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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS

BELARUSIAN STATE ECONOMIC

UNIVERSITY

SUPPORTS LECTURE NOTES

IN THE COURSE “LEGAL REGULATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES”

Authors and compilers: Davydenko M.V., Yurchenko V.S., Marikov O.P., Filipchik R.I., Shved N.A., Berezutskaya N.S.

MINSK 200

legislation investment commercial foreign economic

Concept and characteristics of economic entities.

Methods, procedure and main stages of creating business entities

Types of economic entities

Commercial and non-profit organizations as business entities

Reorganization and liquidation of business entities

Topic 3. Legal regime of property of business entities.

Structure of property of economic entities

Legal regime of things, money, securities, intellectual property, works and services, information, intangible goods

Sources of formation of property of economic entities.

Topic 4. Legal basis of investment activities

Concept and types of investments, investment activities

Subjects and objects of investment activity

Legal regulation and protection of foreign investments

The procedure for creation and state registration of commercial organizations with foreign investments

Topic 5. Legal basis of economic insolvency (bankruptcy).

Concept, signs and legal regulation of economic insolvency (bankruptcy)

The procedure for applying to court to declare a debtor economically insolvent (bankrupt)

Bankruptcy procedures

Extrajudicial bankruptcy procedures

Features of bankruptcy of certain types of business entities

Topic 6. Legal regulation of prices and pricing

Concept and types of prices

Legal basis for state regulation of prices and tariffs

Responsibility in the area of pricing.

Topic 7. Legal regulation of credit and settlement relations

1. Settlement legal relations

2. Bank account agreement

Topic 8. Legal regulation of certain types of obligations in economic (entrepreneurial) activities.

1. The concept of obligation.

2. Legal regulation of purchase and sale.

3. Legal regulation of rent.

4. Legal regulation of contracting.

5. Legal regulation of transportation.

6. Legal regulation of the order.

Topic 9. Legal regulation of foreign economic activity

1. Concept and types of foreign economic activity

2. Methods of state legal regulation of foreign economic activity

3. Foreign economic transactions and their types.

4. Resolution of disputes arising during foreign economic activity

Topic 10. Legal regulation of denationalization and privatization of state property.

The concept and role of denationalization and privatization.

Subjects and objects of denationalization and privatization

The procedure for privatization of state property. Registration of transactions and ownership of privatized objects.

Topic 11. Legal support for competition and restriction of monopolistic activities

Concept, meaning and legal support of competition

Concept and types of monopolistic activity

Legal means of antimonopoly regulation.

Topic 12. Resolution of economic disputes

Concept and types of economic disputes

Procedural forms of protecting the rights and legitimate interests of business entities

Jurisdiction and cognizance of cases to economic courts

Participants in the economic process. Rights and obligations of the parties when considering a case by an economic court

Execution of court orders

Topic 1. General issues of legal regulation of economic activities

1. Concept, types and meaning of economic activity

2. Concept and structure of economic legislation

1. Concept, types And economic importance activities

Economic activity is the activity of special business entities in the sphere of production, exchange and redistribution. material and intellectual goods, as well as management and control over these activities by government agencies and other persons. Economic activity includes both activities aimed at making profit (entrepreneurial activity) and activities not directly related to making profit, but servicing, regulating and controlling the process of generating profit and other income.

Legal regulation of economic activity includes not only state, but also private legal regulation, i.e. self-regulation. This self-regulation has the main sources of legal regulation in the norms of corporate law. These are local regulations in the form of charters and constituent agreements of commercial organizations, constituent documents of non-profit organizations coordinating the work of commercial organizations, customs of business (economic) turnover, etc.

The system of legal regulation of economic activity is characterized by the following trends: the principles of law play a law-regulating, unifying and system-forming role in the mechanism of legal regulation; modern law is developing in the direction of internationalization and the subordination of national systems to generally accepted principles of international law; the socialization and humanization of law has become universal, in contrast to the previously known exceptions to the rule; branches of law are united and cannot have priority over one another, their norms are applied jointly and comprehensively; all social norms are applied in legal relations jointly, but selectively; public and private authorities and their law-making function jointly in the social state; law and social relations develop on the basis of the interaction of state organizing and private self-organizing principles of this development; restrictions on rights are universal; Every private (civil) legal relationship is always accompanied by a constitutional legal or other public legal relationship. At the same time, branches of law and their norms do not have priority over one another.

The laws of the limits, forms and methods of legal regulation of economic activity are characterized by the following: they are subject to the laws of action of the continuum method; regulation and restriction of freedoms involves changing the degree of discretion and the degree of freedom of expression in various branches of law; the mobility of legal regulation lies in the free transformation of subordinate legal relations into legal relations of a civil law type and vice versa, as well as in the natural unity of rights and obligations; the inextricable connection of private and public interests and rights; The state's competence to regulate private freedoms is limited.

The most important instrument for self-regulation of economic activity is a business contract. Its main types will be discussed below. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that, like other institutions of economic law, the contract is closely related to the task of ensuring the rights and interests of business entities and consumer citizens not participating in these contracts. Therefore, it is important to maintain the division of contracts into household and economic, to develop new classifications of contractual obligations, in particular, their division into the obligations of producers of goods and services and the obligations of consumers of goods and services. Consumers mean creditors, i.e. persons having rights of claim, including individuals and legal entities. This makes it possible to purposefully carry out legal regulation of economic activity in the direction of combining the interests of wholesale and retail producers and consumers in contracts, and to regulate private and public rights and interests in a balanced manner.

2. Structure and content of economic legislation

Economic legislation acts as a set of normative legal acts that contain provisions governing economic relations. Economic legislation is considered as an independent branch of legislation, the subject of which is state management of certain areas of the economy in order to realize public interests, as well as property and other closely related to them, including organizational relations that arise in the process of economic activity.

Let us note that a number of legislative acts that contain norms regulating economic relations are based on generally accepted concepts, and may also include norms of other branches of legislation. For example, a number of basic provisions contained in acts of civil legislation (provisions on persons, contracts and others) are fundamental for the implementation of economic relations. Therefore, the relevant civil law norms are reflected in acts of economic legislation.

