Observation is a purposeful perception of any pedagogical phenomenon, during which the researcher receives specific factual material. At the same time, records (protocols) of observations are kept. Observation is usually carried out according to a pre-planned plan, highlighting specific objects of observation. This method involves purposeful, planned and systematic perception and recording of manifestations of psychological and pedagogical phenomena and processes.
Features of observation as a scientific method are:
focus on a clear, specific goal;
planfulness and systematicity;
objectivity in the perception of what is being studied and its recording;
preservation of the natural course of psychological and pedagogical processes.
Observation is a very accessible method, but it has its drawbacks due to the fact that the results of observation are influenced by the personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.
Observation stages:
determination of tasks and goals (why, for what purpose is the observation being carried out);
choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);
choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe);
choosing methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records);
processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).
Question No. 19 Subject of pedagogical observation and types of observations. Surveillance tools.
Observation can be:
purposeful and random;
continuous and selective;
direct and indirect;
long-term and short-term;
open and hidden (“incognito”);
ascertaining and evaluating;
uncontrolled and controlled (registration of observed events according to a previously worked out procedure);
causal and experimental;
field (observation in natural conditions) and laboratory (in an experimental situation).
A distinction is made between included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group in which the observation is being conducted, and non-involved observation - “from the outside”; open and hidden (incognito); continuous and selective.
Observation as a research method requires the researcher to follow the following rules:
clearly define the objectives of observation;
draw up an observation program depending on the purpose;
record observation data in detail;
Observation is a complex process: you can look, but not see; or look together and see different things; look at what many have seen and see, but, unlike them, see something new, etc. In psychology and pedagogy, observation turns into a real art: the timbre of the voice, eye movement, dilation or contraction of the pupils, subtle changes in communication with others and other reactions of the individual and the team can serve as the basis for psychological and pedagogical conclusions.
The means of observation are different: observation schemes, its duration, recording techniques, data collection methods, observation protocols, category systems and scales. All these tools increase the accuracy of observation, the ability to register and control its results. Serious attention should be paid to the form of the protocol, which depends on the subject, objectives and hypothesis of the study that determine the observation criterion.
Like any method, observation has its own strengths and weaknesses. Strengths include the ability to study the subject in its integrity, natural functioning, living multifaceted connections and manifestations. At the same time, this method does not allow one to actively intervene in the process being studied, change it, or deliberately create certain situations or make accurate measurements. Consequently, the observation results must necessarily be supported by data obtained using other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.
The observation program must accurately determine the sequence of work, highlight the most important objects of observation, and methods for recording results (protocol records, observation diaries, etc.).
1. Definition of the subject of observation, object, situation.
2. Choosing a method for observing and recording data.
3. Create an observation plan.
4. Selecting a method for processing the results.
5. Actually observation.
6. Processing and interpretation of received information.
2.2. Organization of psychological observation
By way of organizing distinguish between unsystematic and systematic observation. Unsystematic observation is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology. What is important for the researcher here is to create some generalized picture of the phenomenon being studied, the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions. Systematic observation is carried out according to plan. The researcher identifies certain behavioral features and records their manifestation in various conditions or situations.
There are also continuous and selective observations. At completely During observation, the researcher records all behavioral features, and during selective pays attention only to certain behavioral acts, records their frequency, duration, etc.
Various methods of organizing observation have their advantages and disadvantages. Thus, with unsystematic observation, random phenomena can be described, so it is preferable to organize systematic observation in changing conditions. With continuous observation, it is impossible to completely record everything observed, so in this case it is advisable to use equipment or involve several observers. With selective observation, the influence of the observer’s attitude on its result is not excluded (he sees only what he wants to see). To overcome such influence, it is possible to involve several observers, as well as to alternately test both the main and competing hypotheses.
Depending on the goals Research can be distinguished between exploratory research and research aimed at testing hypotheses. Search research is carried out at the beginning of the development of any scientific field, is carried out extensively, and has the goal of obtaining the most complete description of all phenomena inherent in this field, to cover it entirely. If observation is used in such a study, it is usually continuous. Domestic psychologist M.Ya. Basov, the author of a classic work on observation methods, defines the goal of such observation as “to observe in general,” to observe everything that an object manifests itself in, without selecting any specific manifestations. Some sources call this observation expectant.
An example of an exploratory study conducted on the basis of observation is the work of D.B. Elkonina and T.V. Dragunova. The general goal of this study was to obtain a description of all manifestations of neoplasms in the mental development of a child in adolescence. Systematic, long-term observation was carried out to identify the actual behavior and activities of adolescents during lessons, preparation of homework, club work, various competitions, characteristics of behavior and relationships with friends, teachers, parents, facts related to interests, plans for the future, attitude towards oneself , claims and aspirations, social activity, reactions to success and failure. Value judgments, conversations between children, arguments, and remarks were recorded.
If the purpose of the study is specific and strictly defined, the observation is structured differently. In this case it is called researchers or selective. In this case, the content of the observation is selected, the observed is divided into units. An example is the study of the stages of cognitive development conducted by J. Piaget. To study one of the stages, the researcher chose the child's manipulative games with toys that have a cavity. Observations have shown that the ability to insert one object into another occurs later than the motor skills required for this. At a certain age, a child cannot do this because he does not understand how one object can be inside another.
By use of surveillance equipment distinguish between direct and indirect (using observational instruments and means of recording results) observation. Surveillance equipment includes audio, photo and video equipment, surveillance cards. However, technical means are not always available, and the use of a hidden camera or voice recorder poses an ethical problem, since the researcher in this case encroaches on a person’s inner world without his consent. Some researchers consider their use unacceptable.
By method chronological organization distinguish between longitudinal, periodic and single observation. Longitudinal observation is carried out over a number of years and involves constant contact between the researcher and the object of study. The results of such observations are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed person. Periodic observation is carried out for certain, precisely specified periods of time. This is the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Single, or one-time, observations are usually presented in the form of a description of an individual case. They can be either unique or typical manifestations of the phenomenon being studied.
Recording of observation results can be carried out during the observation process or after some time. In the latter case, as a rule, completeness, accuracy and reliability in recording the behavior of subjects suffer.
2.3. Surveillance program
The observation program (scheme) includes a list of observation units, language and form of description of the observed.
Selection of observation units. After choosing an object and observation situation, the researcher faces the task of conducting observation and describing its results. Before observing, it is necessary to isolate from the continuous flow of an object’s behavior certain aspects of it, individual acts accessible to direct perception. The selected units of observation must be consistent with the purpose of the study and allow the results to be interpreted in accordance with the theoretical position. Units of observation can vary greatly in size and complexity.
When using categorized observation, it is possible to quantify the observed events. There are two main ways to obtain quantitative estimates during observation: 1) assessment by the observer of the intensity (severity) of the observed property, action - psychological scaling; 2) measuring the duration of the observed event – timing. Scaling in observation is carried out using the scoring method. Usually three- and ten-point scales are used. The score can be expressed not only as a number, but also as an adjective (“very strong, strong, average”, etc.). Sometimes a graphical form of scaling is used, in which the score is expressed by the value of a segment on a straight line, the extreme points of which mark the lower and upper points. For example, a scale for observing student behavior at school, developed by Ya. Strelyau to assess individual characteristics of a person, involves rating ten categories of behavior on a five-point scale and very accurately defines reactivity as a property of temperament.
For timing in the process of direct observation, it is necessary: a) to be able to quickly isolate the desired unit from the observed behavior; b) establish in advance what is considered the beginning and what is the end of a behavioral act; c) have a chronometer. It should, however, be remembered that timing activities, as a rule, is unpleasant for a person and interferes with him.
Methods for recording observations. General requirements for recording observations were formulated by M.Ya. Basov.
1. The record must be factual, that is, every fact must be recorded in the form in which it actually existed.
2. The recording must include a description of the situation (subject and social) in which the observed event occurs (background recording).
3. The record must be complete to reflect the reality being studied in accordance with the purpose.
Based on the study of a large number of records by M.Ya. Basov was asked to distinguish between three main ways of verbally recording behavior: interpretive, generalizing-descriptive and photographic recordings. Using all three types of records allows you to collect the most detailed material.
Recording non-standardized observations. In exploratory research, preliminary knowledge about the reality being studied is minimal, so the observer’s task is to record manifestations of the object’s activity in all their diversity. This photographic record. However, it is necessary to include elements of interpretation, since it is almost impossible to reflect the situation “impartially”. “One or two well-aimed words from a researcher are better than a stream of long descriptions, where ‘you can’t see the forest for the trees,’” wrote A.P. Boltunov.
