The morphological features of a word can be formal (types of declension of nouns and adjectives, types of verb conjugation) or formal semantic. Mandatory formal semantic features of a word and grammatical forms of a word are usually called morphological categories. The morphological category is understood as the unity of grammatical meaning and its grammatical formal indicators, manifested in all words and word forms of a particular part of speech.
Not every morphological feature can be classified as a category. For example, in verb form read a number of morphological features are expressed, while the assignment of a verb to the first conjugation is its purely formal morphological indicator; other features of this verb are formal semantic (categorical). For the verb in question, there are a number of morphological categories to consider: aspect (imperfect), voice (active), mood (imperative), person (2nd) and number (plural).
Morphological features are constant (classification) or variable (inflectional).
For example, the type of a verb is its constant morphological feature (classification morphological category), since the verb does not change by type and in any form belongs to the same type - perfect (say, said, say, said) or imperfect (speak, spoke, speak, spoke). The same are the signs of grammatical gender and animate/inanimate nouns.
Variable morphological features of a word (i.e., inflectional categories) have a completely different nature: different grammatical forms of one word can express different meanings of the same inflectional category. For example, mood is an inflectional category of a verb, since forms of the same verb can express the meanings of different moods: let's go, go, let's go. The inflectional categories of the verb are also tense, person, and number. For nouns, the inflectional categories are case and number.
Parts of speech
Parts of speech- these are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features: 1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called part-verbal (for example, for all nouns the meaning of objectivity); 2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation similarity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and auxiliary parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent parts of a sentence and carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within independent parts of speech, fully significant and incompletely significant words are contrasted. Full nominal words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) are used to name certain objects, phenomena, signs,
And incompletely significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only point to objects, phenomena, signs, without naming them.
Another distinction within the framework of independent parts of speech is important: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as inflected parts of speech (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Functional parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent parts of a sentence and usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray! etc.) are not included in the number of either independent or auxiliary parts of speech; they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the speaker's feelings.
Jill Morphological analysis of words
Morphological analysis words (parsing by parts of speech) begins with establishing the initial (dictionary) form of the analyzed word.
1. Determine the part of speech to which the word being analyzed belongs.
2. Identify the constant morphological features of the word.
3. Characterize the variable morphological features of a word (not everyone has them, but only the variable parts of speech).
4. Establish the role of this word in the sentence.
When analyzing, it should be borne in mind that grammatical homonymy is widespread in the language: the same word in different sentences can refer to different parts of speech and exhibit different morphological properties; compare: A swan swims nearby and pecks at an evil kite(P.) - the highlighted word is an adverb; Near the forest, like in a soft bed, you can sleep- peace and space(N.) - near is a preposition; She wrote a letter to her father thanking him.
him for his help- thanks to is a gerund, it is one of the forms of the verb thank; Thanks to my father, my sisters and I speak French, German and English(Ch.) - here thanks to is a pretext.
Independent parts of speech Noun
Noun is an independent part of speech that expresses the part-speech grammatical meaning of objectivity and has morphological signs of animate/inanimate, gender, number and case: book, dictionary, student, window, gate.
The grammatical meaning of objectivity differs from the lexical meaning of “subject” (expressed, for example, by the stems of nouns like house, stone), since many nouns, especially abstract ones, formed from verbs and adjectives (reading, blue), do not represent objects. However, any noun has the grammatical meaning of objectivity, which is revealed by posing the question who? or what?
A noun is one of the most important parts of speech; Almost half of all Russian words refer to it. In a sentence, a noun plays the role of subject, object, nominal part of a compound predicate, and is also used as a circumstance and inconsistent definition.
Words differ from each other not only in lexical meaning. All of their many are usually divided into groups - parts of speech. This gradation occurs on the basis of the grammatical meaning of words and their special features - morphological.