Thus, in the legislative system of the Republic of Belarus, one can distinguish a significant number of regulatory legal acts that contain norms not only of economic law, but of two or more other independent branches of legislation. To the extent that these acts regulate the implementation of economic activities, they can be considered as elements of the system of economic legislation (its individual sub-sectors). These features reveal the complex nature of such a branch of legislation as economic law. It is generally accepted that it arose and is developing on the basis of a combination of civil, administrative, financial, environmental and a number of other branches of law. In this sense, economic legislation is a set of normative legal acts that constitute the legal source of economic law. Economic legislation is a system of normative legal acts adopted by competent state bodies in order to regulate economic relations, which establish (sanction) generally binding rules of behavior and provide for their implementation.

The structure of economic legislation is the relationship between regulatory legal acts that collectively regulate economic relations, their qualitative characteristics and properties. In this case, we are talking about a system of vertical and horizontal interrelations of these acts of legislation, their hierarchical subordination, organization and orderliness, which give the specified totality the quality of integrity.

The vertical structure of the economic legislation system is built in accordance with the legal force of regulatory legal acts established by the competence of the bodies issuing these acts. In this regard, the following main groups of legal acts can be distinguished in the structure of economic legislation.

1) Constitution of the Republic of Belarus. The basis for a number of acts of economic legislation is the provisions of Article 13 of the Constitution, which establishes the economic role of the state, the goals of state regulation of economic activity, equality of rights of subjects of economic activity, guarantees equal protection and equal conditions for the development of all forms of property, establishes state ownership of the main types of natural resources. resources.

2) The development of constitutional provisions is carried out through the publication of legislative acts regulating economic relations. These include: codes, other laws (including on the ratification of international treaties), decrees and decrees of the President. Let us note that economic legislation in the Republic of Belarus is not concentrated in a single codified act; its foundations are not set out in the main law, such as environmental protection legislation. The initial concepts and provisions of economic legislation are dispersed in a significant number of legislative acts. The basis for economic turnover in this sense is the norms of the Civil Code, and the principles of equality of participants in civil turnover, autonomy of will, and discretion enshrined in it. An important place in the structure of economic legislation also belongs to the Economic Procedural Code of the Republic of Belarus, codes and laws regulating the procedure for carrying out certain types and areas of economic activity (Investment Code of the Republic of Belarus, Water Code of the Republic of Belarus, Law “On the Fundamentals of Transport Activity”, and others).

An important place in the structure of economic legislation is occupied by temporary decrees and decrees of the President of the Republic of Belarus. As a rule, decrees and decrees of the President are aimed at regulating the most pressing issues in the implementation of economic relations. In the structure of economic legislation, their special role lies in the fact that the decrees and decrees of the President largely reflect the practice of law enforcement and the interests of society in the timely response of the legislator to the constant change in business parameters in the conditions of the formation and development of a market economy.

3) Acts of the Government on the regulation of economic activities are aimed at ensuring the economic independence of the Republic of Belarus, direct regulation of all sectors of the state economy, meeting forecast indicators for the socio-economic development of the Republic of Belarus, promoting the integration of the economy of the Republic of Belarus and the economies of other states, taking into account the interests of the Republic of Belarus, creating conditions for free enterprise on the basis of equality of all forms of ownership, ensuring counteraction to monopolistic activities and the development of fair competition, implementation of a unified state policy in the field of regulation of land relations, protection and rational use of land, use and saving of energy and material resources, as well as implementation of a unified state policy in such economically significant areas as pricing, protection of industrial property rights, standardization, metrology and certification, ensuring the development of national infrastructure and others.

4) Regulatory legal acts of ministries, other republican government bodies of the Republic of Belarus are adopted in accordance with their competence in the field of regulation of economic relations established by the Council of Ministers and only in cases and within the limits provided for by the Constitution, laws of the Republic of Belarus, regulatory legal acts of the President, regulations on relevant bodies, as well as acts of the Council of Ministers. Regulatory legal acts of ministries and other republican government bodies are adopted in the form of resolutions and orders, and acts relating to the economic rights, freedoms and responsibilities of citizens or of an interdepartmental nature are adopted in the form of resolutions. Among the ministries that actively create law in the field of economic relations are the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Taxes and Duties, the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and others.

5) Local government and self-government bodies issue decisions on economic issues of local importance. These decisions are binding in the relevant territory.

6) Acts of judicial bodies, including decisions of the Plenum of the Supreme Economic Court, Plenum of the Supreme Court, as well as acts of the Prosecutor General of the Republic of Belarus are also of great importance in determining the legal conditions for carrying out economic activities.

7) Local regulations are also of significant importance in the structure of economic legislation, the effect of which is limited by the framework of one or more organizations that adopted them. Local regulations may regulate various issues of an organization’s internal business activities (in particular, the regime of trade secrets of an enterprise).

8) The current acts of the former USSR are also an integral part of economic legislation. According to the Law “On the Application of USSR Legislation on the Territory of the Republic of Belarus”, in the absence of legislation of the Republic of Belarus regulating the relevant social relations, acts of the USSR legislation that regulate these relations and do not contradict the legislation of the Republic of Belarus are applied.

The horizontal structure of economic legislation is based on functional connections between regulatory legal acts. These functional connections, as a rule, are derived from the subject of legal regulation of these acts, reflecting the need for state regulation of economic relations at the macro and micro levels. Thus, in the structure of economic legislation one can also distinguish the following main groups of normative legal acts:

1) acts on state regulation and economic management (for example, on state registration of legal entities, licensing, countering monopolistic activities and development of competition, pricing).

2) acts of legislation that define general rules and have general significance for the implementation of economic relations, including establishing the content of the concepts of economic legal relations and economic contracts, establishing the circle of subjects of economic legal relations, and others.

3) acts of state bodies issued in order to regulate certain areas of economic activity (industry, construction, architecture, urban planning, agriculture, trade and public catering, public utilities and consumer services, transport, communications)

4) regulatory legal acts issued to regulate certain types of economic activities (foreign economic activity, investment activity)

5) acts establishing a special management procedure (legislation on the creation, operation and liquidation of free economic zones).

Acts of legislation within each of the functionally separated groups also have vertical subordination in accordance with the legal force of these acts.

Topic 2. Legal status of business entities

1. Concept and characteristics of business entities

2. Methods, procedure and main stages of creating business entities

4. Commercial and non-profit organizations as business entities

5. Reorganization and liquidation of business entities

Concept and characteristics of economic entities

Business entities are bearers of economic rights and obligations who have certain characteristics. As a rule, there are four main characteristics of economic entities: the presence of separate property on the basis of which economic activity is carried out; registration in accordance with the established procedure or legitimation in another way; presence of economic competence; independent property liability.