Typically, during exploratory research, the form of observation records is used in the form complete protocol. It must indicate the date, time, place, observation situation, social and objective environment, and, if necessary, the context of previous events. A continuous protocol is an ordinary sheet of paper on which recording is made without rubrics. For a complete recording, good concentration of the observer is necessary, as well as the use of shorthand or shorthand. A continuous protocol is used at the phase of clarifying the subject and situation of observation; on its basis, a list of observation units can be compiled.
In a long-term field study conducted using the method of non-standardized observation, the recording form is diary. It is carried out during multi-day observations in a notebook with numbered sheets and large margins for subsequent processing of records. To maintain the accuracy of observations over a long period of time, accuracy and uniformity of terminology must be maintained. It is also recommended to keep diary entries directly, rather than from memory.
In a covert participant observation situation, data recording usually has to be done after the fact, since the observer does not have to reveal himself. In addition, as a participant in the events, he cannot write anything down. Therefore, the observer is forced to process observational material, summing up and generalizing homogeneous facts. Therefore, the observation diary uses general-descriptive And interpretativerecords. However, at the same time, some of the most striking facts are reproduced by the observer relatively photographically, without processing, “as such and the only ones” (M.Ya. Basov).
Each observation diary entry should contain a short introduction to provide a better understanding of the behavior being recorded. It reflects the place, time, setting, situation, condition of others, etc. Along with the introduction, a conclusion may also be attached to the recording, which reflects the changes in the situation that occurred during the observation (the appearance of a significant person, etc.).
While maintaining complete objectivity when recording data, the observer must then express his attitude to the phenomena being described and his understanding of their meaning. Such notes must be clearly separated from observation notes and are therefore made in the margins of the diary.
Record standardized observations. For categorized observations, two recording methods are used - symbolic recording and standard protocol. At entries in symbols each category can be assigned designations - letters, pictograms, mathematical symbols, which reduces recording time.
Standard Protocol used in cases where the number of categories is limited and the researcher is only interested in the frequency of their occurrence (N. Flanders’ system for analyzing verbal interaction between teacher and student). This form of recording observation results has its advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the accuracy and completeness of recording manifestations, the disadvantages include the loss of “living tissue of interaction” (M.Ya. Basov).
The result of observation is a “behavioral portrait”. This result is very valuable in medical, psychotherapeutic, and advisory practice. The main parameters when drawing up a behavioral portrait based on observation are as follows:
1) individual features of appearance that are important for the characteristics of the observed person (clothing style, hairstyle, how much he strives in his appearance to “be like everyone else” or wants to stand out, attract attention, whether he is indifferent to his appearance or gives it special meaning, what elements of behavior confirm this, in what situations);
2) pantomime (posture, gait features, gestures, general stiffness or, conversely, freedom of movement, characteristic individual poses);
3) facial expressions (general facial expression, restraint, expressiveness, in which situations facial expressions are significantly enlivened and in which they remain constrained);
4) speech behavior (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism, stylistic features, content and culture of speech, intonation richness, inclusion of pauses in speech, tempo of speech);
5) behavior towards other people (position in a team and attitude towards this, ways of establishing contact, nature of communication - business, personal, situational communication, communication style - authoritarian, democratic, self-oriented, interlocutor-oriented, positions in communication - “on equal terms”, from above, from below, the presence of contradictions in behavior - demonstration of various opposite in meaning ways of behavior in similar situations);
6) behavioral manifestations (in relation to oneself - to appearance, personal belongings, shortcomings, advantages and opportunities);
7) behavior in psychologically difficult situations (when performing a responsible task, in conflict, etc.);
8) behavior in the main activity (play, study, professional activity);
9) examples of characteristic individual verbal cliches, as well as statements characterizing their horizons, interests, and life experience.
3.2. Conversation
A conversation is a method of orally obtaining information from a person of interest to the researcher by conducting a thematically focused conversation with him.
Conversation is widely used in medical, developmental, legal, political and other branches of psychology. As an independent method, it is especially intensively used in practical psychology, in particular in advisory, diagnostic and psychocorrectional work. In the activities of a practical psychologist, conversation often plays the role of not only a professional method of collecting psychological information, but also a means of informing, persuasion, and education.
Conversation as a research method is inextricably linked with conversation as a method of human communication, therefore its qualified use is unthinkable without fundamental socio-psychological knowledge, communication skills, and the communicative competence of a psychologist.
In the process of communication, people perceive each other, understand others and their own “I”, therefore the method of conversation is closely related to the method of observation (both external and internal). Nonverbal information obtained during an interview is often no less important and significant than verbal information. The indissoluble connection between conversation and observation is one of its characteristic features. At the same time, a conversation aimed at obtaining psychological information and having a psychological impact on the individual can be classified, along with self-observation, as the most specific methods for psychology.
A distinctive feature of conversation among other verbal communication methods is the free, relaxed manner of the researcher, the desire to liberate the interlocutor, to win him over. In such an atmosphere, the sincerity of the interlocutor increases significantly. At the same time, the adequacy of the data on the problem under study obtained during the conversation increases.
The researcher must take into account the most common causes of insincerity. This, in particular, is a person’s fear of showing himself in a bad or funny way; reluctance to mention third parties and give them characteristics; refusal to disclose those aspects of life that the respondent considers intimate; fear that unfavorable conclusions will be drawn from the conversation; antipathy towards the interlocutor; misunderstanding the purpose of the conversation.
For a successful conversation, starting a conversation is very important. To establish and maintain good contact with the interlocutor, the researcher is recommended to demonstrate his interest in his personality, his problems, his opinions. Open agreement or disagreement with the interlocutor should be avoided. The researcher can express his participation in the conversation and interest in it through facial expressions, postures, gestures, intonation, additional questions, and specific comments. The conversation is always accompanied by observation of the appearance and behavior of the subject, which provides additional and sometimes basic information about him, his attitude to the subject of conversation, to the researcher and the surrounding environment, about his responsibility and sincerity.
In psychology, the following types of conversation are distinguished: clinical (psychotherapeutic), introductory, experimental, autobiographical. During clinical conversation, the main purpose is to assist the client, however, it can be used to collect anamnesis. Introductory the conversation, as a rule, precedes the experiment and is aimed at attracting subjects to cooperate. Experimental the conversation is conducted to test experimental hypotheses. Autobiographical the conversation allows us to identify a person’s life path and is used within the framework of the biographical method.
There are controlled and uncontrolled conversations. Managed the conversation is conducted at the initiative of the psychologist, he determines and supports the main topic of the conversation. Uncontrollable the conversation more often occurs at the initiative of the respondent, and the psychologist only uses the information received for research purposes.
In a controlled conversation that serves to gather information, the inequality of the positions of the interlocutors is clearly manifested. The psychologist takes the initiative in conducting the conversation, he determines the topic and asks the first questions. The respondent usually answers them. The asymmetry of communication in this situation can reduce the confidence of the conversation. The respondent begins to “close himself off,” deliberately distort the information he provides, simplify and schematize answers down to monosyllabic statements like “yes-no.”
Guided conversation is not always effective. Sometimes an unguided form of conversation is more productive. Here the initiative passes to the respondent, and the conversation can take on the character of a confession. This type of conversation is typical for psychotherapeutic and counseling practice, when the client needs to “talk it out.” In this case, such a specific ability of the psychologist as the ability to listen takes on special importance. The problem of listening is given special attention in the manuals on psychological counseling by I. Atwater, K.R. Rogers et al.
Listening is an active process that requires attention to both what is being said and the person being spoken to. Listening ability has two levels. The first level of listening is external, organizational; it ensures correct perception and understanding of the meaning of the interlocutor’s speech, but is not sufficient for the emotional understanding of the interlocutor himself. The second level is internal, empathic, this is penetration into the inner world of another person, sympathy, empathy.
These aspects of listening should be taken into account by a professional psychologist when conducting a conversation. In some cases, the first level of listening is sufficient, and moving to the level of empathy may not even be desirable. In other cases, emotional empathy cannot be avoided. This or that level of listening is determined by the objectives of the study, the current situation and the personal characteristics of the interlocutor.
A conversation in any form is always an exchange of remarks. They can be both narrative and interrogative in nature. The researcher's remarks direct the conversation and determine its strategy, and the respondent's remarks provide the information sought. And then the researcher’s remarks can be considered questions, even if they are not expressed in interrogative form, and his interlocutor’s remarks can be considered answers, even if they are expressed in interrogative form.