Morphology - section of the Russian language
A whole branch of science called morphology deals with the parts of speech. Any word has its own characteristics: general meaning, grammatical meaning, as well as morphological and syntactic features. The first indicates the same meaning of a particular part of speech. For example, designating an object with nouns, its attribute with adjectives, verbs - action, and participles - attribute by action.
Syntactic features are the role of a particular part of speech in a sentence. For example, verbs, as a rule, are predicates, less often - subjects. Nouns in a sentence can be objects, adverbs, subjects, and sometimes predicates.
What are the morphological characteristics
A much more extensive group of morphological characteristics, permanent and unstable. The first characterize the word as a specific part of speech. For example, a verb is always determined by its conjugation, aspect, and transitivity. Variable morphological features indicate that a part of speech has the ability to change. For example, a noun changes according to cases and numbers - these will be its unstable characteristics. But adverbs and gerunds are unchangeable parts of speech; accordingly, they only need to indicate constant signs. The same goes for auxiliary parts of speech and interjections.
Before analyzing the morphological characteristics of parts of speech, it is worth noting that it is necessary to distinguish between a word and its form. Words differ from each other in lexical meaning, and when they change, their forms are formed. For example, the word “plot” has the lexical meaning of “fenced part of the area”, and its forms will be changed by case: plot, plot, plot, about the plot.
Noun
By indicating the constant morphological characteristics of a noun, we say whether it is a common noun or a proper noun, animate or inanimate, and we also determine the type of its declension and gender.
Common nouns denote a collection of objects without highlighting their individual features. For example, by the word “river” we mean all rivers: large and small, northern and southern, full-flowing and not so deep. But if we indicate a specific river, one of a kind, for example, the Neva, the noun will be proper.
Objects of living nature are classified as animate nouns, all others are classified as inanimate. These are constant morphological features of a noun. Dog (who?) - animate; table (what?) - inanimate. Also, nouns of these categories differ in the forms of the accusative and genitive cases. The endings in the genitive and accusative cases of the plural coincide for animate ones, and for inanimate ones - accusative and nominative.
Let's give an example. Genitive case: there are no (who?) cats; accusative: I see (who?) cats. Let's compare: I see (what?) chairs; there are (what?) chairs.
The following genders are distinguished: male, female and neuter. To determine these morphological features of a noun, it is necessary to substitute the pronouns my - my - mine respectively.
We present the declension of nouns in the table:
Variable morphological features of a noun are its case and number. These categories form the forms of the word-noun.
Adjective
Just like a noun, the morphological features of an adjective are divided into constant and inconstant.
The first are its category, degree of comparison and form, full or short.
Adjectives are divided into qualitative, relative and possessive. The subject may have the former to one degree or another; they can appear in full or brief form, and also form degrees of comparison. For example: beautiful is a qualitative adjective. Let's prove it. It is characterized by such morphological features of the adjective as degree of comparison (more beautiful, most beautiful) and short form (beautiful). Relative adjectives cannot have these categories (golden, hazy, razor). Possessives denote ownership; they answer the question “whose?”
Degrees of comparison are divided into comparative and superlative. The first shows a greater or lesser degree of any quality: tea is sweeter - less sweet - sweeter. The superlative degree denotes the highest or lowest degree of a characteristic: the shortest, the funniest, the smallest.
The full and short forms are inherent in qualitative adjectives. It should be remembered that short ones do not decline, but they can be changed according to numbers and genders: cheerful (full form) - cheerful (m.gen., singular) - cheerful (f.r., singular) - cheerful (plural ).
Variable morphological features of an adjective are the forms of case, number and gender in which it is used. The category of gender can only be determined for adjectives in the singular.
Numeral
The constant morphological characteristics of a word that is a numeral are its category and structural characteristics.
There are quantitative and ordinal numerals. The first require an answer to the question “how much?” (ten, fifteen, twenty-five), the second - “what is the count?” (tenth, fifteenth, twenty-fifth).
- Simple (five, second).
- Difficult (thirteen, fifteenth).
- Compounds (twenty-two, three hundred and forty-one).