The most important feature of a business entity is the presence of separate property. Separation of property, independent responsibility, including property, characterizes any fully capable subject of law, and not just an organization with the rights of a legal entity. Property is necessary for carrying out economic, especially commercial, activities. The legal form of separation is the right of ownership, the presence of which gives the owner maximum opportunity to engage directly in entrepreneurial activity, as well as to manage the organizations being created, determine the directions of their activities and the conditions for its implementation.

Legal entities created on the basis of the property of the Republic of Belarus or the property of administrative-territorial units are not the owners of the property assigned to them. A sign of their property isolation is an independent balance sheet of a state unitary or state-owned enterprise and an independent estimate of a state institution with the right to dispose of property. In addition, business entities can possess property not only on the basis of ownership, economic management or operational management, that is, on the basis of real rights, but also on the basis of other rights, for example, obligations (lease, loan).

The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus defines entrepreneurial activity as an independent activity of legal entities and individuals, carried out by them in civil circulation on their own behalf, at their own risk and under their own property liability and aimed at systematically obtaining profit from the use of property, the sale of things produced, processed or purchased by specified persons for sale, as well as from performing work or providing services, if these works or services are intended for sale to other persons and are not used for their own consumption (Article 1).

Business entities are legitimized through state registration. State registration can be carried out only in the manner determined by legislative acts. In the Republic of Belarus, the procedure for state registration of business entities is regulated by the Civil Code, laws, decrees of the President of the Republic of Belarus and other legislative acts. The activities of business entities are illegal and prohibited without state registration.

Economic competence as a necessary element of legal personality means a set of rights that a subject is endowed with in accordance with the law and constituent documents. Economic competence presupposes the ability of a subject to carry out certain types of economic activities and make transactions. In practice, general, limited, special and exclusive economic competencies are distinguished.

General economic competence is understood as the ability of business entities to have the rights and obligations necessary to carry out any type of economic activity that is not prohibited by law.

Individual business entities are endowed with special competence by law. This means that these business entities have rights corresponding to the goals of economic activity provided for in the charter, and bear the responsibilities associated with this activity. For example, non-profit organizations have special competence.

Exclusive competence is vested in entities that have chosen for themselves such a type of activity, in the conduct of which the legislator has established a ban on carrying out any other types of economic activity. For example, the activities of banks, credit, audit organizations, etc. are exceptional.

It should be borne in mind that the competence of business entities may be limited by licensing practices. For example, a business entity has the right to engage in certain types of activities only after receiving a license - a special permit from the relevant authority. The list of activities that require a license and the bodies issuing licenses is approved by the Government.

The sign of independent property liability means that the business entity is responsible itself, with its property, to counterparties and the state. A business entity can acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights, perform duties, be a plaintiff and defendant in court on its own behalf, and act as a full participant in civil transactions.

Methods and procedure for creating business entities

The creation of a business entity is understood as the performance of legally significant actions and the adoption of relevant acts aimed at giving a person the legal status of a business entity.

An individual becomes a business entity from the moment of state registration as an individual entrepreneur. At the same time, entrepreneurial activity can be carried out by an entrepreneur with the formation of a legal entity, or without the formation of a legal entity.

The institution of a business entity is inextricably linked with the institution of a legal entity.

The emergence of the institution of a legal entity in its most general form was due to the complication of the social organization of society and the development of economic relations. Most theories of a legal entity are united by a proposition that could be succinctly formulated as follows: a subject of law, in addition to a person, can be a certain entity that has independent rights and obligations.

In accordance with Art. 44 of the Civil Code, a legal entity is recognized as an organization that has separate property in ownership, economic management or operational management, bears independent responsibility for its obligations, can acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights in its own name, perform duties, be a plaintiff and defendant in court. A legal entity must have an independent balance sheet.

In the Republic of Belarus there is no single act regulating the creation of legal entities, however, there are a number of special regulations that determine the procedure for creating certain types of legal entities. For example, the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On Enterprises” dated December 14, 1990 (as amended and supplemented in 1992, 1993, 1997, 2001) provides that an enterprise can be created by decision of the owner (owners) of the property or an authorized to them (them) of the body, enterprise, organization in cases and in the manner provided for by the legislative acts of the Republic of Belarus. An enterprise can also be created as a result of unbundling in accordance with monopoly legislation, as a result of the separation of one or more structural divisions from an existing enterprise with the consent of the owner or his authorized body. In addition, an enterprise can be created on the basis of a structural unit of an association with the consent of the owner or his authorized body.

For example, the procedure for creating joint stock companies, limited liability companies and additional liability companies is regulated by the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On Joint Stock Companies, Limited Liability Companies and Additional Liability Companies” dated December 9, 1992 (as amended and supplemented 1994, 1995, 1998). The procedure for creating business entities whose property is in republican ownership is regulated by the Regulations on the procedure for creating enterprises, organizations, institutions whose property is in republican ownership, associations, including concerns, which include these enterprises, and on the procedure for terminating their activities , approved by Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus of December 7, 1993 No. 824 (as amended and supplemented by 1994, 1997, 1998). The specifics of creating, for example, banks are regulated by the Banking Code and other regulatory legal acts of the Republic of Belarus.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus defines not only the procedure, but also the methods for creating legal entities. In Belarus, the most common methods are: administrative, permitting, regulatory-appearance (registration).

The administrative method of creating a legal entity is that a specific legal entity is created by order (decision) of the owner of the property or the body authorized by him. As a rule, state legal entities are created in this way. For example, the Government of the Republic of Belarus decides to create an institution, a unitary enterprise. In this sense, the order of creation can be called administrative.

The permitting method requires obtaining permission from a government agency to create a legal entity. With the permitting method, the competent authority checks not only compliance with the rules for drawing up documents on the creation of a legal entity, but also decides the question of whether the creation of such an entity should be allowed. The permitting method is used, in particular, when creating commercial organizations with foreign investment, as well as when creating legal entities in free economic zones.