When conducting a conversation, it is very important to take into account that certain types of remarks, behind which there are certain psychological characteristics of a person and his attitude towards the interlocutor, can disrupt the flow of communication until it ends. Extremely undesirable on the part of a psychologist conducting a conversation in order to obtain information for research are remarks in the form of: an order, an instruction; warnings, threats; promises - trade; teachings, moral teachings; direct advice, recommendations; disagreement, condemnation, accusations; agreement, praise; humiliation; abuse; reassurance, consolation; interrogation; getting away from the problem, distraction. Such remarks often disrupt the respondent’s train of thought, force him to resort to defense, and can cause irritation. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the psychologist to reduce the likelihood of their appearance in a conversation to a minimum.
When conducting a conversation, there are techniques of reflective and non-reflective listening. The technique of reflective listening is to manage the conversation through the active speech intervention of the researcher in the communication process. Reflective listening is used to control the unambiguity and accuracy of the researcher’s understanding of what he heard. I. Atwater identifies the following basic techniques of reflective listening: clarification, paraphrasing, reflection of feelings and summarizing.
Finding out- this is an appeal to the respondent for clarification, helping to make his statement more understandable. In these requests, the researcher receives additional information or clarifies the meaning of the statement.
Paraphrasing– this is the formulation of the respondent’s statement in a different form. The purpose of paraphrasing is to check the accuracy of the interlocutor’s understanding. If possible, the psychologist should avoid exact, word-for-word repetition of the statement, since this may give the interlocutor the impression that he is not being listened to attentively. With skillful paraphrasing, the respondent, on the contrary, becomes convinced that he is being listened to attentively and is trying to understand.
Reflection of feelings- This is a verbal expression by the listener of the current experiences and states of the speaker. Such statements help the respondent to feel the researcher’s interest and attention to the interlocutor.
Summary - it is the listener's summing up of the speaker's thoughts and feelings. It helps to end the conversation, to bring the individual statements of the respondent into a single whole.
At the same time, the psychologist gains confidence that he adequately understood the respondent, and the respondent realizes how much he was able to convey his views to the researcher.
In unreflective listening, the psychologist controls the conversation through silence. Here, non-verbal means of communication play a significant role - eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, choice and change of distance, etc. I. Atwater identifies the following situations when the use of non-reflective listening can be productive:
1) the interlocutor seeks to express his point of view or express his attitude to something;
2) the interlocutor wants to discuss pressing problems, he needs to “speak out”;
3) the interlocutor experiences difficulties in expressing his problems and experiences (he should not be disturbed);
4) the interlocutor experiences uncertainty at the beginning of the conversation (it is necessary to give him the opportunity to calm down).
Non-reflective listening is a fairly subtle technique; it must be used carefully so that excessive silence does not ruin the communication process.
The issue of recording the results of the conversation is resolved differently depending on the purpose of the study and the individual preferences of the psychologist. In most cases, delayed recording is used. It is believed that written recording of data during a conversation prevents the emancipation of the interlocutors, at the same time it is more preferable than the use of audio and video equipment.
Summarizing the above, we can formulate professionally important qualities of a psychologist that determine the effectiveness of using conversation as a method of psychological research:
– mastery of reflective and active listening techniques;
– the ability to accurately perceive information: listen and observe effectively, adequately understand verbal and nonverbal signals, distinguish between mixed and disguised messages, see the discrepancy between verbal and nonverbal information, remember what was said without distortion;
– the ability to critically evaluate information, taking into account the quality of the respondent’s answers, their consistency, and the correspondence of the verbal and nonverbal context;
the ability to correctly formulate and ask a question in a timely manner, to promptly detect and correct questions that are incomprehensible to the respondent, to be flexible when formulating questions;
The ability to see and take into account the factors that cause a defensive reaction of the respondent, preventing his involvement in the interaction process;
Stress resistance, the ability to withstand receiving large amounts of information for a long time;
Attention to the level of fatigue and anxiety of the respondent.
Using conversation as a method of psychological research, a psychologist can flexibly combine its various forms and techniques.
3.4. Questionnaire
Questionnaire is a written survey. Questioning is the most common type of survey in which communication between the researcher and the respondent is mediated by the text of the questionnaire. Questionnaire is a system of questions united by one research plan aimed at identifying the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the object and subject of research.
Currently, several types of surveys are used: handout, postal and through the media.
Handout Questioning consists of the respondent directly receiving a questionnaire from the hands of a researcher or questionnaire. This type of survey allows you to get almost 100% return of questionnaires and guarantees their conscientious completion.
At postal questionnaires are sent out. There is a fairly low percentage of questionnaires being returned here. This type of survey is advisable to use when interviewing experts.
Questionnaire through the media involves posting questionnaires in newspapers and magazines. The return rate for such questionnaires by mail is about 5%. Posting questionnaires on the Internet may lead to insufficient representativeness of the data due to differences in access. Another way to use media is interactive television. Voting on television by telephone or by e-mail can also be used to obtain information due to its high efficiency compared to other types of questioning.
It is when conducting a survey that such features of verbal communication methods as indirectness, purposefulness of communication and features of mass communication come to the fore especially clearly. Communication between the researcher and the respondent occurs in writing. All questions and answers are recorded in the questionnaire. The sequence and wording of questions are strictly defined.
The questionnaire procedure is even more standardized and formalized than the interview procedure. The questioner performs purely official duties - distributes questionnaires, controls their return, regulates the time for filling out the questionnaire, etc. When conducting a mass survey, complete anonymity is achieved. The respondent in a questionnaire survey is more active than the researcher, so before answering questions, he can familiarize himself with the entire content of the questionnaire, change the sequence of questions, etc. In this regard, the art of questioning is manifested primarily in the formulation of questions and the design of the questionnaire.
Formulation of survey questions. E.S. Kuzmin and V.E. Semenov gives a number of rules that must be followed when formulating questions used in oral and written surveys.
1. Each question must be logically separate. It should not be “multiple,” that is, combine (explicitly or implicitly) two or more sub-questions.
2. It is undesirable to use less common words (especially foreign ones), highly specialized terms, and ambiguous words.
3. You should strive for brevity and conciseness. Long questions make them difficult to perceive, understand and remember.
4. For questions concerning topics unfamiliar to the respondent, it is permissible to make a short introduction (preamble) in the form of an explanation or example. But the question itself should remain brief.
5. The question should be as specific as possible. It is better to touch upon individual cases, specific objects and situations, than abstract topics and any generalizations.
6. If the question contains indications or hints about possible answers, then the range of options for these answers should be exhaustive. If this is not possible, then the question should be reformulated so that there are no clues in it.
7. Questions should not force respondents to give answers that are unacceptable to them. If from a substantive point of view it is difficult to avoid this, then it is necessary to formulate the question so that the respondent has the opportunity to answer without harming himself, “without losing face.”
8. The wording of the question should prevent stereotypical answers. Such template, non-binding answers are usually very poorly saturated with information useful to the researcher.
9. You should avoid using words and expressions that are unpleasant for the respondent and that can cause a negative attitude towards the question.
10. Questions of a suggestive nature are unacceptable.
All questions used in the questionnaire can be divided by content to questions about facts (behavior and consciousness) and questions about the personality of the respondent.
Questions about facts- the most “harmless” for the respondent, but nevertheless, the results obtained using a survey and other objective methods (document analysis) coincide by 80–90%. Among these questions the following can be highlighted.
Questions about facts of the past. Under the influence of time and subsequent events, the past appears in a new light. First of all, what makes a person feel uncomfortable is forced out of the respondents’ memory.
Questions about facts behavior. When behavior acquires social significance, we speak of an action. A person correlates his actions with the norms and actions of other people accepted in society. In everyday life, a person rarely thinks about his behavior; almost any question regarding behavior concerns his social assessment. Responses to questions about socially undesirable behavior are especially susceptible to distortion.
Questions about facts consciousness. They are aimed at identifying opinions, wishes, expectations, plans for the future; in some cases - on the personality of the interviewee, his environment, events that are not directly related to him. Any opinion expressed by a respondent represents a value judgment based on individual perceptions and is therefore subjective.
Questions about personality The respondent is included in all questionnaires, forming a socio-demographic block of questions (gender, age, nationality, education, profession, marital status, etc. are revealed). There are widespread questions about the level of awareness and knowledge. Reliable information about knowledge can be obtained using exam-type questions, assignments or problem situations, the resolution of which requires respondents to use certain information, as well as familiarity with specific facts, events, names, and terms.
