Superscript 4 letters. Superscript and lowercase characters

Combinations of two or more letters to denote one sound (compare the diacritic š versus the French ch, German sch, English sh to denote the Russian sound and the letter “sh”). Diacritics are used with both vowels and consonants. The main disadvantage of diacritics is that they clutter the letter with small but important details, the omission of which can lead to serious errors, for example, when reading the Koran in Arabic. There are languages ​​in which diactic signs are not so common (Russian) or are practically not used (English). In some cases, there is a tendency to replace diacritized letters with digraphs (German: ö > oe in printed text and computerization).

Story The oldest diacritics were probably the symbols for longitude and brevity in Greek, as well as Greek accent marks. Diacritics are most widely used in languages ​​that have a Latin alphabet. This is due to the fact that in classical Latin there were no sibilants, nasal vowels, palatalized (softened) vowels, which were present or developed in other languages, especially unrelated ones. So, if in Italian it is possible to convey sibilants purely positionally (for example, in the word città “citta” - “city”, where c+i automatically means a sibilant sound), then in other languages ​​not related to Latin this is impossible. The languages ​​most loaded with sound-distinguishing diacritics are Czech, Slovak, Turkish, Romanian, Polish, Lithuanian, and Vietnamese. In Portuguese and French, vowel sounds (ê, è, ë, ï, ã) are subject to strong diacritization - both for sound and meaning, and purely etymological: île< лат. insula "остров". В романских языках имеется и особых диакритизованный согласный ç, в испанском - буква ñ, возникшая в результате надстрочного "двухэтажного" написания двух букв nn в латинских словах типа annum >anno> аñо "year". Classification Diacritics can be classified in various ways. 1. By place of style: superscript, subscript, intrascript. 2. According to the method of drawing: freely attached to the main sign or requiring its shape to be changed. 3. According to phonetic-spelling meaning (the classification is incomplete and the categories are not mutually exclusive): signs that have a phonetic meaning (affecting pronunciation): signs that give a letter a new sound meaning, different from the usual alphabetic one (for example, Czech č, ř, ž ); signs that clarify the pronunciation options for a sound (for example, French é, è, ê ); signs indicating that a letter retains its standard meaning in an environment where its sound should change (for example, French ü, ï ); prosodic signs (specifying quantitative parameters of sound: duration, strength, height, etc.): signs of longitude and shortness of vowels (for example, ancient Greek ᾱ, ᾰ ); signs of musical tones (for example, Chinese ā, á, ǎ, à, a); accent marks (for example, Greek “sharp”, “heavy” and “clothed” accents: ά, ὰ, ᾶ ); signs that have only spelling meaning, but do not affect pronunciation: signs that allow you to avoid homography (for example, in Church Slavonic there is a distinction between the creative pad . singular of the number “small” and the dat. pad . plural of “small”; in Spanish si “if” and Sí “yes”); signs that do not mean anything and are used according to tradition (for example, aspiration in Church Slavonic, which is always written above the first letter of the word if it is a vowel); characters of hieroglyphic meaning (considered diacritic only from the point of view of typography): signs indicating an abbreviated or conventional spelling (for example, titla in Church Slavonic); signs indicating the use of letters for other purposes (the same titles in the Cyrillic notation of numbers). 4. By formal status: signs with the help of which new letters of the alphabet are formed (in Western terminology they are sometimes called modifiers, and not actual diacritics); characters whose combinations of letters are not considered a separate letter (such diacritics usually do not affect the alphabetical sort order). 5. According to mandatory use: signs, the absence of which makes the text spelling incorrect and sometimes unreadable, signs used only in special circumstances: in books for basic reading instruction, in sacred texts, in rare words with ambiguous reading, etc. If necessary (for example, in the case of technical limitations), the diacritic may be omitted, sometimes with the insertion or replacement of letters of the word. Identical-looking diacritics can have different meanings, names, and statuses in different languages ​​and writing systems. The attribution of one or another element of the graphic system to diacritics is largely arbitrary. Thus, in modern Russian writing one can find “diacritics” of varying indisputability (from absolute to almost zero): accents are placed only in rare cases and do not form new letters; colon above " " - forms a new letter, but is usually omitted; short above " " - forms a new letter and is never omitted; underlining and underlining letters that look the same when written by hand T (m ) And w (w ); the letter “ь” as such (can be considered as a diacritic mark for the previous consonant); the stick at "" and the tail at "" are integral parts of the corresponding letters, but can be perceived as diacritics during formal analysis and comparison of letters of the alphabet. Basic diacritics Comment. There are no well-established