The essence of the regulatory (registration) procedure for creating a legal entity is that citizens or organizations have the right to freely form a legal entity at their own discretion, since the formation of this type of legal entity is permitted by the legislation of the Republic of Belarus. The registering state body must only check whether the procedure for the formation of such legal entities established by law has been followed. Private unitary enterprises, business partnerships and societies, political parties, trade unions, associations of legal entities and other organizations are formed by the normative-appearance method with their subsequent registration.

State registration of business entities

Every legal entity is subject to mandatory state registration. State registration pursues the following goals: exercising state control over the conduct of economic activities, in particular, over the fulfillment of conditions for engaging in certain types of activities; conducting taxation; obtaining state statistical information for the implementation of economic regulation measures; providing all participants in economic turnover, state authorities and local government bodies with information about economic entities. A legal entity is considered created from the moment of its state registration (Article 47 of the Civil Code).

The procedure for state registration of business entities is established in the Regulations on state registration and liquidation (termination of activities) of business entities, approved by Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus dated March 16, 1999 No. 11 as amended by Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus dated December 17, 2002 No. 29. In accordance from clause 2 of the said Regulations, created (reorganized) legal entities are subject to state registration: business partnerships and societies, unitary enterprises, production cooperatives, including agricultural production cooperatives, and peasant farms (commercial organizations); associations (unions) - associations of commercial organizations, associations of non-profit organizations, associations of commercial and non-profit organizations, consumer cooperatives, institutions, partnerships of owners, funds (non-profit organizations). Citizens carrying out entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity (individual entrepreneurs) are also subject to state registration.

The legislator has determined the bodies that carry out state registration of business entities. Such bodies include: regional executive committees (Minsk City Executive Committee); National Bank; Ministry of Finance; administration of free economic zones; local executive and administrative bodies, as well as district administrations in cities, in cases where such powers are delegated to them.

Information on state registration in the prescribed manner is entered into the Unified State Register of Legal Entities and Individual Entrepreneurs. The Unified State Register is a nationwide system for recording and identifying legal entities and individual entrepreneurs, designed to provide complete and reliable information about legal entities and individual entrepreneurs registered in the Republic of Belarus.

In accordance with the established procedure for state registration of commercial and non-profit organizations, the founders submit the necessary documents to the registration authority, in particular: an application drawn up in the prescribed manner; a questionnaire of the established form for each founder - an individual; a copy of the decision on the creation of a commercial or non-profit organization, approved in the prescribed manner, or the minutes of the meeting of founders (participants) containing such a decision; constituent documents; documents confirming the formation in accordance with the legislation of the authorized capital of a commercial organization, taking into account the peculiarities of its formation for individual organizational and legal forms; documents containing information about the owners of property (founders, participants) of commercial organizations - individuals (a copy of the work book certified at the last place of work, a copy of the pension certificate certified by the social security authority at the place of residence or other body in accordance with the law, a certificate from the employment authority , if such documents are available), etc. The number and list of documents required for state registration depends on the type of business entity.

State registration of business entities is carried out by registration authorities within a month from the date of submission of all necessary documents. If it is necessary to obtain additional information about property owners (founders, participants) of registered commercial and non-profit organizations, as well as about individuals registering as individual entrepreneurs, the registering authority has the right to extend the state registration period to two months. Based on the submitted documents and additional information, the registration authority makes a decision on state registration or refusal, indicating the reasons for the refusal. When making a decision on state registration, the registering authority assigns the corresponding registration number to the business entity and issues a certificate of state registration. The constituent documents of commercial and non-profit organizations are stamped by the registration authority. In addition, the registration authority, within ten days, provides the Ministry of Justice with the necessary information about business entities for their inclusion in the Unified State Register of Legal Entities and Individual Entrepreneurs. All business entities are included in the Unified State Register on the date the registration authority makes the corresponding decision on state registration of the business entity.

When making a decision to refuse state registration of business entities, the registering authority, within five days, informs in writing about this to the person who applied for such registration. The grounds for refusal of state registration are provided for by legislative acts. The decision to refuse state registration of a business entity may be appealed to the economic court in the prescribed manner.

3. Types of business entities

Classification of business entities can be carried out on various grounds. Business entities can be classified depending on the nature of their competence and the form of ownership (private, public). The classification criterion can also be the type of economic competence of a business entity: general, limited, special, exclusive.

In practice, entities whose competence predominates in conducting economic activities are most often identified. These include: individual entrepreneurs - individuals; commercial legal entities, their branches and representative offices, having an independent balance sheet and settlement (current) account; non-profit legal entities, if they are engaged in production and economic activities and pay taxes on this activity.

A special subject of economic activity is the state and administrative-territorial units. In their economic competence, the greatest share lies in economic and organizational activities as owners, as well as the implementation and protection of public interests of society.

Citizens as subjects of economic activity.

Entrepreneurial activity is the independent activity of legal entities and individuals, carried out by them in civil circulation on their own behalf, at their own risk and under their own property responsibility and aimed at systematically obtaining profit from the use of property, the sale of things produced, processed or purchased by these persons for sale , as well as from performing work or providing services, if these works or services are intended for sale to other persons and are not used for personal consumption (Part 2, Clause 1, Article 1 of the Civil Code). The main features of entrepreneurial activity include: independence of activity of citizens registered in accordance with the established procedure; direction of activity for profit or personal income; property liability.

The current legislation of the Republic of Belarus allows the following forms of entrepreneurial activity:

Private entrepreneurship carried out by business entities on the basis of their own property or on the basis of property received and used legally;

Collective entrepreneurship carried out by entrepreneurs on the basis of collective ownership or on the basis of property obtained and used legally.

Entrepreneurship can be carried out without the formation of a legal entity and with the formation of a legal entity, without the use of hired labor and with the use of hired labor.

A special form of entrepreneurship is entrepreneurial activity carried out by the head of an enterprise if, on the basis of a contract with the owner of the property or a person (body) authorized by him, he is endowed with the rights and obligations and bears the responsibilities established for the entrepreneur (Article 3 of the Law “On Entrepreneurship in the Republic of Belarus” dated 05/28/1991 (with amendments and additions).

The procedure for state registration of citizens carrying out entrepreneurial activities without forming a legal entity (individual entrepreneur) is determined by the Regulations on state registration and liquidation (termination of activities) of business entities, approved by Decree of the President of the Republic of Belarus dated March 16, 1999, No. 11 (as amended by the Decree of the President of the Republic Belarus dated December 17, 2002 No. 29).

