Spelling. Basic principles of Russian spelling

In Russian letter(Russian graphics) the main one is phonemic principle: Most of the letters of the Russian alphabet indicate a phoneme in writing.

The relationship between letters and phonemes in the Russian language is determined by the action of the syllabic principle: not a letter, but a whole syllable is taken as the unit of writing and reading.

In this regard, letters to convey both vowels and consonants are read and written taking into account neighboring letters. The syllabic principle manifests itself in two cases:

1. When indicating the hardness and softness of consonants standing within one syllable before vowel sounds: the hardness of the consonants is indicated by the use of letters after them: a, o, e, u, s; softness – i, e, e, yu, i. A deviation from the syllabic principle is observed when transmitting phonemes in writing (zh, sh, ts, ch, sh");

2. The syllabic principle is manifested in notation in writing.

The syllabic principle is convenient for characterizing the sound system and for conveying language units in writing, but during morphological, morphemic analysis it causes difficulties. Spelling often obscures the composition of words: fox - [l "is" ju], byu - [b" ju].

Designation on the letter:

1. The phoneme is represented in writing by the letter “th” in a position not before the vowel:

a) at the end of the word: May:

b) before a consonant: T-shirt.

2. In certain cases, it is expressed in writing with the letters e, ё, yu, ya, and (after the soft sign: nightingales).

3. In some borrowed words it is represented by the letter “o” after the “b”: broth, postman.

Designation of hard and soft phonemes in writing:

According to the IFS, there are 14 pairs of consonant phonemes in the Russian language according to hardness and softness. There are no special letters for soft phonemes. The exception is the pair “sh, sch”.

The softness of consonant phonemes in writing is indicated as follows:

1. If a soft consonant phoneme does not come before a vowel, but at the end or in the middle of a word, then its softness is indicated by the combination “consonant letter = “b”: mole, boy;

2. If a soft consonant phoneme comes before a vowel, then its softness is indicated by iotated letters e, e, yu, ya, and: nanny, no, carried, thread, sniff.

The hardness of consonant phonemes is conveyed as follows:

1) In a position not before vowels, there is no “b”;

2) In the position before vowels using the letters a, o, u, s.

Deviation from the syllabic principle of Russian graphics:

1. When writing vowels after sibilants and “ts”, compare: we pronounce [zhony], we write “wives”;

2. When denoting borrowed words: with the following vowels they are expressed using the letter “th” and the corresponding vowel letter: major, district. In some borrowed words, “yo” is written after the letters of the consonants: broth, battalion;

3. When writing the letters e, e in borrowed words: parter (pronounce par[te]r), project (pro[ekt]);

4. Writing complex abbreviated words: remstroy management - remstro ("yu") management.

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Principles of Russian spelling

Modern Russian orthography is based on several principles. The main one is MORPHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE, the essence of which is as follows:
morpheme (significant part of the word: root, prefix, suffix, ending) maintains a single lettering , although during pronunciation the sounds included in this morpheme may change.

Yes, root bread in all related words it is written the same, but pronounced differently depending on the place in the word occupied by the vowel or consonant sounds, cf.: [hl"ieba], [hl"bavos]; console under- in the words file and knock down the same, despite different pronunciations, cf.: [ptp"il"it"] [padb"it"]; the adjectives mocking and boastful have the same suffix -liv- ; unstressed endings and stressed endings are designated the same: in the table - in the book, big - great, blue - mine and so on.

Guided by this very principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.

The role of the morphological principle in spelling is great, if we keep in mind that in the Russian language there is a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations due to various reasons.
Along with the morphological one, it also acts PHONETIC PRINCIPLE, according to which words or parts thereof are written as they are pronounced .

For example, prefixes on h change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before the voiced consonant, the letter is heard and written in the prefixes h (without-, through-, from-, bottom-, times-, rose-, through-, through-), and before the voiceless consonant in the same prefixes the letter is heard and written With , cf.: object - exclaim, beat - drink, overthrow - send down and so on.

The operation of the phonetic principle also explains the writing of vowels O - e after sibilants in suffixes and endings of different parts of speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on stress, cf.: a scrap - a knife, a brocade - nomadic, a candle - a cloud and so on.

Root vowel And after Russian prefixes the consonant becomes s and is designated by this letter also in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. written as it is heard and pronounced: background, pre-July, prank, play out and so on.

Also valid in our spelling HISTORICAL, or TRADITIONAL PRINCIPLE, according to which words are written the way they were written before, in the old days .