By form questions are divided into open and closed, direct and indirect. Closed a question is called if a complete set of answer options is given in the questionnaire. This form of question significantly reduces the time for filling out the questionnaire and preparing it for automated processing.
Closed questions can be alternative or non-alternative. Alternative questions allow the respondent to choose only one answer option, as a result of which the sum of answers to all options presented in such a question always amounts to 100%. Non-alternative Questions allow multiple choice options, so their sum can exceed 100%.
If the researcher is confident in the completeness of the answer options known to him, then he is limited to only their list. Quite often, questionnaires use a tabular form of answers to closed questions.
Open questions do not have answer options, and therefore do not contain hints and do not force an answer option on the respondent. They give him the opportunity to express his opinion in full and to the smallest detail. Therefore, using open questions, you can collect information richer in content than using closed questions. The number of lines for recording the answer depends on the nature of the question and should be sufficient for the respondent to freely express his thoughts (usually from three to seven). When formulating an answer to an open question, the respondent is guided only by his own ideas. Open-ended questions should be used to obtain data on the problem being studied, on the characteristics of vocabulary and language, on the range of associations in connection with the subject of the survey, on verbal skills associated with the ability to formulate one’s opinion and give reasons for it.
In some cases, a semi-closed form of question is used, when the list of options is supplemented with a line for the respondent to formulate his own option, if it differs from those given in the list.
Respondents are willing to answer open-ended questions if they have a clear understanding of the survey topic. If the subject of the survey is unfamiliar or unusual, then respondents avoid answering, give vague answers, and answer not to the point. In this case, using an open question, the researcher runs the risk of not obtaining meaningful information at all. Using a closed form of a question, it helps the respondent to navigate the subject of the survey and express his attitude through a set of possible judgments or assessments.
Direct is a question whose formulation suggests an answer that is equally understood by both the researcher and the respondent. If the decoding of the answer is provided in a different sense, hidden from the person being interviewed, then this indirect question.
If the direct questions of the questionnaire require the respondent to have a critical attitude towards himself, the people around him, and an assessment of the negative phenomena of reality, then in a number of cases they either remain unanswered or contain inaccurate information. In such situations, indirect questions are used. The respondent is offered an imaginary situation that does not require an assessment of his personal qualities or the circumstances of his activities. When constructing such questions, they proceed from the assumption that, when answering them, respondents rely on their own experience, but report it in an impersonal form, which removes the severity of critical assessments characteristic of first-person statements.
Depending on the functions identify main and auxiliary questions. Basic questions are aimed at collecting information about the content of the phenomenon under study, auxiliary serve to confirm the reliability of the information received.
Among the auxiliary questions there are control questions and filter questions. Tests The questions are aimed at checking the sincerity of the answers. They can either precede the main questions or be placed after them. Sometimes used as controls Trap questions. These are questions to which, being sincere, one can only give one definite answer. If the respondent, due to inattention or dishonesty, gives a different answer, he falls into this trap. It is assumed that his answers to all other questions should not be trusted either, so the results of such respondents are usually removed from further processing.
Need for filter questions arises when the researcher needs to obtain data that characterizes not the entire population of respondents, but only part of it. In order to separate the part of respondents of interest to the researcher from all others, it is specified filter question.
Increasing the reliability of respondents' answers can be achieved using certain methodological techniques. Firstly, the respondent must be provided with the opportunity to evade the answer and express an uncertain opinion. For this purpose, answer options are provided: “I find it difficult to answer,” “when how,” etc. Researchers often avoid such options, fearing that if a large proportion of respondents use them, their answers will not be interpretable. However, the predominance of such answers indicates either the lack of a definite opinion among the respondents, or the unsuitability of the question to obtain the necessary information.
Secondly, questions should not contain explicit or implicit clues in their wording or instill an idea of “bad” and “good” answer options. When formulating assessment questions, it is necessary to monitor the balance of positive and negative judgments.
Thirdly, one should take into account the respondent’s memory capabilities and his ability to analyze and generalize his own actions, views, etc. This is important when formulating questions about the time spent on a particular type of activity, their regularity and frequency.
Once the questions have been formulated, they must be checked against the following criteria:
1) whether the questionnaire provides such answer options as “I find it difficult to answer”, “I don’t know”, etc., giving the respondent the opportunity to avoid answering when he deems it necessary;
2) shouldn’t it be possible to add to some closed questions the position “other answers” with free lines for additional statements from respondents;
3) whether the question applies to the entire population of respondents or only to part of it (in the latter case, a filter question should be added);
4) is the technique of filling out the answer to the question sufficiently explained to the respondent? Is there any indication in the questionnaire of how many answer options can be marked;
5) whether there is a logical inconsistency between the content of the question and the measurement scale;
7) whether the question exceeds the competence of the interviewee (if there is such a suspicion, a filter question is needed to check competence);
8) whether the question exceeds the memory capacity of the respondents;
9) are there too many possible answers to the question (if this is so, then you need to divide the list into thematic blocks and formulate several questions instead of one);
10) whether the question hurts the respondent’s self-esteem, his dignity, or prestigious ideas;
11) whether the question will cause negative emotions in the respondent (fears about the consequences of participating in the survey, sad memories, other negative emotional states that violate his psychological comfort).
Composition and design of the questionnaire. A questionnaire is a kind of script for a conversation with a respondent. The beginning of such a conversation is preceded by a brief introduction (address to the respondent), which outlines the topic, goals and objectives of the survey, names the organization that conducts it, and explains the technique of filling out the questionnaire.
At the beginning of the questionnaire there are the simplest and most neutral questions. Their goal is to create an attitude towards cooperation, the task is to interest the interlocutor and bring them up to date on the problems being discussed.
More complex questions that require analysis and reflection are placed in the middle of the questionnaire. Towards the end of the questionnaire, the difficulty of the questions should decrease; questions about the personality of the respondent are usually placed here.
Questions can be combined into blocks on a thematic basis. The transition to a new block should be accompanied by explanations that activate the respondent’s attention.
Instructions on the technique of filling out the questionnaire, located directly in the text of the questions, are also of great importance: how many options can be marked - one or several, how to fill out the question-table - by rows or by columns. Misunderstood questionnaire filling techniques often distort information.
Special mention should be made about graphic design questionnaires. It should be printed in a clear font, have enough space to write answers to open-ended questions, and have arrows indicating the transition from the filter question to the main questions. The number of questions should be limited: as a rule, after 45 minutes of filling out a questionnaire, the respondent’s attention sharply decreases.
The composition of the questionnaire is checked for compliance with the following criteria:
1) is the principle of arranging questions from the simplest (contact) at the beginning of the questionnaire to the most complex in the middle and simple (unloading) at the end followed?
2) whether previous questions influence subsequent ones;
3) whether semantic blocks are separated by “attention switches”, addresses to the respondent, informing about the beginning of the next block;
4) are filter questions equipped with navigation indicators for different groups of respondents;
5) whether there are clusters of questions of the same type that cause the respondent a feeling of monotony and fatigue;
6) are there any violations in the layout (typos) and graphic design of the questionnaire (unacceptable: moving part of the question to another page, monotonous font in the text of the questionnaire, which does not allow separating questions from answer options and questions from each other, insufficient space for free answers, etc. . P.).
Even if all these requirements are met, it is not always possible to assess the quality of the questionnaire in advance. This can be done during a pilot study - conducting a survey on a small sample. During such a pilot study, methodological information is collected, as well as the attitude of respondents to the survey and their reaction to individual questions is clarified. One of the most obvious indicators of the unsuitability of a question is a large proportion of those who did not answer or found it difficult to answer it.
The survey procedure and rules of behavior for the surveyor. To successfully conduct a survey, a number of conditions must be met.
It is advisable that the surveyor come to the survey site accompanied by representatives of the administration and public organizations helping to prepare the conditions for this event. It is also necessary to provide seating for each respondent so that respondents are at a sufficient distance from each other and do not interfere with each other. The questioner must introduce himself, explain the purpose of his visit, the purpose of the study, tell how and where the results of the survey will be used, and also explain in detail the rules for filling out the questionnaire and warn the respondents that in case of difficulties they should contact only him, and not consult with each other on about answering questions. You should also have a supply of simple pencils or pens to provide respondents with them if necessary.
Before distributing questionnaires, you need to make sure that there are no people in the room who are not taking part in the survey. Particular attention should be paid to persons who, by their presence, can provoke tension in the psychological atmosphere.