State registration of entrepreneurs carrying out their activities without forming a legal entity is carried out by the executive committees of district, city, city-district Councils of People's Deputies at the place of residence of the entrepreneurs, and individual entrepreneurs in free economic zones - by the administrations of free economic zones.

For state registration of entrepreneurs, the following is submitted to the registering authority: an application indicating the types of activities that will be carried out by the individual entrepreneur, if such an indication is provided for by acts of legislation; application form of the established form; documents containing information about work activity (a copy of the work book, certified at the last place of work, a copy of the pension certificate, certified by the social security authority at the place of residence or other body in accordance with the law, a certificate from the state employment service, if such documents are available); photograph of the citizen who applied for state registration; a cash settlement document confirming payment of the state registration fee.

The legislator has established certain restrictions for persons wishing to register as individual entrepreneurs. For example, state registration of an individual entrepreneur is not allowed if: the citizen has not reached a certain age; declared incompetent; in relation to a citizen registering as an individual entrepreneur, a court decision to foreclose on property has not been executed; at the time of state registration, the period established by the court for restricting the entrepreneurial activity of a citizen registering as an individual entrepreneur has not expired; a citizen who has applied for state registration as an individual entrepreneur has arrears of wages, payments to the budget and (or) state target budgetary and extra-budgetary funds, or is the owner of the property of a legal entity that has such arrears, as well as in other cases established by legislative acts . The decision to refuse state registration can be appealed to the court.

Information about individual entrepreneurs registered in the prescribed manner is entered into the Unified State Register of Legal Entities and Individual Entrepreneurs. An entrepreneur registered in the prescribed manner is issued a certificate of state registration of an individual entrepreneur.

Termination of entrepreneurial activity is carried out by decision of the entrepreneur, the owner of the property (the body authorized by him) or by a court decision.

4. Commercial and non-profit organizations as economic entities

Legal entities, depending on the purpose of their activities, are divided into commercial and non-profit organizations (clause 1 of Article 46 of the Civil Code).

Commercial organizations are organizations that pursue profit as the main goal of their activities and (or) distribute the profits between participants. Legal entities that are commercial organizations can be created in the form of business partnerships and societies, production cooperatives, unitary enterprises and peasant (farm) enterprises.

Non-profit organizations include organizations that do not pursue the goal of making a profit and do not distribute the profits between participants. Legal entities that are non-profit organizations can be created in the form of consumer cooperatives, public or religious organizations (associations), owner-financed institutions, charitable and other foundations, as well as in other forms provided for by law. Non-profit organizations can be created to achieve social, charitable, cultural and other goals aimed at achieving public benefits, as well as to meet the material (property) needs of citizens or citizens and legal entities in cases provided for by the Civil Code and other legislative acts.

It should be noted that non-profit organizations can carry out business activities only insofar as they are necessary for their statutory purposes for which they were created, correspond to these goals and correspond to the subject of the activities of non-profit organizations. For certain forms of non-profit organizations, legislative acts may establish requirements providing for their right to engage in entrepreneurial activities only through the formation of commercial organizations and (or) participation in them. It is allowed to create associations of commercial and (or) non-profit organizations in the form of associations and unions.

The main figure in economic activity is the enterprise. In accordance with Art. 1 of the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On Enterprises”, an enterprise is an independent economic entity that has the rights of a legal entity, which, based on the use of property by the workforce, produces and sells products, performs work, and provides services. Regardless of the form of ownership of the means of production and other property, the enterprise operates on the principles of economic accounting.

The main task of the enterprise is economic activity aimed at generating profit to satisfy the social and economic interests of members of the workforce and the interests of the owner of the enterprise's property. An enterprise can carry out any types of economic activities if they are not prohibited by the legislative acts of the Republic of Belarus and meet the goals provided for in the charter of the enterprise. An enterprise can engage in certain types of activities only on the basis of a special permit (license). The list of such types of activities is determined by the Government of the Republic of Belarus. Depending on the form of ownership underlying the legal entity, state and private enterprises are distinguished.

Business partnerships and societies. Business partnerships and societies are a type of commercial organization. Business partnerships and companies are understood as commercial organizations with an authorized capital divided into shares (contributions) of founders (participants). Business partnerships can be created in the form of a general partnership and a limited partnership (limited partnership). Participants in general partnerships and general partners in limited partnerships can be individual entrepreneurs and (or) commercial organizations.

Participants in business companies and investors in limited partnerships can be citizens and legal entities. At the same time, state bodies and local government and self-government bodies do not have the right to act as participants in business companies and investors in limited partnerships, unless otherwise provided by law. Unitary enterprises, as well as institutions financed by owners, can be participants in business companies and investors in limited partnerships, unless otherwise established by law. The law may prohibit or limit the participation of certain categories of citizens in business partnerships and societies.

The basic rights and obligations of participants in a business partnership or company are enshrined in Art. 64 of the Civil Code and can be supplemented by constituent documents.

Let's consider the legal status of certain types of business companies and partnerships.

Full partnership. A business partnership whose participants (general partners), in accordance with an agreement concluded between them, engage in entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and jointly and severally bear subsidiary liability with their property for the obligations of the partnership is called a general partnership.

Limited partnership. A limited partnership (limited partnership) is a partnership in which, along with the participants who carry out business activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for the obligations of the partnership with all their property (general partners), there are one or more participants (investors, limited partners) who bear the risk of losses, related to the activities of the partnership, within the limits of the amounts of contributions made by them and do not take part in the partnership’s business activities (Article 81 of the Civil Code).

Limited Liability Company. A commercial organization established by two or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares of sizes determined by the constituent documents, is called a limited liability company.

Company with additional liability. A company with additional liability is a company founded by two or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares of sizes determined by the constituent documents. Participants in a company with additional liability jointly and severally bear subsidiary liability for its obligations with their property within the limits determined by the constituent documents of the company, but not less than the amount established by legislative acts. In the event of economic insolvency (bankruptcy) of one of the participants, his responsibility for the obligations of the company is distributed among the remaining participants in proportion to their contributions, unless a different procedure for the distribution of responsibility is provided for by the constituent documents of the company (clause 1 of Article 94 of the Civil Code).