So, spelling vowels And , A , at after hissing ones - this is an echo of the most ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written using the same principle. Such spellings can only be explained using the historical laws of language development as a whole.

Exists in modern spelling and PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIATED WRITING (semantic principle), Whereby words are written depending on their lexical meaning , cf.: burnt(verb) and burn(noun), company(group of people) and campaign(any event) ball(dance evening) and point(unit of assessment).

In addition to those mentioned in the spelling, it is necessary to note PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS, HYPHEN AND SEPARATE WRITING: We write complex words together or with a hyphen, and combinations of words - separately.

To summarize, we can say that the variety of rules of Russian orthography is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.

phonemic principle of spelling. The principle of spelling, which consists in the fact that the letters of the alphabet represent not actually pronounced sounds, but phonemes according to their basic form, i.e., regardless of position. So, the letter o in the words mountain and mountains. conveys a phoneme<о>identically, i.e. this phoneme is expressed in writing by the same letter, although in the first word it is in a weak position, and in the second - in a strong position. In the words years and year the letter is written the same way d, although the sounds it denotes are pronounced differently:

in the first word it is a voiced consonant, and in the second it is a voiceless consonant. Practical rules follow from this."unstressed vowels should be written in the same way as under stress (water, water - because water);

Voiced and voiceless consonants should be written in any position the same way they are written in the position before vowels, sonorant consonants and before v (pond - because pond, and prut - because pruta). These rules practically also follow from the morphological principle of spelling, but between both principles (morphological and phonemic, which is also called phonological or phonemic) there are a number of discrepancies, primarily theoretical,

1. Both principles have different starting points; the morphological principle comes from the graphic image of the morpheme, and for it it is important to preserve the graphic uniformity of the morphemes; The phonemic principle comes from the concept of phoneme, and for it it is important to preserve the designation of phonemes (in a strong position). See phoneme. The morphological principle of spelling cannot, of course, ignore positional and traditional (non-positional) alternations; only the latter are transmitted in writing, and then the stable form of the morpheme is preserved.

2. Both principles differ in their understanding of the meaning of pronunciation for writing, the connection between them; the morphological principle suggests that writing may have at its disposal techniques that are not necessarily based on pronunciation, and the material of analysis for it are letters, for which their relationship to writing is established; the phonemic principle is based on the connection between writing and pronunciation And, By highlighting the phoneme, it establishes cases when writing does and does not reproduce phonemes.

There are also discrepancies in the justification of spellings, in the explanation of unverified spellings, etc.

phonetics(spoken phonetike from phnne - sound). 1. A branch of linguistics that studies the methods of formation and acoustic properties of the sounds of human speech. Historical phonetics. A branch of linguistics that studies the sound side of language in its development.

General phonetics. A branch of linguistics that studies, using material from various languages, theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, syllable structure, and the relationship of the sound side of a language to its grammatical system. Descriptive phonetics. A branch of linguistics that studies the sound structure of a particular language in synchronic terms.

Experimental phonetics. Studying speech sounds using instrumental research methods,

2. Articulatory (physiological) and acoustic properties of the sounds of a given language. Phonetics of the Russian language. Phonetics of the French language.

phonetic transcription. A special method of recording speech in full accordance with its sound, used for scientific purposes, [in "sleep" (spring), [p"p"iehot] (transition), [prav"ier"at"] (check).

phonetic units of speech. The links into which the speech flow (chain of sounds) is divided in rhythmic and intonation terms. The following are consistently distinguished: phrase, speech tact, phonetic word, syllable, sound (see these terms in alphabetical order).

phonetic spellings. Spelling words according to their pronunciation. The most important phonetic spellings:

1) writing prefixes in A; without-, through-, through-, from-, bottom-, once-, roses, through- (through-). Boundless - without plan, to lead - to exclaim, to run up - to turn up, to choose - to spoil, to bring down - to descend, to distribute - to lose, sledge - placers, excessive - interstriated;

2) writing a prefix times- (ras-)-ros- (grown). Find - search, paint - painting;

3) writing ы instead of initial and after prefixes ending in a hard consonant. Unprincipled, find, previous, play.

phonetic means. The distinguishing function is possessed by: speech sounds (cf.: house - smoke, horse - horse), verbal stress (cf.: castle-lock, legs - legs), phrasal stress (cf.: Train came.- Train came.), intonation (cf.: It’s snowing. -Is it snowing?).