Russian names for most diacritics. Currently competing: a traditional system of philological sense, in which one (in form) sign can have many names, used depending on what language we are talking about: thus, the same superscript colon in relation to the German language will be called “umlaut” (in recently also “umlaut”), to French - “trema”, and to Russian - most often just “two dots”; approximate descriptions of the shape (“bird”, “lid”, “hook”, etc.); tracing paper from English computer terminology (primarily from Unicode), which even in the original is quite conventional, controversial and internally contradictory. The situation is further complicated by the fact that two characters that are different in one language may turn out to be interchangeable font variants in another. Description, code Example Possible uses Unmerged superscripts /-shaped stroke above the letter U+0301 á acute accent: Greek. and c.-sl. oxia, lat. acutus(acute), fr. accent aigu (aksan-egyu) , English acute; used in Greek, Romance, Slavic and many others. other languages ń , ѓ trait (Polish) kreska) in Polish denotes a specific softening of consonants, and above ó - pronunciation as [u]; the same softening meaning is used in Lusatian, Croatian, Macedonian and some other languages á in Czech, Slovak and Hungarian - an indicator of vowel length \-shaped stroke above the letter U+0300 à heavy stress: Greek. and c.-sl. Varia, lat. gravis(gravis), fr. grave accent, English grave; used in Greek (polytonic spelling), Romance (primarily French), South Slavic and many others. other languages cap over the letter (^-shape: U+0302, round: U+0311, v.-sl. soft sign: U+0484, above a pair of letters: U+0361) â vested stress: Greek. and c.-sl. chamber or perispomeni, lat. circumflexus(circumflex), fr. accent circonflexe, English circumflex; used in Greek (polytonic spelling), Romance (primarily French), Serbian, C.-Sl. and many more other languages; in classical languages ​​the cap is usually round or even (in Greek) in the shape of a tilde (see below), in French, sometimes in Serbian - pointed ĉ , ĝ , ĥ , ĵ , ŝ in the Esperanto language, the superscript character ^ is officially called “circumflex” (Esp. “cirkumflekso”), unofficially - “cap” (Esp. “ĉapelo”); modifies the reading of the corresponding consonants without a “cap” so that they are read accordingly as Russian h, duh, X, and And w(approximately) î in Romanian there is a sharp cap over â And î means reading them as [s] ê, ŝ in some systems of Latin transliteration of the Cyrillic alphabet through ê the letter "e" can be transmitted, and through ŝ - letter "ш" railway in some transcription systems, a round cap over a group of letters indicates their continuous pronunciation (affricate) l̑ in Old Church Slavonic, a round cap over a consonant (sometimes slightly shifted to the right) means its softness â in Turkish, a cap over a vowel meant the softness of the previous consonant, and could also indicate the length of the vowel (used in borrowings from Arabic); After the writing reform in the 1990s, the "cap" was abolished, although it sometimes continues to be used. superscript colon U+0308 ë sign of separate reading of letter combinations: Greek. diaeresis or dialytika, Greek. and fr. trema(diaeresis); used in Greek, Romance and others. other languages ​​(sometimes even in English) ä umlaut is a sign in German and some other Germanic writings, indicating a changed (“softened”) pronunciation of some vowels; borrowed also by some other languages ​​(for example, Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish and Slovak) e the colon is part of the Russian (and Belarusian) letter “ё” ї the colon is part of the Ukrainian letter “ї” [йи] ї , ѵ̈ in Church Slavonic kendema, that is, two dots (or two strokes // or \\, which was equivalent), is placed above the letter i and Izhitsa ( ѵ ) in the case when they are read as [and] and do not have other superscript marks (accent or aspiration) ӥ in phonetic transcription of Russian text: vowel change caused by position between soft consonants // above the letter U+030B ő , ű "Hungarian umlaut": ő And ű mean long variations of sounds expressed by letters ö And ü ѵ̋ ѵ̈ \\ above the letter U+030F And in Serbian: short falling accent ѷ in Church Slavonic: font variant ѵ̈ (for Izhitsa the most common, but ї more often drawn with dots or vertical strokes) superscript circle U+030A å in some Scandinavian languages ​​via å long [a] turned into [o] is indicated; capital Å - angstrom designation ů in Czech using a circle (Czech kroužek) via ů long superscript U+0307 i, j included in lowercase letters i And j most languages ​​with Latin and some with Cyrillic writing (when adding any other superscript, the period is usually removed); in some languages ​​(for example, Turkish) the letters are different i with a dot (read as [i] in Turkish) and without a dot (read as [s]), and this distinction remains the same for capital letters ż sibilant consonants in old Czech writing, letter ż in current Polish ė in Lithuanian ṁ Latin transliteration of Sanskrit (both Anunasika and Anusvara can be depicted through ṁ in different systems, but the latter can also be ṅ) dot to the left above the letter in phonetic transcription of Russian text: vowel change caused by position after a soft consonant dot to the right above the letter U+0358 a͘ in phonetic transcription of Russian text: vowel change caused by position before a soft consonant tilde above a letter U+0303 ã in some, the tilde transcription system (derived from superscript n And m) above vowels means their nasal pronunciation; it is also used in this sense in Portuguese ñ in spanish ñ - soft [ny] in polytonic Greek orthography, the tilde is a font variant of the round cap (see above about “clothed stress”) bar above the letter U+0304 ā the main meaning (coming from ancient Greek and Latin) is an indication of the length of vowels (and syllabic consonants); sometimes the Greek name macron is used U-shaped superscript U+0306 ă the main meaning (coming from ancient Greek and Latin) is an indication of the brevity of vowels; lat. brevis(brevis), English breve th in Slavic Cyrillic alphabet it means the non-syllabic nature of vowels and their transition to consonants; ts.