Joint-Stock Company. A joint stock company is a company that has an authorized capital divided into a certain number of shares. Participants in a joint stock company (shareholders) are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, within the limits of the value of the shares they own. Shareholders who have not fully paid for the shares bear joint liability for the obligations of the joint stock company to the extent of the unpaid portion of the value of the shares they own (clause 1 of Article 96 of the Civil Code). A joint stock company can be open or closed. A joint stock company is open if its shares are distributed through open sale or subscription and their free circulation on the securities market is not limited otherwise than by law. A joint stock company is closed if the circulation of its shares on the securities market is prohibited or limited by its charter. Such a company does not have the right to conduct an open subscription for the shares it issues or otherwise offer them for acquisition to an unlimited number of persons. A closed joint stock company can only issue registered shares.

Subsidiaries and dependent companies. A business company is recognized as a subsidiary if another (main) business company or partnership, by virtue of a predominant participation in its authorized capital, or in accordance with an agreement concluded between them, or otherwise has the opportunity to determine the decisions made by such a company (clause 1 of Article 105 GK). A business company is recognized as dependent if another business company has a number of votes in the highest management body of the dependent company, sufficient in accordance with the charter of the dependent company to reject a decision that is undesirable for it, with the exception of decisions made unanimously (clause 1 of Article 106 of the Civil Code).

Production cooperatives. A production cooperative (artel) is a commercial organization, the participants of which are obliged to make a property share contribution, take personal labor participation in its activities and bear subsidiary liability for the obligations of the production cooperative in equal shares, unless otherwise specified in the charter, within the limits established by the charter, but not less than the amount of annual income received in a production cooperative (clause 1 of Article 107 of the Civil Code).

“MICROECONOMICS: A PRACTICAL APPROACH (Managerial Economics) Edited by A.G. Gryaznova and A.Yu, Yudanova Second edition, corrected Admitted...”

-- [ Page 1 ] --

FINANCIAL ACADEMY

UNDER THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FED ERA SHI

MICROECONOMICS:

PRACTICAL APPROACH

(Managerial Economics)

Edited by

A.G. Gryaznova and A.Yu, Yudanova

Second edition, corrected

Approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in specialties 0 6 0 4 0 0 “Finance and credit”, 0 6 0 5 0 0 “Accounting, analysis and audit”, 060600 “World economy”, 3 5 1 2 0 0 “Taxes and taxation”

FOR INFORMATION ONLY

MOSCOW

www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com UDC 338(100)+338.24+658*658.3 BBK 65.5:65.050:65.29:65.24 M59 Microeconomics: a practical approach (Managerial Economics): textbook. - 2nd ed..

459 nsp. / ed. A.G. Gryaznova and L. Yu. Yudanov. - M.: KNORUS, 2005. - 672 p.

ISBN 5-85971-160-3 The book is the first textbook of microeconomics, specifically designed for the preparation of highly qualified economists and practitioners and corresponding to the internationally accepted structure of teaching the discipline for this category of students and listeners (the first Russian textbook of microeconomics of the “managerial economics” class) . Fully satisfying all the requirements of the state educational standard in microeconomics, the textbook complements the theoretical course with consideration of the use of theory in the practical activities of a company.

For economic practitioners receiving a first-class education, whose future profession involves acting as managers and leading specialists in private and public enterprises (finance, credit, management, production organization, marketing, accounting, etc.). Designed for economics students, npoipami MBA students, graduate students and teachers.

UDC 338(100)+338.24+658+658.3 BBK 65.5:65.050:65.29:65.24 © Team of authors, 2004,2005 fSBN 5-85971-160-3 © KNORUS, 2004.2005 Textbook "Mikr" "Economics: a practical approach (Managerial Economics)" is a very necessary book that allows connect economic theory with real historical experience. It is very important not only to prepare highly qualified managers

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CHAPTER 6 GENERAL FEATURES OF BEHAVIOR OF A FIRM

IN MARKETS IMPERFECTIVE CONTACT 230

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OPTIMIZING RESOURCE USE 375

CHAPTER 10 LABOR AS ECONOMICAL R E S U R S 377

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SECTION IV MANAGER IN A WORLD OF UNCERTAINTY:

BUSINESS OPTIMIZATION LIMITED 479

CHAPTER 13 TRANSACTION COSTS 481

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CHAPTER 14 I N F O R M A T I O N K A K E K O N O M I C H E S RESOURCE,

RISKS AND UNCERTAINTY 508

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CHAPTER 16 METHODOLOGY OF ECONOMIC THEORY

AND PRACTICE 607

CONTROL

QUESTIONS 618 GLOSSARY 623 FOR REFERENCE ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com

INSTEAD OF A FOREWORD:

GENERAL MICROECONOMY AND MICROECONOMY

BARKING MANAGERS

According to statistics in 2003, almost 200 thousand students studied economics in Russia. Approximately 90% of them will subsequently become managers at various levels at private and government enterprises. At the same time, special literature that takes into account the special interests of future managers - i.e.

the prevailing mass of students today is almost non-existent. In particular, teaching the theory of economics in universities of our country is carried out according to textbooks of a general orientation. Economic courses are taught theory, microeconomics and macroeconomics - something that in other countries is usually united by the concept of “general economics” or simply “economics”. The market is literally overflowing with textbooks and teaching aids of this type. The number of courses published by different universities and independent authors has long exceeded several hundred. At the same time, in Russia there is not a single domestic textbook on managerial economics and only a few translated books on this topic have been published. This situation is strikingly different from international practice, and in accordance with which the theoretical and economic training of managers is built taking into account their future specialization (managerial economics or executive economics courses).

The textbook brought to the attention of readers is intended to close (or at least reduce) this gap in the domestic literature. And I would like to start the textbook with a clear explanation of what the authors understand by an economics course for managers.

First of all, the book is addressed to all practicing economists.

The title “Microeconomy: a practical approach (M a n a g e r i a l Economics))) is simply a tribute to the world tradition, in according to which almost every practitioner is called a manager.

This is the world tradition. Microeconomics is a part of economic theory that studies the behavior of individual economic entities.

And since the practical activity of a manager takes place precisely at the micro level - the level of an individual company, at most separate from the industry, an economics course for managers is always built on the basis of microeconomic theory with only small k u r s a m i v s f e r u m a k r o econom y (descriptions of the functioning of the national economy in Yerevan).

It is significant that in Russia the title of the corresponding course has not even been generally accepted. It is sometimes called “managerial economics”, sometimes “managerial economics”, sometimes “business economics”.