The inconsistent features of a numeral name are largely determined by its rank. Thus, cardinal numbers are characterized by changes only in cases. Ordinal numbers are similar in grammatical parameters to adjectives, therefore they can form case forms and change in number and gender.
Pronoun
If we talk about a pronoun, then its morphological characteristics largely depend on which part of speech it is close in grammatical meaning. They can gravitate towards a noun, adjective or numeral. Let's look at pronouns and their morphological features in this context.
Pronouns-nouns are characterized by unchangeable categories of person (personal) and formative gender, number, and case.
Adjective pronouns can also be changed by gender, number and case. The exception is words her, him, them- they do not change by case.
Only pronouns - numerals - have a case form.
So, when determining what morphological characteristics a pronoun has, you first need to look at the category and indicate the remaining characteristics accordingly.
Verb: constant signs
The constant morphological features of a verb are its aspect, transitivity, reflexivity and conjugation.
Verbs come in two types, perfect and imperfect. The first involves the question “what to do?”, the second - “what to do?”. For example, move (what to do?) - perfect form; move (what to do?) - imperfect form.
The transitivity category assumes that the verb controls a noun in the accusative case without a preposition. All other verbs will be intransitive. Let's give an example: hate (who, what?) enemy, lie, fog - a transitive verb. To go into the house, fly through the sky, jump over a step, get a sore throat - these verbs are intransitive, nouns with prepositions, and the accusative case cannot be formed.
The reflexive verb has the suffix -sya (-s): to bathe, bathe (reflexive); bathe - non-refundable.
We present the verb conjugation in the table:
Verb: inconstant signs
Variable morphological features of a verb are its number, mood, gender, tense and person. These categories are largely determined by others. For example, verbs in the indicative mood change over time. Imperfective verbs are the only ones that have three forms of tense.
Russian verbs have three forms of mood: indicative (I bake, I will bake, I baked), imperative (bake) and conditional (bake).
Verbs also change according to gender: he swam, she swam, it swam. This category is typical for past tense verbs.
The person of the verb indicates who is performing the action: the speaker himself (I am cleaning), the interlocutor (you are cleaning) or the subject/person of the conversation (she is cleaning).
As with a pronoun, you first need to look at the category and indicate the remaining characteristics accordingly.
Participle
The constant morphological features of the participle are aspect, transitivity, reflexivity, voice and tense.
Just like verbs, participles come in perfect and imperfect forms: working (what to do? work) - imperfect form; built (what to do? build) - perfect form.
If the participle is formed from a transitive or reflexive verb, the same features will be preserved in it. For example, from the transitive verb “to lock” the participle “locking” (locked) is formed - it also has this category. From the reflexive verb “to lock” the participle “locked” is formed, which is therefore also reflexive.
Participles can be active (the attribute is performed by the object itself: the thinker is the one who thinks) and passive (the object experiences the effect of the attribute: a written book is a book that was written by someone).
Two forms of tense can be distinguished for participles: present (player) and past (played).
The inconsistent morphological features of a participle are similar to an adjective: gender, number, case, form (short or full).
Participle
The participle is an unchangeable part of speech, therefore it has exclusively constant characteristics:
- View. Perfect (by doing what? - reading) and imperfect (by doing what? - reading).
- Transitivity. It is transmitted from the verb: having decided (decide is a transitive verb); going (go is an intransitive verb).
- Returnability. Distributed - reflexive gerund; having distributed - irrevocable.
Adverb
Just like a gerund, an adverb does not form a form. Thus, only constant morphological features are indicated: rank in meaning and if the adverb is qualitative, i.e. formed from an adjective, indicate the degree of comparison.
For example, the adverb “fun” is formed from the adjective cheerful, therefore it is possible to form degrees of comparison: cheerfully (positive); more fun (comparative); the most fun of all (excellent).
§1. What is the classification of words based on parts of speech?
Morphology studies the grammatical nature of words and classifies them based on their inherent morphological features. In principle, a variety of classifications are possible: the result depends on what features are used as the basis. Therefore, when faced with a classification, always think about what it is based on.