-sl. and Russian name - short (since the end of the 19th century in dictionaries also brief). Included in letters th , ў (used in the Belarusian language) and some. etc. In modern Cyrillic fonts it is usually depicted differently than in Greek and Latin ones. ӂ in the Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet of Soviet times, the letter “ӂ” meant the affricate [j] ğ in Turkish via ğ denotes a sound close to Ukrainian G, and in some dialects reaching complete extinction ŭ In Esperanto, a U-shaped superscript, informally called "bath" (Esp. "kuveto"), transforms a vowel u into a non-syllabic sound close to English w, used almost exclusively in diphthongs aŭ And eŭ, for example: “aŭroro” (“dawn”), “Eŭropo” (“Europe”) "bird" above the letter U+030C ž , ě hook (Czech háček) - a sign of Czech writing, marking sibilant and soft consonants, as well as a strongly softening pronunciation of the letter ě (usually corresponding to the old Slavic yat); above some letters it may look like an almost stuck apostrophe for beauty: Ľ , ď and so on.; borrowed into some other scripts (in Croatian it was used in both meanings); used in some Latin transliteration systems for Russian and other Cyrillic scripts. In English computer slang since the 1980s, the name appeared for this sign caron unknown origin ( caret + macron?, carom + on?, lat. lat. corona?), which subsequently spread into other languages ​​and official documents (like the Unicode standard). (-shaped sign Greek: U+0314, Kir.: U+0485 ὡ, ῥ thick aspiration (often corresponds to the initial h- in internationalisms): Greek. and c.-sl. Dasia, lat. spiritus asper; used in polytonic Greek orthography and in some older varieties of Church Slavonic )-shaped sign Greek: U+0313, Kir.: U+0486 ὀ, ὠ subtle aspiration: Greek. and c.-sl. psili, c.-sl. Also caller, lat. spiritus lenis; used in polytonic Greek orthography and in Church Slavonic (not denoting anything, placed above the initial vowel of words) ponytail on top U+0309 ả Vietnamese sign for one of the musical tones (Vietnamese dấu hỏi) title U+0483 a҃ Old and Church Slavonic sign for indicating abbreviated spellings of words and for alphabetic notation of numbers apostrophe n" in some phonetic transcription systems: a sign of softness of consonants: be in love= [l"ub"it"] or Unmerged subscripts subscript U+0323 ḥ various systems of transcription and transliteration (Semitic languages, Indian languages, etc.); a subscript can denote syllabic consonants (ṛ, ḷ), cerebral consonants (ḍ, ṭ, ṇ), the same anunasiku with anusvara, etc. subscript comma U+0326 ț whistling and hissing in Romanian ( ș , ț ) subscript circle U+0325 r̥ in some transcription systems (for example, in the reconstruction of Indo-European or Proto-Slavic languages), a circle under a consonant indicates its syllabic character "cup" under several letters U+035C t͜s in some phonetic transcription systems the sign ͜ by a letter combination means its continuous pronunciation "cap" under the letter U+032F u in some phonetic transcription systems: non-syllable sound underlining U+0331 a̱ in dictionaries can indicate stress "bird" under the letter U+032C s̬ in IPA - voicing sign Unmerged inline characters colon after letter a: in phonetic transcription - a sign of the longitude of a sound (in IPA a special “triangular colon” ​​sign is used: ) dot on the top right after the letter o· in Latin for Taiwanese dialect Fused superscripts horn to the right and up U+031B ơ used in Vietnamese Merged subscripts cedilla U+0327 ç comes from the Spanish language (Spanish) cedilla[cedilla] - “small “z””), but is not used there now; best known for its use in French (fr. cedille[gray-haired]), placed under c in the case when this letter needs to be pronounced [s] instead of [k]: façade[facade]; is also used in some other languages ​​under different letters and with different meanings (for example, in Turkish the letters c, ç, s, ş denote the sounds [j], [h], [s] and [sh] respectively). In Latvian writing with a lowercase letter g The cedilla is reversed and becomes a superscript: ģ c-shaped ponytail U+0328 ę comes from medieval Latin writing, where the sign ę was a compact replacement for the ligature æ ; from there it was borrowed into Polish writing and received the name ogonek[ogonek] = “tail”; in Polish it is used in nasal vowel letters ą And ę . Borrowed from Polish by other languages ​​(in particular, Lithuanian), used with different letters ponytail like ts or sch ҷ , ӌ used in the 1930s and later in the creation of Cyrillic scripts for various languages ​​of the USSR; usually went right and down, but sometimes left and down