Not all of them are textbooks. Thus, the most famous work of Sh. Maital “Economy for Managers” (M.: Aelo, 1996) is a brilliant collection of essays on the topic of what is interesting for oneself as a manager This is not something that can be learned from the microeconomics course. But it is realistically impossible to teach students using this book JUST for REFERENCE.

www.moimirknig.com9 for www.mirknig.com The choice of a “full-format” volume of presentation of microeconomics that meets the requirements of economic universities is associated with both pragmatic and theoretical considerations. The pragmatic reason is that that the modern state standard does not imply the right of universities to replace the microeconomics course (or the microeconomic section of the economic theory course) with an economics course for managers or for students studying in a special education m practical orientation To avoid difficulties, on the basis of our textbook you can read a full-fledged course in microeconomics, but read it in a form that is suitable for future managers This is exactly how, in particular, we enroll in the Financial Academy under the Government F The academic discipline is called “Economic Theory” here, but this course has been adopted as the basic textbook for the “Microeconomics” section in those institutes of the Academy that train future managers. Theoretical reason more more important We strongly urge practitioners (as well as students just preparing for practical work) to take the study of theoretical principles very seriously.

Every manager is required to know economic theory. For the sake of his own future, he has no right to treat it as an abstraction far from reality. Twenty-five centuries of development of this science in the literal sense have shaped modern economic thinking. Specialists of any applied economic discipline - accountants, marketers, tax specialists and others - build their work on the foundation laid by economic theory, although they themselves are often unaware of it.

In principle, there is nothing wrong with such “unconscious” use of economic theory. When performing routine operations, it is more important to know the technique than the philosophy of your business. But in all cases when the standard procedure is violated (and in our country this happens especially often), it is the economic worldview that comes to the fore. Knowing why and why certain actions should be taken (and whether they should actually be taken) becomes much more important than being fluent in the technique of operations.

The authors of this textbook had to observe for themselves how helplessly, for example, even experienced accountants who did not have modern microeconomic training met the transition to an international accounting system. The new system seemed absurd to them - it was not only impossible to apply, but also simply difficult to remember. And the whole point is that they did not understand the internal logic, so to speak, the “micro-economic ideology” of change.

Let us note another important point. In recent years, the process of adopting foreign business technologies has been extremely active in our country. “Management by objectives” and “controlling”, “reengineering” and “product positioning”, “branding”, “outsourcing”

etc. - the sheer abundance of outlandish foreign terms literally makes your head spin. Nevertheless, all these technologies are being actively developed. Firms spend a lot of money on familiarizing themselves with the essence of these management technologies, and then on introducing ordinary employees into practical activities. And here a most unpleasant circumstance usually comes to light: directly these technologies, honed and seemingly brought to complete perfection ONLY for Familiarization purposes, often do not work in Russia.

www.moimirknig.com 10 www.mirknig.com for Does this mean that we need to abandon international experience in our country? Not at all. On the contrary, it must be able to be applied to the real conditions of Russian business. And for this, again, you need knowledge of theory. What is required is not mechanical execution of instructions, but an understanding of why they were compiled in a certain way and how they should be modified so that they begin to work in our country, in a particular industry, in the environment in which a given company operates.

In view of all that has been said, we presented the theory in the most thorough manner. In the textbook, without any discounts on the applied nature of the work, the graphical apparatus of microeconomics is given. Moreover, we consider it our duty to warn the reader that this textbook is more complex than the average microeconomics course for economic universities. This is understandable - to explain, say, the principle of action The internal combustion engine can be taught to schoolchildren, that is, at the level of general ideas, relatively simply. For example, in this presentation it is quite acceptable to ignore the force of friction. But if the audience is future designers of the same engines, then even general principles should be described much more accurately, in more detail and, most importantly, closer to practice.

Ensuring accessibility of the presentation was a priority for the authors of the book. We avoided rigorous proof of those provisions that are understandable on an intuitive level. Mathematics was reduced to a minimum (mostly school level). Where possible without significant loss of content, the explanation of the matter was carried out with the help of examples rather than general reasoning.

The second feature of our book is that the microeconomics course is taught from the point of view of practical interests/managers. We constantly asked ourselves the question: what benefit does knowledge of this or that section of the theory bring to a manager; how can he put it into practice?

Let's give a simple example. Achieving a firm's maximum level of profitability is modeled in microeconomic theory based on a comparison of the firm's demand and cost curves. This would seem to be a case of the closest connection between theory and practice! There is hardly any need to prove how important the goal of increasing profits is for any manager.

However, in theory (in the form in which it is presented in microeconomics textbooks) the question of where the information about both curves comes from is completely ignored. With costs, everything is more or less clear. Data about them is provided by the company's accounting department (although not always in the required form). The demand curve for a firm's products is always the “great unknown.”

And the manager must know the answer to the questions:

How to transform accounting data into the form needed to make effective management decisions?

How to obtain information about the demand curve for products from your company?

What to do if such information is not available?

The situation of discrepancy between “should” and “real” is also typical for economics. Where complete clarity reigns in theory, in practice there is often uncertainty. But a manager acts precisely in the real world and cannot organize his activities in accordance with what should be, and not with what actually is. So, in any basic microeconomics course, one of the varieties of oligopoly is considered - a cartel. The description of a number of negative features of cartels usually ends with information about their legal prohibition in most countries, including Russia. There is no dispute; this is quite enough for a theoretical acquaintance with cartels. But in the real economy, cartels exist, despite the prohibitions.

Therefore, the manager inevitably has questions:

How should he build his rule in the market if he feels that his suppliers are united by an unspoken cartel agreement and are pursuing a coordinated policy against him, or how should he react if his company itself receives an offer to join a legal (or semi-legal) cartel agreement?

The authors have made it a rule not to shy away from such questions. In a number of cases, we describe in sufficient detail the practical aspects of the application of the theory. In other situations, we only outline the general direction of solving the problem, referring the reader to special disciplines for details. By the way, we find these references very important for practitioners. Mastering economic theory is to a large extent useful for them precisely because it helps them understand “where and what lies” about the body of economic sciences that has grown to almost immense proportions. Finally, even in those “inconvenient” cases when a beautiful microeconomic theory for some reason is poorly applicable in practice, we do not hush up the difficulties, but explicitly indicate their reasons.