Morphological classification of words - this is their division into classes, which are called parts of speech.
This is a complex classification. It is built not on one, but on three criteria:
- grammatical meaning
- set of morphological characters
- syntactic role in a sentence
Grammatical meaning- this is the most generalized meaning characteristic of the entire class of words. More subtle differences in meaning reflect ranks by value, which are allocated for one or another part of speech. For example, let's look at a noun.
The grammatical meaning of a noun is “object”. It is expressed in words that answer the questions: Who what?
Examples: Who what? - leg, lamp, son, Moscow, gold, silver, nobility, youth, goodness, greed.
These words, of course, convey different meanings: concrete and abstract, material, collective, proper. What is important for morphology is that these differences in meaning are expressed at the morphological level. For example, most nouns with specific meanings usually have singular and plural forms: leg legs, and all the rest - only one form: either singular or plural: Moscow(own) - singular, gold(real) - units. h., nobility(collective) - units. h., good(abstract) - singular But all these words are of the same class. They answer certain questions, which distinguishes them from other classes of words, such as verbs that answer questions: What to do?, What to do? and express the grammatical meaning of “action”: walk, jump, laugh, fight, study.
Morphological characteristics - these are characteristics of the grammatical nature of words. For morphology it is important:
- whether the words change or not,
- what sets of forms does a word have,
- what endings are these forms expressed by,
- what these forms express.
Some morphological features are common to several parts of speech, for example case, others are characteristic of only one class of words, for example time. One and the same feature can be unchangeable, constant for some class of words and changeable for others, such as, for example, genus. Each part of speech has its own set of morphological features. Without knowing them, it is impossible to carry out a morphological analysis of a word and understand what unites words of one part of speech and distinguishes them from words of other parts of speech.
Syntactic role in a sentence - it is the role that words of a certain class play in a sentence. Important:
- whether the word is a member of a sentence,
- what is its role in the grammatical structure of a sentence.
§2. Parts of speech
Attention:
The dotted line shows that not all authors distinguish participles, gerunds and the category of state. This issue is discussed in more detail below.
Part of speech is a class of words united by a common grammatical meaning, a set of morphological features and a syntactic role in a sentence. This class of words differs from other classes in a set of characteristics.
The logic of this classification of Russian words by parts of speech is generally accepted.
It is also common to distinguish:
- interjections and non-interjective word classes,
- non-interjectives are divided into auxiliary and independent classes of words,
- among independent ones, distinguish between significant and pronominal words,
- nominatives are divided into changing and unchanging (adverbial),
- inflected ones are divided into inflected and conjugated (verbs),
- Declined ones are further divided by types of declension (nouns inflected by number and cases and others inflected by number, cases and gender).
Traditionally distinguished 10 parts of speech:
- Nouns
- Adjectives
- Numerals
- Pronouns
- Verbs
- Adverbs
- Prepositions
- Unions
- Particles
- Interjections
§3. Why do textbooks indicate different numbers of parts of speech?
Linguistics is an interpretive science, i.e. explanatory.
Specific interpretations of linguistic phenomena depend on the point of view of the author.
There are phenomena in language that can be interpreted (explained) in different ways.
Participles and gerunds
The dotted lines on the diagram show the special status of participles and gerunds. Depending on the point of view, they are either considered forms of the verb, in which case they form part of speech Verb, or are identified as special parts of speech. Why did different interpretations arise?
The peculiarity of participles is that they retain verbal features, for example, aspect, tense, transitivity, reflexivity, conjugation. But at the same time, participles are modified in a special way, like adjectives. Full participles - by case and number, and in the singular - by gender, and short participles - by number and in the singular - by gender. And the participles do not change at all.
Interpretation 1
: Participle and gerund are special forms of verbs.
Initial form: verb in the infinitive form, i.e. infinitive.
Suffixes of participles and gerunds are formative suffixes.
Infinitive erect, participles:
and gerunds: erecting- these are just different forms of one word erect.