SUPERLINE SIGN

An icon above a letter indicating that. it must be read differently than without it (see diacritic).

Dictionary of linguistic terms. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what is SUPERLINE SIGN in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• SIGN in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  a material, sensually perceived object (event, action or phenomenon), acting in cognition as an indication, designation or representative of another object, event, ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Postmodernism:
  - traditionally - a material, sensually perceived object (event, action or phenomenon), acting in cognition as an indication, designation or representative...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Fine Arts Terms:
  - (from the French "signe", Latin "signum" - mark) an image created by a person, the meaning of which is known. Since the 15th century, the word "sign" has become...
• SIGN
  BRANDED - see PRODUCT...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  TRADE - see TRADE ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  PRODUCT - see PRODUCT...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  CUSTOMS OFFICIAL. see CUSTOMS OFFICIAL SIGN...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  CONFORMITY is a sign registered in the prescribed manner, which, according to the rules established in this certification system, confirms the conformity of the products marked with it...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  DIFFERENCES - exchange: sign (icon) certifying the rank of membership on ...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  The President of the Russian Federation is one of the symbols of presidential power. Entrusted to the President of the Russian Federation as the head of state for the period of his powers as Chairman...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  BORDER - see BORDER...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  SERVICES - a designation capable of distinguishing the services of some legal entities or individuals from similar services of other legal entities or individuals. Legal...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  VINTAGE - see VINTAGE...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  COLLECTIVE - see COLLECTIVE MARK...
• SIGN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  ARMS - see ARMS ...
• SIGN
  a material, sensually perceived object (phenomenon, action), which acts as a representative of another object, property or relationship. There are linguistic and non-linguistic signs; ...
• SIGN
  a material object (phenomenon, event) that acts as a representative of some other object, property or relationship and is used for acquisition, storage, processing...
• SIGN
  officer - a special breastplate, which used to be a common part of officer uniforms. Its original purpose was to serve as a chest protector, but gradually...
• SIGN in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  
• SIGN in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  an object (phenomenon, action) that acts as a representative of an ancient object, property or relationship and is used for acquisition, storage, processing and transfer...
• SUPERLINE in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , oh, oh. Located above the line. N. ...
• SIGN in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -a,m. 1. A mark, image, object, with which something is marked or denoted. conditional h. Road signs (on roads, on streets: informing...
• SIGN
  LANGUAGE, a unit of language (morpheme, word, phrase, sentence), used to designate objects or phenomena of reality and their relationships, to designate...
• SIGN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  COMMODITABLE, see Commodity...
• SIGN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  SERVICES, see Product...
• SUPERLINE in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, superscript, …
• SIGN in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  -a, m. 1) Image on some. an object, serving to distinguish it from similar ones or to indicate something; brand, mark. ...
• SIGN in Abramov's Dictionary of Synonyms:
  sign, omen, difference; icon, meta (label), mark, brand, seal, stamp, brand, tamga; letter, number, dash; sign, omen, harbinger, harbinger, signal, ...
• SUPERLINE in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  adj. Located above…
• SIGN in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  sign, …
• SIGN in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  sign, …
• SIGN in the Spelling Dictionary:
  sign, …
• SUPERLINE
  located above the N line...
• SIGN in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  a gesture with which movement is signaled, something is communicated. Signs with the hand. a sign of external detection, a sign of something. Signs of attention. Silence - h. consent. ...
• SUPERLINE in Dahl's Dictionary:
  the sign above the line...
• SIGN in Dahl's Dictionary:
  husband. sign, omen, difference; omen; foreshadowing; sensory evidence, evidence; sensory expression, detection of something. Customs sign, stamp. - distinctions, order. -...
• SUPERLINE
  superscript, superscript. Located above a line of text. Superscript...
• SIGN in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  sign, m. 1. Sign, omen, by which the Crimea is recognized, something is recognized. The child was recognized by a sign on his left shoulder. And in the bathhouse...
• SUPERLINE in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
  superscript adj. Located above…
• SUPERLINE in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  adj. Located above…
• SUPERLINE in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  adj. Located above…
• SUPERLINE INDEX in the Thesaurus of Russian Business Vocabulary:
  Syn: upper...
• SUPERLINE INDEX in the Russian Language Thesaurus:
  Syn: upper...
• TITLO in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from Greek titlos - inscription) a superscript indicating an abbreviated spelling of a word or the numerical value of a letter in medieval Latin, Greek ...
• TITLO in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  less often than a title (from the Greek titles - inscription), in ancient and medieval (Greek, Latin, Slavic) writing a superscript above the abbreviated spelling ...
• TILDE in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (Spanish tilde, from Latin titulus - inscription), a sign (lowercase, superscript or subscript) in the form of a wavy dash (~) the size of a hyphen or ...
• LABELED CONNECTIONS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  compounds (synthesis), chemical compounds in which the atoms of one or more elements ("tags") have an isotopic composition that differs from the main natural one. IN …
• in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  the twenty-seventh letter of the Russian alphabet, dating back to the Old Slavonic (ancient Bulgarian) Cyrillic b79_094-1.jpg, one of the new signs of the Slavic alphabet, specially invented ...