phonetic alternations. Alternations determined by the phonetic patterns operating in the language: a change in sound is associated with the position of the sound does not change the composition of phonemes in the morpheme. Alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels: n[o]s --- n[ ^ ]-hundredth - n[ъ]sova. Alternation of voiced and voiceless consonants: moro[s] (frost) - moro[z]ny.

phonetic law. Regularity of phonetic correspondences, regular and interconnected phonetic change. The law of the fall of the deaf in a certain era of the development of the Russian language. The law of deafening noisy voiced consonants at the end of a word. The law of assimilation of consonants according to voicedness and deafness. Law of reduction of unstressed vowels.

phonetic analysis see phonetic analysis (in the article parsing).

phonetic word. An independent word together with the unstressed function words and particles adjacent to it, [nъ-lugu] (in the meadow), [za-gart] (outside the city), [n'ie-knew] (didn't know).

phonics(from Greek phonikos - sounding). Sound organization of speech (sound recording, sound instrumentation)

are in elementary school; there is a prefix pa- (stepson, pasture, flood), but it is always, as a rule, under stress, and is also unproductive.

We should not forget that memorizing a word and its spelling often precedes testing and proof.

In the word form along the street [paulitsj], the ending sounds like a vowel [ъы], but in another word of the same grammatical class (1st cl. noun)вoda in the same dative case, the ending is stressed -po water [пъв'аде́] . The morpheme, in this case the ending, retains its uniform spelling regardless of positional alternations.

Checking spelling is often difficult due to historical alternations of sounds, which, unlike positional alternations, are reflected in writing: run - be-

to drive, to drag - to drag, growth - to grow, end - to finish. Sometimes, when alternating, the root takes on an unrecognizable appearance: hearing - hear, burn - burn - burn. Historical alternations are not studied in primary school; textbook authors try to avoid words with them. But it is impossible to completely avoid them, since these are commonly used words, they are often found both in readable texts and in the speech of children. To the teacher willy-nilly have to explain to children that bake and bake - forms of one word, run run - related words.

The morphological principle in spelling has long been considered the main, leading one, because it ensures the leading role of semantics in language teaching. But in recent decades, a new, phonemic principle has claimed the role of the leading principle of spelling.

Phonemic principle

In modern phonology, it is generally accepted that if two or more sounds alternate positionally, then in the language system they are identical. This is a phoneme - a linguistic unit represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds. Thus, the phoneme [o] can be represented by the following sounds, regularly reproduced in the speech of native Russian speakers:

strong position – under stress [house]; weak position, unstressed [queen];

weak position, reduced [m'lako'], [o'b'k].

The phonematic principle of spelling (more precisely, graphics) states: the same letter denotes a phoneme (not a sound!) in strong and weak positions. Russian graphics are phonemic: a letter denotes a phoneme in its strong version and in a weak position, also in the same morpheme, of course. Phoneme is a meaning distinguisher. The letter, fixing the phoneme, provides a unified understanding of the meaning of the morpheme (for example, a root) regardless of its sound options.

The phonemic principle explains basically the same spellings as the morphological principle, but from a different point of view, and this allows for a deeper understanding of the nature of orthography. He more specifically explains why, when checking an unstressed vowel letter, one should focus on the stressed version, on the strong position of the phoneme.

The phonemic principle allows us to combine many disparate rules: checking unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants; promotes understanding of consistency in spelling; introduces teachers and students to a new linguistic teaching - phonology.

Morphological and phonemic principles do not contradict each other, but deepen each other. Checking vowels and consonants in a weak position through a strong one - from the phonemic; reliance on the morphemic composition of the word, on parts of speech and their forms - from the morphological (morphematic) principle. Some modern programs and textbooks of the Russian language (for example, the school of V.V. Repkin) provide basic information on phonology, and in those schools where the textbook by V.V. Repkin is used, the interaction of the two considered principles and practical methods is already being implemented.

Traditional spelling principle

IN There are many words in the Russian language that are impossible (or difficult) to check with the rules,

And they are written as is customary, as is customary, that is, according to tradition. This is the historical tradition of the Russian language(kalach, dog), or such words retain the letter composition of the source language (cash register, store, passenger). Unverifiable words also include Russian words with “obscure” etymology, too complex for primary school students: rooster - from the root pe-, from the verb sing; express, stir etc. Words with alternating vowels are considered untested in elementary school: scatter - scatter, throw - throw away. From the point of view of spelling theory, these spellings are not traditional.