When asking “Why are we being interviewed?” The principle of sampling should be explained in clear language and the audience should be assured that the participation of these respondents as representatives of the sample is extremely important for obtaining complete and reliable information.
When collecting questionnaires, it is advisable to review each one as carefully as possible. In case of omissions, you should find out why the respondent did not answer and try to involve him in re-working with this question. If you refuse to answer, this question should be marked (“refusal”). Public refusal should be avoided at all costs, as it has a negative effect on others. The surveyor has no right to force the respondent to answer the survey questions.
When conducting a survey, you need to behave in a friendly, polite manner, and avoid extreme behavior (dryness, formality - talkativeness, partiality). It is necessary to patiently listen to all the respondents’ comments, take their opinions seriously, and not impose your point of view.
While filling out questionnaires, the surveyor must prevent any statements from respondents and prevent discussion of any topics, including the topic of the survey.
In a situation where the respondent wants to express his opinion in more detail, to draw attention to shortcomings in the organization of the survey, he should be provided with blank sheets of paper on which he can express his opinion.
The experience of conducting numerous surveys allowed us to formulate several rules of conduct for the surveyor.
1. The purpose of the survey is not just to get answers, but to get truthful answers. The extent to which this task can be accomplished depends on the behavior of the questioner. The first impression is a very significant factor in the perception of the questionnaire. For the questionnaire, discreet but neat clothing is preferred; a smile, politeness, energy, and self-confidence are important. A combination of friendliness and exactingness makes a favorable impression.
2. It is better to meet with respondents in the morning, having agreed on this time in advance. When meeting, the interviewer must introduce himself. You should not keep the list of respondents in front of your eyes and make any notes on it. It is necessary to provide guarantees of anonymity - not to disclose the contents of the answers, not to allow unauthorized persons to access the completed questionnaires.
3. When explaining the purpose of the study, the questionnaire should place special emphasis on practical purposes; You should not make promises or guarantees to fulfill all wishes expressed during the survey.
Methods of psychological research and their typology
1.1. Observation
1.2. Experiment
2. Supporting research methods
2.1. Analysis of literature, documents and products of human activity
2.2. Biographical and twin method
2.3. Sociometric method
2.4. Questionnaire
2.5. Interviewing
2.6. Conversation
2.7. Testing (test method)
2.8. Expert assessment method
Key concepts: observation, experiment, literature analysis, questioning, interviewing, conversation, testing, method of expert assessments, biographical, sociometric methods.
1. Basic research methods
The main research methods are observation and experiment. They are used in many sciences, and therefore belong to general scientific research methods. These are one of the main methods of natural sciences used in the study of diverse natural phenomena.
1.1. Observation
Observation is a descriptive (non-experimental) research method consisting of a targeted, organized perception and recording of the behavior of an object. The results of recording observation data are called a description of the object's behavior. Observation, along with introspection, is the oldest research method.
Observation is used to collect information, empirically study mental activity by recording acts of behavior, physiological processes, etc. It is especially effective to use at the first approaches to developing a problem, when it is necessary to highlight, at least preliminary, the qualitative and holistic characteristics of the processes being studied. Observation becomes a method of study only if it is not limited to the description of external phenomena, but makes the transition to explaining the nature of these phenomena.
Observation can act as an independent procedure and be considered as a method included in the experimentation process. The results of observing subjects as they perform an experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.
Observation as a research method has a number of significant features that distinguish it from a person’s everyday perception of current events. The main ones:
* Purposefulness of observation. It lies not only in the predominant focus of observations on selected objects, but also in the fact that their description is carried out in the light of a certain pedagogical or psychological concept, in its conceptual and terminological system.
* Analytical nature of observation. From the overall picture, the observer identifies individual aspects, elements, connections, which are analyzed, evaluated and explained.
* Comprehensive observation. This feature follows from the holistic nature of the socio-pedagogical process and requires not letting any of its essential aspects or connections out of sight.
* Systematic observation. It is necessary not to limit oneself to a one-time “snapshot” of the observed, but on the basis of more or less long-term (prolonged) observations to identify statistically stable connections and relationships, to detect changes and development of the observed over a certain period.
These and other features are at the same time requirements that must be followed when organizing scientific observation.
The observation research procedure consists of the following stages: .
* selection of the subject of observation (behavior), object (group or individual), situation;
* setting goals and objectives;
* choosing a method for observing and recording data, a method for processing results;
* drawing up an observation plan (situation - object - time);
* preparation of necessary documents and equipment;
* data collection;
* processing and interpretation of received information, design and analysis of results, theoretical and practical conclusions.
The subject of observation may be various features of verbal and nonverbal behavior.
Speech acts (content, sequence, frequency, duration, intensity, etc.)
Expressive movements, expression of the face, eyes, body, etc.
Movements (movements and stationary states of people, distance between them, speed and direction of movements, etc.)
Physical influences (touching, pushing, hitting, force, etc.).
There are many types of observations, divided according to various criteria. For example, the characteristic: “temporary organization” may correspond to continuous and discrete (in separate periods of time) observation.
The scope of observation can be wide (“continuous”), when all behavioral features available for the most detailed observation are recorded, or observations are made of the group of observed people as a whole. Highly specialized (selective) observation is aimed at identifying individual aspects of a phenomenon (certain parameters of behavior, types of behavioral acts) or individual objects.
Methods of obtaining information can be 1) direct (direct) observation, when the observer records directly observed facts; 2) indirect (mediated), when it is not the object or process itself that is directly observed, but its result.
Based on the type of connection between the observer and the observed, types of observation are divided into non-involved and included. In non-participant observation, the researcher’s position is open; it is the perception of a phenomenon from the outside. Participant observation assumes that the observer is himself a member of the group whose behavior he is studying. During active observation, the degree of awareness is set
observed: a) the observed know that their behavior is being recorded by the researcher; b) the observed do not know about it. It is important to note that participant observation, in which the researcher is masked and the purpose of the observation is hidden, raises serious ethical issues.
Observation conditions can be field (in natural conditions) and laboratory (using special equipment).
Based on the plannedness of observations, there are 1) non-formalized (free) programs and procedures for conducting them that do not have a pre-established framework. It can change the subject, object and nature of observation depending on the desire of the observer. 2) Formalized (standardized) observation is carried out according to a previously thought-out program and strictly follows it, regardless of what happens during the observation process.
Based on the frequency of application of the observation method, they are: constant, repeated, single, multiple.
Finally, the method of obtaining information determines direct (direct, when the researcher himself conducts observation) and indirect (indirect, through the description of phenomena by other people who observed them).
Like any method, observation has its positive and negative sides. The fact that observation allows one to study an object in its integrity, in its natural functioning, in its living, multifaceted connections and manifestations is undoubtedly its advantage. At the same time, this method does not allow one to actively intervene in the process being studied, change it, or intentionally create certain situations; take accurate measurements. The disadvantages of observation are the difficulties of covering a large number of phenomena and the likelihood of errors in the interpretation of events by the researcher.
The more strongly the observer strives to confirm his hypothesis, the greater the distortion in the perception of events. Oh gets tired, adapts to the situation and stops noticing important changes, makes mistakes when taking notes. A. A. Ershov identifies the following typical observation errors:
* Gallo effect. The generalized impression of the observer leads to a gross perception of behavior, ignoring subtle differences.
* The effect of leniency. The tendency is to always give a positive assessment of what is happening.
* Errors of central tendency. The observer tends to give an average assessment of the observed behavior.
* Correlation error. An assessment of one behavioral characteristic is given on the basis of another observable characteristic (intelligence is assessed by verbal fluency).
*Contrast error. The tendency of the observer to identify traits in the observed that are opposite to his own.
* First impression error. The first impression of an individual determines the perception and assessment of his further behavior.
Therefore, the results of observations need to be compared with data obtained by other methods, supplemented and deepened.
1.2. Experiment
An experiment is a joint activity of the subject and the experimenter, which is organized by the experimenter and aimed at studying the characteristics of the psyche of the subjects. Like observation, experiment is considered a basic research method. But if, during observation, the researcher passively waits for the manifestation of the mental processes that interest him, then in the experiment he himself creates the necessary conditions to evoke these processes in the subject, i.e., the person with whom the experiment (test) is being conducted. By creating the necessary conditions, the experimenter has the opportunity to ensure their constancy. By repeating the study under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter can establish the individual characteristics of the course of mental processes in each of them.
The experimenter, at his own discretion, changes the conditions of the experiment, actively intervenes in the situation, systematically manipulates one or more variables (factors) and records accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied. Thus, conducting an experiment consists of studying the influence of variable independent variables on one or more dependent variables.