Previously, many words were abbreviated, and all kinds of signs were used for this: superscript - above the line; lowercase - in a line.

1. Oxia.
2. Varia. Let’s say we see “option” in the word.
3. Brief. Let’s say: “Y” (I - short), “O - short”, “U - short”.
4. Zvatelzo- indicates the vocative form. Let’s say in the sentence: “Panas, what time is it?”, above “Panas” (above the first letter “P”) we put a caller.
5. ISO- this is a reverse form, i.e. when they contact. Let’s say: “Panas, have you believed in God?”
6. Apostrophe. Now the apostrophe has been changed to a comma.
7. Chamber.
8. Quote- placed between letters, i.e. Previously, the text was continuous and they put quotation marks, as if it stood out.
9. Erok.
10. Comma- placed at the bottom of the line.
11. Colon.
12. Point- indicates a universal scale, i.e. Izhei (i) we have one point.
13. Interrogative.
14. Amazing.
15. Roomy.
16. Titla(or title) - abbreviated literal meaning.
17. Digital title- to designate numbers, i.e. .
18. Measured title.
19. Numeral title.
20. Words– a title that abbreviates a word in which the base of the abbreviation lies on the initial letter Word (C).
21. Rtsititlo- i.e. abbreviation when the initial letter Rtsi (P) is used.
22. Dobrotitlo. There may be two recording options (see table).
23. Recital title- means that these initial letters must be read by their images (see example KLM).

Examples

* God– with the title (i.e., shortened form), we read the image of the initial letters “God creates with the verb.”
* Good speaker- Christians turned this abbreviation into “Lord”, and according to the images it was simply “who speaks good.” The truth does nothing, only speaks, and talking is not enough, you also have to do... that’s why it is said: “According to their deeds, teach them.”
* KLM– in the chronicle there is this abbreviation and at the top a reciting title, when Tsar Ivan gave an answer to the people’s request to return to reign. Soviet translators translated it as “Kolomna,” as if the tsar was asking Kolomna, “Should I return to the throne or not?” you need to read by the names of the initial letters: “How People Think,” i.e. The king addressed all the people: “How do you people think.”