Unverifiable words are acquired on the basis of memorizing the letter composition, the whole “image” of the word, comparison and contrast, i.e. visually, by pronunciation, relying on kinesthesia, speech motor memory, through written and oral use in speech, compiling nests of related words, compiling dictionaries, etc.

Words of traditional spelling are, as a rule, foreign languages: carriage - from German, hockey, computer from English, October, line – from Latin, logic - from ancient Greek, ar6uz, balyk - from Turkic languages. Therefore, knowledge of languages (even elementary) facilitates their assimilation in orthographic orientation: many borrowed words can be checked on the basis of the source language - neat from the Latin accuratus, passenger from the French passager.

Most traditional spellings do not contradict either morphological or phonemic principles, or the rules of graphics. But there is a rule about spelling combinations zhi, shi, cha, scha, chu, schu, which (at the level of children's thinking) is perceived as a contradiction. Children have just, and not without difficulty, learned that the hardness of consonants is indicated by the following vowels, a, u, o, e, and softness - by the vowels, i, e, e, yu, their natural reaction is to write “zhy, shy, chya, schya, chu, schyu,” which leads to frequent mistakes. In primary school the rule is zhi, shi, cha, sha, chu, schu is learned without explanation or justification, which, of course, cannot but cause damage to the formation of the orthographic system in children.

There are also words in which the writing tradition can be supported by an understanding of the morphological composition of the word and the method of word formation; this is the spelling of the complex

numerals: five + ten (five tens), six + hundred, nine + hundred. Or the product of merging a whole phrase: crazy, now, abyss.

There are languages in whose spelling tradition plays a much larger role than in Russian: such is the English letter, which, as is known, in UK schools does not lead to “spelling terror” (term by V.P. Sheremetevsky, 1883).

Principle of differentiation of values

This principle is also called logical, semantic, ideographic. Differentiating spellings are used when the writer wants to use spelling to differentiate concepts denoted by homonyms (homophones): company - “a group of people united by something” and campaign - “a set of military or any other events”; committed arson - noun and set fire to straw – verb;Eagle – go-

genus and eagle - bird; the elevator went up - adverb and the arrow hit the top of the target - noun

noun.

The differentiating function also belongs to the soft sign: rye, daughter - feminine, regiment, stag - masculine (in these cases it does not indicate softness, since [zh] is always hard).

The differentiating principle also comprehends combined and separate spellings: similar

the man gives birth and runs along the path, now and what time is it? ; in these cases, syntactic relations play a certain role. Writing conveys shades of thought of the speaker and writer.

For spelling techniques, the principle of differentiation of meanings is especially important. We can say that the methodology is interested in it: using the example of differentiating spellings, it is easy to show schoolchildren that spelling is an active means of expressing the thoughts of the writer. (Later, schoolchildren will understand the no less active role of punctuation: by putting this or that sign, we change the meaning of the text.) Differentiating spellings demonstrate to students the importance of spelling in the mutual understanding of the reader and the writer, the reader and the author.

This principle acts in unity with the morphological and phonemic: lit-

sa - fox and forests at the fishing rod; turned gray - became gray and sat on the bench; flutters from the word

va blows and develops from the word development. The scope of its application is not so small.

Phonetic principle

Its essence, in contrast to phonemic, is in the maximum correspondence of spellings to the sound composition of the spoken speech.

It can be assumed that sound-letter writing was originally phonetic: they wrote as they heard. First-graders’ mistakes like: “it’s pouring rain”, “sat”. “skaska”, “shchitayet”, “chisy”, “chiascha” - testify to this. They have not yet overcome the phonetic tendency of writing. In modern writing there are many such spellings in which there is no discrepancy between sound and writing: moon, walked, table, fog, wings, horse and many more etc. In most words, only spelling patterns require checking, and the remaining letters are written phonetically, that is, according to their sound: lozh-koy, z-e-leny (spellings are highlighted). Writing letters that are not included in spelling patterns does not produce errors in practice. All of them reflect the phonemic composition of words. Such spellings are called phonetic-graphic; they do not contradict other spelling principles. But still, they contain some danger for learning: they create the illusion of a letter corresponding to a sound (and not a phoneme), which in fact is not always the case.

In the spelling system there are also rules that, based on the phonetic principle, are in sharp contradiction with the morphological and phonemic principles.