By creating certain conditions, the researcher gets the opportunity to take into account the influence of these conditions on the phenomena being studied, change some conditions and keep others unchanged, and thereby reveal the causes of certain phenomena, repeat experience and, thus, accumulate quantitative data on the basis of which one can judge typicality or randomness the phenomena being studied.
This is a particularly important advantage of experiment over observation, since it makes it possible to find, for example, the most effective techniques in educational work with students. By changing the conditions for memorizing this or that educational material (in mathematics, the Russian language, etc.), it is possible to establish under what conditions memorization will be the fastest, most accurate, long-lasting and lasting. During the experiment, with the help of special instruments and devices, it is possible to very accurately measure the time of occurrence of mental processes, for example, the speed of reactions, the speed of formation of educational and work skills.
The need to use an experiment arises when the research objectives require the creation of a situation that either cannot arise in the normal course of events, or would have to be expected indefinitely.
To summarize the above, we can say that an experiment is a research method, which consists in creating a research situation, gaining the opportunity to change it, vary its conditions, making it possible and accessible to study mental processes or pedagogical phenomena through their external manifestations, revealing the the mechanisms and trends in the emergence and functioning of the phenomenon being studied.
There are two types of experiment: laboratory and natural. A laboratory experiment is the study of any real activity with high accuracy of recording and measurements in artificial, laboratory conditions. Laboratory experiments are used in cases where it is necessary to obtain accurate and reliable indicators of the course of mental phenomena under strictly defined conditions, for example, when studying the sensitivity of the senses, when studying memory, thinking, speech and other mental processes.
This type of experiment is of great importance when studying the physiological mechanisms of certain human manifestations. Laboratory experiments are also successfully used to study individual cognitive processes (sensation, perception, memory). Laboratory experiments are increasingly used in the study of holistic human activity. For example, in specially created conditions, various components (motor, sensory, perceptual, mnemonic, intellectual, volitional, characterological) of a person’s mental activity in the process of his interaction with technology are studied.
What is characteristic of a laboratory experiment is not only that it is carried out in laboratory conditions using special equipment and the actions of the subject are determined by instructions, but also that the subject knows about the experimentation on him.
A laboratory experiment can be repeated many times (with different subjects) and as many times as necessary so that, based on the data obtained, existing connections and patterns can be identified and formulated.
A laboratory experiment provides a deep and comprehensive study of the mental activity of people. The successes of modern scientific psychology would be impossible without the use of this method. However, along with the advantages, the laboratory experiment also has certain disadvantages. The most significant drawback of this method is its artificiality, which under certain conditions can lead to disruptions in the natural course of mental processes and, consequently, to an incorrect conclusion. That is why laboratory research of mental activity must be carefully organized and, if possible, combined with other, more natural research methods.
A natural experiment is a special type of psychological experiment developed by the famous psychologist A.F. Lazursky for pedagogical research, unlike a laboratory experiment, it is carried out in a normal environment for the subject. It eliminates the tension that arises in the subject who knows that he is being experimented on. During a natural experiment, the natural content of human activity (play, learning, work) is preserved.
This type of experiment was first developed in 1910 to study the personality of schoolchildren. When conducting a natural experiment, a certain activity of the child is first studied and it is found out which mental characteristics are most clearly manifested in it. After this, this activity is organized in accordance with the objectives of the experiment and in the process, the necessary psychological study of the student is carried out.
The natural experiment has found and is widely used in developmental and educational psychology, in pedagogy and methods of teaching individual subjects. With the help of close to natural, ordinary conditions of behavior and activity, certain mental processes (memory, attention, thinking, speech) or individual personality characteristics (interests, character, temperament) are arbitrarily evoked and studied. Such an environment, deliberately created for studying the mental activity of subjects, can be specially organized lessons at school, games, etc. A natural experiment can also be carried out in a specially equipped classroom. It is possible to record the progress of a lesson using a system of tape recorders, which can sometimes be disguised and not visible to students at all. It is possible to videotape students during a lesson using specially installed but not visible video cameras.
The advantage of a natural experiment is that it combines the positive qualities of observational and experimental methods: the naturalness of the first and the activity of the second.
Depending on the nature of the research problems being solved, both laboratory and natural experiments can be ascertaining or formative. A confirmatory experiment is an experiment that establishes the presence of some immutable fact or phenomenon. An experiment becomes ascertaining if the researcher sets the task of identifying the current state and level of formation of a certain property or parameter being studied, in other words, the current level of development of the property being studied in a subject or group of subjects is determined.
Formative (educational) is an experiment in which the study of a schoolchild is carried out directly in the process of his education and upbringing, with the aim of actively forming the mental characteristics to be studied.
The widespread use of formative experimentation is associated with innovations and innovations in the pedagogical process. A formative experiment, along with the study of the mechanisms of development of mental properties, helps to solve educational problems and provide assistance to students. The creator of a holistic doctrine of formative psychological and pedagogical experiment is V.V. Davydov.
Often synonymous with shapes
Any person, receiving this or that information, analyzes, summarizes and remembers it, and then uses it in his actions. An ordinary eyewitness to certain events does this, as a rule, haphazardly, from case to case.
Sociological observation is always a directed, systematic, direct “tracking” and recording of socially significant phenomena. It not only serves the purpose of obtaining meaningful information, but can itself be subject to verification.
Recording of any phenomenon (and it is mandatory) can occur using various means - special forms or diaries, audio, video and photographic equipment and other technical means of observation.
The main types of observation are considered not included and included, implying the anonymous presence of the researcher in the object he is examining, when the researcher imitates joining a group, adapts to it, usually anonymously, and analyzes the events occurring in it “from the inside.”
There are few examples of “participant” observation conducted by Russian sociologists. In the 1980s Leningrader A.N. Alekseev resigned from the Institute of Socio-Economic Research of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where he worked as a senior researcher, and incognito got a job as a worker at the Printing Machines Factory, where he collected rich material about the life of the workforce. This sociologist not only stated certain facts, but also introduced experimental factors from within, i.e. was not only a researcher, but an active participant in the events that took place among the workers. Based on the results of his observation, Alekseev published a number of works devoted to the “sociology of observing participation.”
However, researchers using the observation method have difficulties due to the fact that they sometimes lose objectivity, getting used to the role of “activist”. The result of “participant” observation, as V.A. notes. Yadov is often an essay rather than a strictly scientific treatise. In addition, some experts doubt the ethics of disguising a sociologist as an ordinary participant in the events.
The positive effect of using this method is undeniable: the researcher receives direct, vivid impressions of the observed people, which allows him to understand and explain certain of their actions, to correctly assess the cohesion, or, conversely, contradictions in the group.
The general feature of observation as a method of collecting primary information is manifested in the ability to analyze particulars: the nature of behavior, gestures, facial expressions, expression of emotions of individuals and entire groups. Sometimes this method is used along with other methods of collecting information to bring to life columns of dispassionate numbers - the results of various surveys. Observation is indispensable for studying the activity of the population at rallies, mass socio-political events, the behavior of students during informal communication, etc.
The application of the observation method is preceded by the drawing up of a plan, which indicates the means of collecting information, the timing of the study, the amount of funding, as well as the number of observers themselves. The latter must be highly qualified, be attentive, sociable, be able to control their behavior, know the theory of sociology, sectoral sociology that are used in a particular study, as well as means and techniques of observation, materials and documents regulating the activities of the object being studied. For future specialist observers, it is advisable to organize a series of practical exercises (observations) in field or laboratory conditions, which will help identify typical observer errors, develop useful behavioral observation techniques, and rules for drawing up documents. Classes are usually taught by an experienced sociologist.
There are standard instructions for conducting research. They indicate: the sequence of stages and procedures of observation, assessments of the actions of those being observed, methods of recording information and interpreting the data obtained, samples of reporting.
Usually, a trial study is first carried out in order to reveal possible errors, inaccuracies, and exaggerations. During further observation, it may be useful both for the project manager and for the observer himself. This method is especially important for developing a general research hypothesis.
Thus, in the process observations the researcher carries out direct and targeted recording of social facts, noting specific actions of people and registering in real time the development of social phenomena and processes. The important advantages of observation as a method are the presence of a direct connection between the researcher and the object under study, flexibility, efficiency and relative cheapness to use.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Moscow State University
Abstract on the topic:
Observation as a method of sociological research
Subject: Sociology
Moscow, 2008
The essence of observation as a method of sociological research
The main problem of sociological observation is to ensure the greatest possible objectivity of information about an object. The main task of the observer is to consistently and sincerely adhere to the criteria and principles of scientific observation, and not to replace them with emotions.