Interpretation 2
: participle and gerund are independent parts of speech.
Initial form of participle: unit form. numbers, husband kind.
Suffixes of participles and gerunds are word-forming suffixes.
Infinitive erect, participles erecting, erecting, erecting and gerunds erecting - different words belonging to different parts of speech.
The line of dots on the diagram shows the special status of words in the state category. The name itself, by the way, is also unlike the names of other parts of speech. Why did different interpretations arise?
It has long been noted that adverbial words are very diverse. In particular, a group of adverbial unchangeable words that denote the state of a person is distinguished. To me Cold, and to him hot. This is not the same as: loud scream, quiet laugh. Both the meaning and role in a sentence of the words: cold, hot - loud quiet vary.
Interpretation 1: All these words are adverbs. Among them there is a special subgroup that has its own characteristics.
Interpretation 2: Adverbs and words of the state category are different parts of speech. They have different meanings and different roles in a sentence.
Discussing the problem of interpretation
How should children answer teachers' questions? How to complete test tasks? How to perform morphological analysis of words? And word-formation analysis, by the way, too?
Nowhere does it say: figure it out for yourself and make a choice which point of view to adhere to. The textbooks clearly state: this is so. Some authors categorically do not accept other points of view and directly state: the other point of view is erroneous. That is, the adults could not agree among themselves. What should schoolchildren do? Everyone has the State Examination or the Unified State Exam ahead, and the younger guys have both exams.
Remember:
- how this material is given by the authors of your textbook;
- what textbook are you studying with: learn the names of the authors;
- When completing tasks, do not rush between different concepts, act consciously and, most importantly, consistently.
For graduates: be prepared to explain the point of view you share and name the textbook in which it is presented. No one has the right to consider it unacceptable and reduce the grade for it. In case of misunderstandings when assessing your knowledge, which arose as a result of different interpretations of linguistic phenomena in school textbooks, persistently ask to understand the situation. The necessary information for protection is on this site.
§4. Servants - independent parts of speech
Any person who speaks Russian understands that there is an important difference between auxiliary and independent classes of words.
Functional parts of speech:
- Prepositions
- Unions
- Particles
Independent parts of speech:
- Noun
- Adjective
- Numeral
- Verb
- Adverb
Attention:
Interjection is a special part of speech. She is neither official nor independent.
What is the main difference?
Service parts of speech express not independent meanings, but relationships between members of a sentence or sentences, or give words and sentences different shades of meaning. They do not have a set of morphological characteristics and are not members of the sentence.
Independent parts of speech express the grammatical meaning characteristic of the entire class of words:
- Nouns - "thing"
- Adjective - “sign of an object”
- Numeral - “number, quantity, order in counting”
- Verb - "action"
- Adverb - “a sign of a sign, a sign of an action”
- Pronoun - “indication”
Independent parts of speech are divided into nominatives and pronouns.
Significant parts of speech name objects, signs, actions, numbers, and pronouns only point to them.
Test of strength
Check your understanding of this chapter.
Final test
What classification is based on the grammatical meaning of words, a set of their morphological features and the syntactic role of words in a sentence?
- Members' proposals
- Parts of speech
Can one and the same morphological feature be common to words from different parts of speech?
Can one and the same morphological feature be changeable in some words and unchangeable in others?
Can words from the same part of speech be different parts of a sentence?
Can words from different parts of speech be one part of a sentence?
Is it correct to believe that significant words are divided into changeable and unchangeable?
What part of speech is an interjection?
- Self-sufficient
- Service
- Neither one nor the other
What parts of speech is opposed to interjection?
- Official
- Independent
- Both one and the other, that is, everyone
Do numerals decline?
Are pronouns conjugated?
Are all independent parts of speech significant?
Are all significant parts of speech independent?
Right answers:
- Parts of speech
- Neither one nor the other
- Both one and the other, that is, everyone
- How do words change in Russian? (for high school students and those who want to understand this)
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