Pami. Thus, prefixes with -з (iz- - is-, raz- - ras-, etc.) are not written uniformly, in them zz is written in a strong phoneme position, as - in a weak position: before vowels or voiced consonants -z, before voiceless -With. The same logic applies to the vowel а/о in the prefixes raz-/roz-, ras-/ros-: under stress – roz- – ros-, in an unstressed position, in accordance with the pronunciation, –ras- – raz-. Such a spelling would make sense and be justified if the prefix naz/s, changing the sound and letter, would also change the meaning (then the principle of differentiation of meanings would apply). But this doesn't happen. Thus, the prefix without-/6ec- denotes negation, regardless of the spelling.

Spellings written according to the phonetic principle are not studied in elementary grades, but words with prefixes with z/s cannot be avoided. The teacher needs to know all these circumstances that make it difficult to master spelling in order to prevent difficulties.

Consideration of the principles of Russian orthography leads to the conclusion about the need for a differentiated approach to teaching each type of spelling and the creation of a variable methodology. Obviously, the morphological principle requires the creation of a solid grammatical and morphematic basis in the work of students, the phonemic principle requires fluency in phonemes, a clear distinction between strong and weak positions; both of these principles require a rich and mobile vocabulary for quickly and accurately checking unstressed vowels and voiced/voiceless consonants; traditional relies on meaningful memorization, on the strength of memory; the principle of differentiating spellings requires a precise and sometimes very subtle understanding of linguistic units - words, combinations, text.

Principles of punctuation

Punctuation has its own principles that are important for constructing teaching methods. The structural - syntactic principle states that punctuation marks

tions seem to participate in the construction of sentences and text. A period is a signal for the end of a sentence, a comma separates homogeneous members, separates a subordinate clause from the main one, and highlights separate structures and appeals. Colons, dashes, quotation marks, brackets, paragraph marks, font differences, etc. perform their structural and syntactic functions.

WITH The syntax principle is leading and fundamental in high school, where a fairly complete course of syntax is studied. In elementary school, it is represented by only a few general topics; they do not always make it possible to justify the signs found in the text being read, much less to arrange them in one’s own. On a syntactic basis, primary schoolchildren learn to put periods and commas between homogeneous members of a sentence. Therefore, in elementary school, the methodology also turns to other principles.

WITH The mental principle presupposes the use of punctuation marks to formulate the writer’s very thought and its nuances: the meaning of a question or exclamation is conveyed by question and exclamation marks; a dot divides the text into relatively complete segments; the incompleteness and uncertainty of thought is captured by the ellipsis; in large sentences, relatively independent parts are separated by a semicolon; a dash denotes opposition or a sharp transition from one event to another; Quotes highlight the speech of the characters in the story. Paragraphs and chapters in the story are divided according to their meaning and degree of independence.

Each of the sections of Russian orthography is a system of rules based on certain principles - patterns that underlie the spelling system. The principles of orthography are the general basis for spelling words and morphemes given the choice provided by graphics; these are the basic, initial principles on which specific rules are built, as well as a generalization of these rules. Each principle of spelling unites its own group of rules, which are the application of this principle to specific linguistic facts, and all principles point to the path to achieving the goals of spelling - uniform spelling of words.

The principles of Russian spelling have been written about for more than two hundred years, but there is still no generally accepted interpretation of them. This is explained primarily by the fact that the content of the term “principle” in relation to spelling has not been established. Even if we consider the principles of orthography to be the basic patterns underlying a particular spelling system, as is usually meant, then this definition still cannot be considered sufficient. There is no indication of the psychological laws of the writing process. It will not be enough to define the principle of spelling as a two-sided phenomenon: on the one hand, certain patterns underlying a particular spelling system, and on the other, the principle of describing this system. An indication of such a two-sided content of the term “principle” is, of course, very important and significant, since the description of the principles of Russian orthography really changes depending on the direction and development of linguistic theory.

Phonemes that are in weak positions can be indicated variably in the letter. A weak position is a position that does not use the phonemic opposition that occurs in a comparable strong position. Thus, not all phonemes from among the alternating ones are used in the weak position. Thus, in positional alternations of phonemes within one morpheme, the stressed phoneme alternates<о>with unstressed<а>, voiced phoneme<з>with deaf<с>. Phonemes in weak positions can be designated in different ways, but the choice of letters to represent them is limited by certain guidelines or orthographic principles. Thus, orthographic principles are guiding ideas for the choice of letters where a sound can be indicated variably.