In this regard, correct conduct of sociological observation implies adherence to two fundamental principles: complementarity and parallel observations. The first assumes that the object of observation, under the influence of the observer (in his presence), corrects his behavior, and this must be taken into account in the final interpretation of the research results. The second requires the organization of several simultaneous observations with subsequent coordination and analysis of the results.
Observation as a method of sociological research has a number of obvious advantages. Even before developing a research program, a specialist must feel the specifics of the object, become familiar with the local practice of distributing authority, values, social roles, understand the features of the environment, etc.
At the same time, observation is an ordinary and far from the only method of sociological research, which is due to the limitations of the method itself.
Let us also note that not all social phenomena are amenable to direct observation. For example, it is very difficult to identify non-objectified production relationships, dependencies, and relationships through observation. Other methods are also needed for studying: content analysis, survey, etc. In addition, observation is possible only at the time of the event.
It is also necessary to take into account the peculiar “halo effect” in observation. Observation itself changes the situation being studied. For example, the presence of an observer quite often leads to the acceptance of atypical traits in the behavior of employees striving for some ideal stereotype for fear of “letting down” the manager. This also confirms the need to complement observation with other methods.
Types of surveillance
The success of observation as a sociological method is largely determined by the type of observation. There are the following types (types) of observation: structured, unstructured, included, external, field, laboratory, systematic, random.
Let us explain their specifics.
Unstructured observation (sometimes called unsupervised) usually does not have a clear plan. During such observation, the elements of the object being studied are not determined, the problem of units of measurement and their quality is rarely raised, and the proportion of redundant information is high. Reliance rests mainly on the intuition of the observer, whose goal is to obtain primary information about the object.
Uncontrolled observation is often used in sociological research. It is typical for cases when the sociologist is not clear about the general situation, indicators have not been defined, and research documents have not been developed.
Structured(controlled) observation involves:
Development of a system of documents and indicators characterizing the elements of the object selected for observation;
Availability of a developed plan;
Analysis of observers' attitudes regarding the nature and structure of the object being studied.
Controlled observation serves as the main method of collecting primary information or complements other methods of sociological research. With its help, the main hypotheses are tested, as well as data obtained using other methods.
Not included observation (sometimes called external) is carried out by a researcher who is outside the object and tries to minimize his interference in the course of events. Such observation practically comes down to recording events.
At included During observation, the sociologist participates in the processes being studied, interacts with workers, and may even intervene in events. It is desirable, of course, that he fully master a specific social role in the team and be spontaneously recognized as its member. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the dialectic of adaptation of one’s observer in the work collective. The first phase of such adaptation is almost inevitable, when one is treated with caution. It requires great tact from the observer, the ability to choose and master a secondary social role, and avoid the role of a leader or micro-leader, since this too changes the nature of the relationships and relationships typical for a given team.
Differences field And laboratory studies are associated with differences in observation conditions. Field research is carried out in a natural environment for a given object (in a village, city, etc.) Laboratory research is artificially organized by a sociologist who creates an experimental situation and models its external conditions.
Finally, systematic And random observations vary in frequency and specific purpose of research. The former make it possible to identify precisely the dynamics of the processes being studied.
The disadvantage of the method of systematic observation is the difficulty of operationalizing and comparing data for different periods, since there is a risk of drawing a sociological conclusion based on data of different orders.
Scheme 1.3.1.
Types of observations
Observation stages
To enhance the effectiveness of observation, it is important not only to choose the type of observation (or combination of types), but also to draw up a research plan that reflects initial ideas about the characteristics of the object being studied and the facts that need to be collected. The plan reflects the deadlines and determines the means of collecting information. The scale of observation and the breadth of coverage of phenomena depends on the amount of funding, the use of technical means, personnel of observers and data processors.
The main stages of observation are: establishing the object and subject of observation; defining its goals and objectives; obtaining appropriate decisions, establishing contacts; choosing the method and type of observation, determining the basic procedures; preparation of technical means and documents; collection of information (direct observation), accumulation of information; recording the results (brief recording, filling out data registration cards, observation protocol, diary, technical record); control of observation by other sociological data; observation report.
The quality of observation also depends on the time of recording the results. If a recording is made later than the observation process itself, then inaccuracies arise, some facts are lost or distorted, although the recording itself becomes more orderly and strict. The optimal option seems to be a quick initial recording in a formalized document with predetermined quantitative indicators, followed by processing according to the accepted methodology using computer calculation.
There are quite strict requirements for the professional training of observers. For example, during participant observation, the researcher must be not only an intelligent and knowledgeable sociologist, but also simply a tactful, attentive, sociable person with high intellectual speed and adaptive plasticity and culture. The ability to control one’s behavior, objectively assessing its advantages and disadvantages, to coordinate the entire range of interests of the work collective with the interests of the sociological group - all these are obvious requirements for the personal qualities of the worker performing participant observation.
Observer training includes the development of special knowledge, skills and abilities. The observer must know the theory of sociology, social psychology, special sociology that is used in a particular study, methods and tactics of observation, materials and documents regulating the activities of the object being studied.
To develop the skills of an observer, it is advisable to organize a series of practical classes (observations) in field or laboratory conditions. This will allow us to discover a typology of possible or typical errors for an observer, develop useful behavioral stereotypes of observation, document preparation skills, etc. Classes should be conducted under the guidance of experienced sociologists. Their main task is the selection of personnel, since not everyone can become a qualified observer. There are natural “contraindications”, for example, for people who are too absent-minded.
However, any qualification of the observer does not negate the need to develop instructions for conducting research. They should indicate:
Sequence of stages and procedures of observation;
Criteria for assessing the actions of those observed;
Method of recording information;
The instructions contain a task for the observer, on the basis of which a trial study is carried out, followed by a discussion of the discovered errors. It is reviewed by an experienced sociologist, who determines the degree of readiness of the observer and his ability to work with instructions. There are options for changing candidates or changing instructions in accordance with the candidate’s proposals. A trial study provides a unique opportunity to take into account the most characteristic errors, inaccuracies, and exaggerations for a particular observation, and to draw up a unique individual map of the observer. In the future, it is possible to select observers from the card index.
Scheme 1.3.2
Observation method (information is obtained by the researcher through direct communication with the object)
|
Peculiarities |
Advantages |
Flaws |
|
Simultaneity of an event and its observation |
Perception of human behavior in real-world settings. Timeliness of information |
Locality, the private nature of the observed situation, the impossibility of its repetition |
|
Data about the object was obtained “from the outside.” Holistic perception of the situation |
Objectivity, specificity of data. The unity of the emotional and rational in the perception of the situation. Expanding the ability of intuition to understand and explain phenomena |
Limitation of obtaining data on goals and motives of behavior. Difficulty identifying signs of the situation |
|
Dependence of data on observer settings |
The validity of the position in the perception of facts. Using the observer's experience in identifying problem situations. Flexibility of research facilities |
Subjectivity, distortion, errors in recording signs (emotional state, low qualifications, incorrect methodological settings of the observer) |
|
The influence of the observer on the object |
Approaching the object to the experimental situation. The object is “configured” to identify problems, analyze them, and demonstrate capabilities |
Generalization possibilities are limited by distortion of the natural state of the object |
|
The influence of the object on the observer, his perception of the situation |
Accurate understanding of the meaning of actions and people’s behavior through identification with the values and goals of the group |
Distortion in perception due to “infection” with group stereotypes in the observed object. Passivity of a method bound to the state of an object |
Scheme 1.3.3.
Types of observations
|
Observer position |
Level of standardization of procedures |
Situation requirement |
Time regulations |
Use of technical means |
Social level of the object |
|
Does not interact with group members |
Programmed - with registration of signs in special cards |
Laboratory - with for- given parameters of the observed situation |
Systematic - with a given regularity registration of signs |
Audio-visual - cinema, photo, TV, radio |
Communities, groups (regional, ethical, functional) |
|
“Private trader” – partially enters into communication |
Partially standardized - using protocols or diaries |
Laboratory-field - with individual limitations of the observed situation |
Episodic - with unspecified registration frequency |
Recorders, multipliers |
Collectives, institutional groups |
|
Fully involved in group activities |
Out of control - with diary entry |
Field - natural observation |
Random - fixation not provided for by the program |
Computers |
Small, non-institutional groups |
|
Incognito turns on |
Without the use of technical means - manual processing |
Personality |
|||
|
“Self-observer” – registers the facts of his actions, states |
Observer training stages
Familiarization with the content of the observation program, with instructions, tools, and technical means.
