the text by Lafermière. His song “Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors” to the words of V.A. became widely known. Zhukovsky.
Music by D.S. Bortnyansky had a huge influence on the formation of the Russian music school, on the work of composers throughout the 19th century.
One of the main features of Russian musical life was public concerts. They have been held regularly in St. Petersburg since the 70s, and in the 80s the real heyday of concert life began. Virtuosos with European famous names performed on the stage - Abbot Vogler, pianist I.V. Gesler, singer L.R. Toddy, harpsichordist I.G.V. Palschau and many other famous musicians.
And yet, the main source of shaping the musical tastes of Russians was playing music at home. They played music a lot and willingly in country estates, in St. Petersburg high society salons, and in modest city apartments.
Ballet. By the middle of the 18th century. ballet gained great fame in Europe. The ballet troupe of the French royal court was famous, and the royal courts of Europe and the European aristocracy sought to have ballet troupes. Numerous dancers and dance teachers easily found work. The women's ballet costume became much lighter and freer, and the lines of the body could be seen underneath. The dancers abandoned high-heeled shoes, replacing them with light heelless shoes. The men's costume also became less bulky: tight trousers down to the knees and stockings also made it possible to see the dancer's figure. Each innovation made dancing more meaningful and dance technique higher. By the middle of the 18th century. In Europe, ballet gradually separated from opera and became an independent art. In Europe, the French ballet school was famous for its grace and plasticity, but it was characterized by a certain coldness and formality of performance. Therefore, choreographers and artists were looking for new means of expression.
In Russia, from the first half of the 18th century. ballet was introduced by choreographers and dance teachers from Austria, Italy and France. In 1759-1764. Famous choreographers, the Austrian F. Hilferding (1710–1768) and the Italian G. Angiolini (1731–1803), worked in Russia. They staged ballets based on mythological themes. In particular, in 1772 the ballet “Semira” was staged based on the tragedy of the Russian writer A.P. Sumarokov. Possessing its rich dance folklore, Russia turned out to be very fertile ground for the development of ballet theater. Comprehending the science taught by foreigners, the Russians, in turn, introduced their own intonations into the foreign dance. Interest in ballet was constantly growing. The first ballet school in Russia was opened in St. Petersburg in 1738. In 1773, a ballet department was opened in the Moscow Orphanage - the forerunner and foundation of the Moscow Choreographic School. One of his first teachers and choreographers was the Austrian L. Paradise. It should be noted that the Moscow troupe, created as a public troupe, was distinguished by greater democracy and independence than the official St. Petersburg troupe. Since then, two schools of ballet art have begun to emerge in our country: Petersburg- imperial, strict, academic, and Moscow- more democratic, poetic, committed to comedy and genre ballets. These differences exist to this day. The St. Petersburg ballet is distinguished by classical rigor and academicism, while the Moscow ballet is distinguished by bravura, powerful jumps, and athleticism. In 1776, an opera and ballet enterprise (Petrovsky Theater) of Prince P. V. Urusov and his English companion M. G. Medox was opened in Moscow, which later became the basis for the creation of the Bolshoi Theater ballet troupe .
In St. Petersburg, the first public Bolshoi Theater (Kamenny), in the future the Imperial Mariinsky Theater, opened in 1783. In 1803, his ballet troupe separated from the opera company, occupying a privileged position among other genres of theater.
In the second half of the 18th century. Russian ballet developed in the general mainstream of the theater of classicism. The ideal of the aesthetics of classicism was “ennobled nature”, and the norm of a work of art was strict proportionality, expressed in the form of three unities - place, time and action. Within the framework of these normative requirements, the center of action became a person, his fate, his actions and experiences, dedicated to one goal, marked by a single all-consuming passion. The genre of heroic-tragedy ballet corresponded to the basic principles of classicism. In the second half of the 18th century. in St. Petersburg, ballets were staged by the Austrian F. Hilferding and the Italians G. Canziani and G. Angiolini. These performances, with their sharp conflicts and intense action, were
new on the Russian stage. But the most famous choreographer was the Italian G. Solomonini, who worked in Vienna with J. Nover himself, an innovative French choreographer who replaced the “divertissement” with an “effective” ballet with a clearly defined plot, with specially written music, and a harmonious composition of dances. . On the Russian stage, Solomonini promoted Novera's ballets. In particular, in 1800, at the Petrovsky Theater, he staged Novera’s ballet Medea and Jason. In the same year, he staged his own production of "Vain Precaution" in the choreography of J. Dauberval (it was called "The Deceived Old Woman", 1800).
By the end of the 18th century. serf troupes appeared in the estates of the counts Sheremetev (Kuskovo, Ostankino), Yusupov (Arkhangelskoye) and others near Moscow. By that time, St. Petersburg and Moscow had court and public theaters. Major foreign composers, choreographers (Italians F. Morelli, P. Pinucci, J. Solomoni, etc.) and foreign performers worked in them. But there were already wonderful Russian dancers - A. S. Sergeeva, V. M. Mikhailova, T. S. Bublikov, G. I. Raikov, N. P. Berilova.