The principles of spelling, on the one hand, are determined by the material provided to spelling, and on the other, by the direction of linguistic thinking in the field of spelling. These principles are not static and may vary depending on the state of science and the direction of scientific schools. To understand the principles of spelling means to perceive each of its individual rules as a link in the overall system, to see each spelling in the interconnection of all aspects of the language.

Based on the principles of orthography, different types of orthograms are subject to morphological (phonemic), phonetic, traditional, semantic (differentiating) and other principles. In this article, we will consider the morphological and phonemic principles of Russian orthography.

The concept of the phonemic principle in relation to spelling was derived in 1930 by R.I. Avanesov and V.N. Sidorov.

In the study of the phoneme within the Russian scientific school, two main directions have emerged: Leningrad (S.I. Abakumov, Y.V. Loy, S.P. Obnorsky, M.V. Ushakov, N.S. Chemodanov, L.V. Shcherba) or Shcherbovskoe, and Moscow (R.I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov, A.A. Reformatsky, V.N. Sidorov, etc.). The existence of several phonological schools (Moscow, Leningrad, Prague and some others) is due to the complexity and versatility of the linguistic material itself and differences in the initial theoretical positions of phonologists. First of all, these are different approaches to understanding the phoneme.

The infinite variety of speech sounds is reduced to a small number of sound types - phonemes. Thus, qualitatively different sounds [a] in the words mat [mat], mint [m "at], mother [mat"], mint [m "at"] are combined into one sound type [a], that is, a phoneme<а>; sounds [o] in the words that [that], tol [tol"], aunt [t"otka], aunt [t"ot"a] - in type [o], that is, phoneme<о>; sounds [u] in the words knock [knock], cloud [cloud"], bale [t"uk], tulle [t"ul"] - in type [u], that is, phoneme<у>etc. If the difference between the sounds [a], [o], [y] is clearly audible, then not everyone can catch the differences between different [a], different [o], different [y] in the given words. The majority, however, feel well the differences between the sounds [a], [o], [y] in the first and last words of the given series ([ma]t - [m"a]t, [to]t - [t"o] cha, [tu]k - [t"u]l).

The sound types in the above examples are distinguished not only by their acoustic proximity, but also by their social function, that is, by the function of meaning differentiation: due to the presence of different phonemes - [a] and [o], [a] and [y] - they differ, for example , the words stan and groan, as well as forms of the words: tables and stolum. Phoneme<а>, thus, is contrasted in Russian with phonemes<о>, <у>, <э>, <и>, <ы>; phoneme<у>- phonemes<а>, <о>, <э>, <и>, <ы>etc. Taking this into account, M.I. Matusevich gives the following definition of phoneme: these are “sound types that, being opposed to all others in a given language, can take part in the semantic differentiation of words or in the difference in morphological forms.”

The phonemic principle of spelling, based on this understanding of the phoneme, determines the spelling of all morphemes of a word: prefixes, roots, suffixes, endings. In the word cup holder, it is pronounced [пьц-], but the prefix under- is written, since the check shows the phoneme<помд>: p[om]dpol, po[d]water. In the suffixes of the words birch and aspen, it is pronounced [ъ], but it is written o, since in a strong position in the same suffix it is pronounced [o] - oak. In the forms of the word from pumli and about pumla, the final vowel sound is the same - [and], but in the first case it refers to the phoneme<и>- from earth[im], in the second - to the phoneme<э>- about the earth[em]. After soft consonants the phoneme<и>denoted by the letter and, phoneme<э>- letter e.

The theory of the phonemic nature of Russian spelling was first presented in detail in an article by I.S. Ilyinskaya and V.N. Sidorov “Modern Russian Spelling” in 1953. According to the authors’ definition, “phonemic writing is one in which the same letters of the alphabet designate a phoneme in all its variations, no matter how it sounds in one or another phonetic position. In this case, modifications of a phoneme are indicated in writing by its basic sound, which is found in phonetic positions where the sound quality of the phoneme is not determined. The result is that each morpheme, as long as it contains the same phonemes, is always written the same way. It is written the same way even if it is pronounced differently in oral speech, due to the fact that the phonemes that make up the morpheme, due to changing phonetic conditions, are realized in modifications that differ in their sound.” According to A.I. Moiseev, it is very difficult to be guided by the phonological principle, since it will require the writer to do complex work in translating specific speech sounds - variants of phonemes - into phonemes. In addition, the question of the phonemic composition of a word does not yet have an unambiguous solution. Therefore, if the same facts of writing can be interpreted both from the point of view of the phonemic and from the point of view of the morphological principle, then it is easier to interpret them morphologically, and the principle itself is considered morphological.