Analysis, commenting on units, observation categories, their criteria in accordance with the observation program, explanation of conventions and code designations.
Trial observation, observation rehearsal in a laboratory or in the field, correction of observers’ actions.
Work order. Issuing instructions, tools, tasks for conducting observations.
Control selective monitoring of observers' work.
Characteristic task performance, assessing the reliability of the observer's data.
Qualities, knowledge, skills of an observer
General theoretical training- knowledge of sociology, social psychology.
Site specific knowledge. Awareness of the goals, content, nature of the activity of the observed object. Knowledge of its structure and main problems. (Achieved through familiarity with the literature, in conversation with industry experts, during special instruction.)
Specific, accurate knowledge of tasks observations (worked out during instruction, self-test exercises, tests).
Focus on the selected object parameters, RAM.
Analyticity thinking, the ability to identify individual features in the process of perceiving an object.
Ability to distribute attention to simultaneous changes in the situation. Ability to respond to multiple signals. (It is possible to respond to five to seven parameters of the observed situation.)
Noise immunity. Physical endurance. Emotional stability. The ability to maintain composure in the face of sudden changes in the situation, not to interfere in the observed situation. Role orientation towards a temperament close to the phlegmatic type. Patience and persistence in maintaining an observer position.
Punctuality. Accurate adherence to assigned tasks, timely registration of data, accuracy in filling out methodological documents.
Self-control. Critical assessment of one's actions, the ability to correct and reorganize actions.
Sociability(for participant observation). The ability to get into contact with strangers, maintain communication (but at the same time not arouse interest in oneself from those being observed).
Tact and moral responsibility. An observer must not harm those whom he observes. In accordance with professional ethics, he must use the information received only for scientific purposes and not disclose it.
Technical literacy when using technical surveillance equipment.
Typical mistakes when applying the observation method in sociological research
Observation begins without a specially prepared program and is carried out randomly.
The identified observation signs are not related to the problem situation and the research hypothesis.
The recorded signs of observation in the observation card did not include frequently repeated and quite significant properties of the observed situation.
There were no restrictions on observation conditions, and observers encountered fundamentally different situations during the study.
Only evaluative or only descriptive observation categories were introduced.
There is ambiguity in the terminological designation of observation categories; different classes of signs fall into the same observation category.
Methodological documents have not been prepared and tested, and during data collection difficulties arose in registering signs.
Persons who have not undergone special training were selected as observers. The observers were not briefed and the observation procedure was not rehearsed with them.
The coding of the observation card features does not correspond to the data processing program.
Audiovisual surveillance means are not adjusted to the surveillance procedure.
Additional
Main
Literature
Plan
Subject. Methods of social psychology.
Lecture 4.
Target: form an idea of the methods of social psychology
1. Observation method
2. Document analysis method
3. Survey method
4. Sociometry method
5. Group personality assessment method (GAL)
7. Experiment
1. Sosnin V.A., Krasnikova E.A. Social psychology: Textbook. – M.: FORUM: INFRA-M, 2004.
2. Andreeva G.M. Social Psychology. M.: Aspect Press, 2000.
3. Methodology and methods of social psychology / Rep. ed. E.V. Shorokhova. M.: Nauka, 1977.
4. Methods of social psychology / Ed. E.S. Kuzmina, V.E. L.: Leningrad State University, 1977.
The methods of social psychology are to a certain extent interdisciplinary and are used in other sciences, for example, in sociology, psychology, and pedagogy. The development and improvement of socio-psychological methods occurs unevenly, which determines the difficulties of their systematization. The entire set of methods is usually divided into two groups: information collection methods And her methods processing . However, there are other classifications of methods. For example, in one of the well-known classifications three groups of methods are distinguished, namely: empirical research methods(observation, document analysis, survey, group personality assessment, sociometry, tests, instrumental methods, experiment); modeling methods; methods of managerial and educational influence . Moreover, the identification and classification of methods of socio-psychological influence are especially important for the methodology of social psychology. The importance of the latter is associated with the strengthening of the role of social psychology in solving social problems.
The following methods of collecting empirical data are most often used in social psychology.
Observation method is a method of collecting information through direct, targeted and systematic perception and recording of socio-psychological phenomena (facts of behavior and activity) in natural or laboratory conditions. The observation method can be used as one of the central, independent research methods.
Classification of observations is made on various grounds . Taking into account the dependence on the degree of standardization of observation technology, it is customary to distinguish two main varieties of this method: standardized and non-standardized observation. A standardized technique presupposes the presence of a developed list of signs to be observed, the definition of conditions and situations of observation, instructions for observation, and uniform codifiers for recording observed phenomena. In this case, collecting data involves their subsequent processing and analysis using the techniques of mathematical statistics. A non-standardized observation technique determines only general directions of observation, where the result is recorded in free form, directly at the moment of perception or from memory. Data from this technique are usually presented in free form; it is also possible to systematize them using formal procedures.
Taking into account the dependence of the observer’s role in the situation being studied, they distinguish included (participating) And non-participant (simple) observation
.
Participant observation involves the interaction of the observer with the group being studied as a full member. The researcher imitates his entry into the social environment, adapts to it and observes events in it as if from the inside. There are different types of participant observation based on the degree of awareness of the members of the group being studied about the goals and objectives of the researcher. Non-participant observation records events “from the outside,” without interaction or establishing a relationship with the person or group being studied. Observation can be carried out openly and incognito, when the observer disguises his actions. The main disadvantage of participant observation
is associated with the influence on the observer (his perception and analysis) of the values and norms of the group being studied. The researcher risks losing the necessary neutrality and objectivity when selecting, evaluating and interpreting data. Common mistakes
: reduction of impressions and their simplification, their banal interpretation, reconstruction of events to the average, loss of the “middle” of events, etc.
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At the same time, the labor intensity and organizational complexity of this method cause serious difficulties.
By condition of the organization observation methods are divided into field (observations in natural conditions) And laboratory (observations under experimental conditions). The object of observation is individual people, small groups and large social communities (for example, a crowd) and the social processes occurring in them, for example panic. The subject of observation is usually the verbal and nonverbal acts of behavior of an individual or a group as a whole in a certain social situation. The most typical verbal and nonverbal characteristics include: speech acts (their content, direction and sequence, frequency, duration and intensity, as well as expressiveness); expressive movements (expression of the eyes, face, body, etc.); physical actions, i.e. touching, pushing, hitting, joint actions, etc. Sometimes the observer records the events taking place using generalized traits, qualities of a person or the most typical tendencies of his behavior, for example, dominance, submission, friendliness, analyticalness , expressiveness, etc.
The question of the content of the observation is always specific and depends on the purpose of the observation and the theoretical positions of the researcher regarding the phenomenon being studied. The main task of the researcher at the organization stage observation - to determine in which acts of behavior, accessible to observation and recording, the psychological phenomenon or property of interest is manifested, and to select the most significant features that most fully and reliably characterize it. Selected behavior characteristics (observation units ) and their codifiers make up the so-called “observation scheme”.
The complexity or simplicity of the observation scheme affects the reliability of the method. The reliability of the scheme depends on the number of observation units (the fewer there are, the more reliable it is); their concreteness (the more abstract a feature is, the more difficult it is to record); the complexity of the conclusions that the observer comes to when classifying the identified signs. The reliability of an observation scheme is usually checked by monitoring data from other observers, as well as by other methods (for example, the use of similar observation schemes, expert judgment) and repeated observation.
The observation results are recorded in accordance with a specially prepared observation protocol. The most common methods for recording observation data are: factual , implying the recording of all cases of manifestation of observation units; evaluative , when the manifestation of signs is not only recorded, but also assessed using an intensity scale and a time scale (for example, the duration of an act of behavior). Observation results must be subjected to qualitative and quantitative analysis and interpretation.
The main disadvantages of the method are considered to be: a) high subjectivity in data collection, introduced by the observer (halo effects, contrast, leniency, modeling, etc.) and the observed (the effect of the presence of the observer); b) the predominantly qualitative nature of the observation findings; c) relative limitations in generalizing the research results. Ways to increase the reliability of observation results are associated with the use of reliable observation schemes, technical means of data recording, with minimizing the effect of the presence of the observer and depend on the training and experience of the researcher.
Observation method - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Observation Method" 2017, 2018.