According to most researchers, modern Russian writing is built mainly on a morphological principle.

The morphological principle developed historically. As the theoretical basis of Russian spelling, it was proclaimed in the “Russian Grammar” by M.V. Lomonosov (1755) and finally approved by the Russian Academy in the grammar it published (1802). According to this principle, the same letters are currently written that were once written according to the pronunciation, although the pronunciation has already changed. There are two points of view regarding the reasons for preserving in writing those letters that were written according to pronunciation earlier, but now do not correspond to it.

The famous defender of writing by pronunciation R.F. Brandt believed that in morphological writing the advantage is to indicate the relationship between related words, which is completely useless. What is the need to emphasize the relationship between the words shop and shopkeeper, putting the letter v in both, if even the most illiterate shopkeeper, who can write the word shop with f or v, is perfectly aware of the close connection that exists between him and his shop. Indeed, a clear connection between the words shop - shop - shopkeeper, house - brownie suppresses in our minds the differences in the pronunciation of root morphemes: they remain in the mind like the morphemes “shop”, “house”, although individual sounds in them can be replaced by others.

The morphological type of writing, therefore, exists primarily as a consequence of the awareness of the “relatedness” of certain roots, prefixes, suffixes, and endings. This is the second point of view on the reasons for morphological writing. Words are written depending on the writer's understanding of their composition. Changes in the sound composition of morphemes, caused by different positions of their constituent sounds, do not destroy the unity of the morpheme (more precisely, its meaning) and the awareness of this meaning by native speakers. The morpheme remains a definite semantic unit in the mind, hence the spontaneous, unconscious desire to designate sounds that have changed under the influence of conditions as equally as possible. In cases where, under the influence of certain phonetic conditions, one or another sound of a morpheme changes, two tendencies always struggle when writing: one is to designate this sound as it is pronounced: shopkeeper, but shopkeeper; the other is not to destroy the unity of the morpheme “shop”, which is felt as “one and the same”. If the first tendency wins, a phonetic letter develops, and if the second tendency wins, a morphological one develops.

The spontaneously formed morphological writing is subsequently maintained consciously for a practical purpose: for uniformity in the writing of related words, their parts and morphological forms. An important proof of the influence of morphological associations on writing is the fact that letters are written not by sound, but by association only when the writer is aware of the etymological composition of the word. Precisely because today we no longer recognize the division into morphemes of such words as where, here, everywhere, if, they are written phonetically, and not “where”, “here”, “ever”, “is”, as they should be written , if our linguistic consciousness singled out their constituent parts.

Morphological, therefore, is a letter in which a separately designated linguistic unit is a morpheme - a meaningful part of a word (for comparison: phonetic - a letter in which a separately designated linguistic unit is a sound actually pronounced in each specific case, or a sound combination). Identical morphemes are always written the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced. Thus, in Russian writing, the root -vod-, in accordance with the morphological principle, is always denoted by these three letters, although it is pronounced differently in different phonetic positions. Wed: water-am - [vad]am, vomd-ny - [vomd]ny, water-yanomy - [vad]yanomy, water - [here]. The same with prefixes (from-: attribute, cut off), suffixes (-ok: coppice, oak tree), endings (-e in the dative and prepositional cases: along the river - on the river).

Spelling, based on a morphological principle, outwardly diverges from pronunciation, but only in certain morphological units of speech: at the junction of morphemes and at the absolute end of a word for consonants and within morphemes for vowels. The discrepancy between spelling and pronunciation in morphological spelling is carried out on the basis of a strictly defined relationship with pronunciation, and not in isolation from it, not chaotically. Morphological spelling, therefore, is a consequence of native speakers’ understanding of the structural division of a word into its constituent significant parts (morphemes) and results in the most uniform possible representation of these parts in writing. A method of writing with a uniform graphic representation of significant parts of a word makes it easier for readers to “grasp” the meaning.

Consequently, in Russian writing, a significant part of a word has a single graphic image, and the morphological principle of orthography facilitates quick understanding and comprehension of the text, because attention does not linger on the designation of details of pronunciation, that is, phonemic alternation. To master spelling based on the morphological principle, it is necessary, firstly, to understand the composition of words (correctly decompose words into their constituent meaningful parts) and, secondly, to know the sound system of the language (patterns of positional alternations of vowels and consonants) and its relationships with a graphics system.

The morphological principle covers certain types of spellings. In the history of Russian spelling, for a very long time spellings such as herbs and twig were not considered morphological (M.N. Peterson). For the first time this was done by V.A. Bogoroditsky in 1887 (Russian language grammar course). In the 30s of the XX century. the scope of morphological writings was significantly expanded. M.V. Ushakov proposed to consider both supporting spellings and unverified spellings as morphological, motivating this by the fact that in both cases the graphic uniformity of morphemes (grom, thunder) is preserved [ibid., p. 38]. M.V.’s proposal Ushakov was supported by A.N. Gvozdev, according to whose calculations the percentage of morphological spellings in Russian writing is more than 96 (of which 71.4% are reference spellings, 20.2% are indirectly verified by pronunciation, and 8.4% are unverified). This percentage coincides with the percentage of phonemic spellings, according to calculations by I.S. Ilyinskaya and V.N. Sidorova: 96%. These authors also include in their count spellings like thunder (absolutely phonemic, in their terminology) and ax type (relatively phonemic).

According to V.F. Ivanova, the action of the morphological principle covers only indirectly verifiable spellings. It excludes spellings like thunder from the operation of any orthographic principles, since there are no spelling patterns here. L.B. holds the same position. Seleznev, distinguishing between the concepts of graphogram and spelling. L.R. Zinder, on the contrary, believes that spellings like thunder correspond to the phonemic principle of orthography, since “the writer is always faced with the choice of a letter sign...”, and where there is a choice, there is orthography.” L.R. Zinder categorically objects to V.F. Ivanova: “It’s hard to agree with this. Between which letters does the writer choose to write the word thunder? In order for this word to be pronounced like thunder, only these letters can be used: any other letters will not create the necessary reading. Here, of course, there is a phonemic principle, but not spelling, but graphics and writing in general.”

Thus, if we take morphological spellings at the formative and word-formative level, in the circle of morphological spellings, according to V.F. Ivanova, today basic spellings are also included, that is, spellings directly determined by pronunciation: house, thunder (M.V. Ushakov believes that “spellings in the word thunder that are directly determined by pronunciation can at the same time be characterized as morphological, since unity is observed here in the designation of the same root morpheme": thunder, thunder), and phonetic and non-phonetic spellings indirectly verified by pronunciation, and unverified spellings (both phonetic and non-phonetic: saramy, topomr, dog).

So, morphological writings retain a single graphic image of morphemes, which are carriers of certain lexical and grammatical meanings, which is convenient for written communication, since when reading words are practically perceived not by sounds, but by significant, semantic elements of the word, by morphemes.

spelling morpheme phonemic

Notes

1. Ivanova V.F., Osipov B.I. Principles of spelling and their pedagogical significance // Russian language at school. 1996. No. 5. P. 69-77.
2. Difficult issues of spelling / V.F. Ivanova. 2nd ed., revised. M.: Education, 1982. 175 p.
3. Avanesov R.I., Sidorov V.N. Spelling reform in connection with the problem of the written language // Russian language in (Soviet) school. 1930. No. 4. P. 110-118.
4. Matusevich M.I. Introduction to General Phonetics: A Guide for Students. 3rd ed. M.: Uchpedgiz, 1959. 135 p.
5. Ilyinskaya I.S., Sidorov V.N. Modern Russian spelling // Scientific notes of the Russian language department of the Moscow City Pedagogical Institute named after. V.P. Potemkin. M.: Publishing house MGPI, 1953. T. 22, issue. 2. P. 3-40.
6. Brandt R.F. On the pseudoscience of our spelling (public lecture) // Philological notes. 1901. Issue. 1-2. pp. 1-58.
7. Tlusten L.Sh. The leading principle in Russian and Adyghe orthography and its role in teaching Russian orthography to Adyghe students // Bulletin of the Adyghe State University. Ser. Pedagogy psychology. Maykop, 2009. Vol. 4. pp. 210-217.
8. Gvozdev A.N. About the basics of Russian spelling. In defense of the morphological principle of Russian orthography. M.: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the RSFSR, 1960. 64 p.
9. Ivanova V.F. Modern Russian orthography: textbook. allowance. M.: Higher. school, 1991. 192 p.
10. Zinder L.R. Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987. 168 p.
11. Ushakov M.V. Spelling techniques: a manual for teachers. 4th ed., revised. and additional M.: Uchpedgiz, 1959. 256 p.