In this regard, we cannot help but thank the team of the Chelyabinsk branch of the Ural Academy of Public Administration for the opportunity to “test” the first version of this course in the fall of 2002 within the framework of the presidential program “Morozov Project”.

Working with a discerning audience of young but experienced entrepreneurs and managers has convinced us that:

A microeconomics course aimed at the needs of managers is in great demand in practice. The usual ice in the relationship between the lecturer, who talks about theory, and the students-managers, who are primarily interested in practice, melted after the first classes in the new program. Once again the old truth was confirmed that there is nothing more practical than a good theory, if, of course, it is taught to practitioners in the form in which they are ready to perceive it;

The “ideology” of the course can be conveyed even with a very compressed curriculum (in reality we had 32 lecture hours). Of course, such a reduction in the exchange rate did not come without losses. But the main goal was nevertheless achieved: the audience formed an attitude towards microeconomics not as an abstract doctrine, but as a general theoretical basis for practical activity in a market economy.

The third feature of the textbook is that, in comparison with standard microeconomics textbooks, the branches of the theory are significantly expanded, allowing a realistic description of the functioning of a company.

In particular:

1) when describing perfect competition, an unrealistic assumption is usually made about the sameness of all those operating in the industry

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www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com companies. We do not stop at this abstract stage of analysis, but, on the contrary, present a model of pure competition, which takes into account the existence of differences between firms;

2) the process of achieving maximum profit is usually written off in relation to a company that produces Olin forks. But every manager knows that assortment management, i.e., releasing several products and establishing the correct proportions between them, is a good half of success in practical business. Therefore, we could not help but include in the textbook a description of how the theory of profit maximization is generalized for a multi-product company;

3) this also applies to the replacement of the equally traditional consideration of a company’s activities in a single market, with a transition to a more realistic picture of work in several markets at once;

4) it seemed very important to us to take into account the limited nature of markets. The authors of textbooks (including ours), of course, will never refuse to use simple models with coordinate axes extending to infinity, as if we are talking about mathematical abstraction. But in reality, neither the size of the market nor the financial capabilities of the company are ever unlimitedly large. In our book, therefore, we specifically discuss the changes that this circumstance introduces into the theoretical picture;

5) an equally significant point is the limited information. Many sections of the theory in standard microeconomics textbooks are presented in such a way that the firm not only has complete information, but also the gift of vision, i.e. I know very well what surprises await her in the future. Our book constantly discusses the problems of lack of information and the activities of a manager under conditions of uncertainty;

6) in most textbooks, the company is considered as a single entity striving to maximize profits. If this were so in reality, there would hardly be a need to create such a discipline as management. Everyone - from the worker to the director, from the engineer to the owner - would unanimously strive only to increase profits. But a manager can only dream of such an idyll. Therefore, our textbook predominantly looks at the company as an organization within which there are different, and often mutually conflicting, interests.

Finally, the fourth and last but not least important feature of the textbook is our desire to instill in the student practitioner a general entrepreneurial philosophy of running a business.

In fact, in theory there are no major and minor components. Any of its links is equally important, because without any of them, a single logic falls apart. The situation is different with practice. From the general arsenal of elements of the theory, in different circumstances, first one or another element acquires decisive importance.

Let us allow ourselves a simple comparison. Theoretically, all elements of the periodic table are completely equal. But any biochemist will immediately say that without carbon with its special properties, life in the forms known to us today is impossible. That is, of all the equal elements, from a human point of view, one carbon is clearly “more equally valid” than all the others.

The same is true in economics.

Two of the most important tools of modern economic theory have had the greatest impact on the actual practice of doing business:

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1) the method of comparing marginal revenue and marginal costs as a universal method for achieving maximum profits in the short term and

2) the discounting method as a universal way of maximizing profits when implementing investment projects, i.e. in all cases where investing funds and receiving returns from them are separated by a significant period of time.

Almost any microeconomics course introduces students to both methods. However, this is done, as a rule, in an abstract theoretical manner without reference to the practical needs of managing a company. As a result, it is veiled, and if you call things by their proper names, then their general significance in the formation of a business philosophy is simply hidden from the student.

Comparison of marginal revenue and marginal cost, for example, is used only as a way to determine the optimal volume of production for a firm producing one type of product. If we imagine the “ideal” manager from a microeconomics course, we will see a boring pedant whose only concern is calculating whether to produce 1345 or 1347 units of goods per day.

No practitioner will ever believe that solving this simple (and usually not the most important) problem will provide his company with maximum profit. After all, a real manager himself has to set not only the volume of production, but also prices and the range of goods produced (as we have already said, single-product firms exist only in textbooks). He also needs to decide in which markets to sell the goods, determine the optimal amount of their advertising support, etc. Moreover, this has to be done not under the conditions provided by the textbook of absolutely complete and accurate information about the state of the market.

It is not surprising that practitioners are sometimes not too fond of microeconomic wisdom. And for good reason! Many of them would probably be very surprised to learn that the entire complex of problems listed above (prices, assortment, market coverage, volume of advertising) and much more is actually solved using the method of comparing marginal revenue and marginal costs, i.e. , the very instrument of theory that seemed to them unsuitable for real life.

That is why our textbook pays close attention to both theoretical tools that are most important for practice, and the authors consistently focus on how these tools are used in different situations.

We hope that our textbook will help solve one of the eternal problems of education - bringing theory closer to the needs of practice.

Sometimes it even seems that textbooks deliberately try to obscure the logic of business decisions. For example, two manifestations of the general principle of profit maximization in the short term are presented as different principles (MR «MC and MRP = MRO, depending on whether it is applied to the selection of the optimal production volume or to the optimization of resource purchases.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com branch of knowledge, the subject of economic theory was considered to be the laws operating in society e about production, distribution and consumption.

At the same time, the famous brief definition of the subject of political economy as the science of the wealth of people appeared. Nowadays, this interpretation of the subject in literature has been preserved by the Marxist school of political economy. Political economy, according to Marx, is the science of industrial relations in their connection with productive forces. Let us note that Marxists consider property relations to be the core of production relations, i.e. the same wealth is at the center of their attention.

At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the subject and name of economic theory were again revised. The rapid development of the economy, caused by the industrial revolution and the recent rise of market institutions, caused significant changes.

First, the early market, where the seller ruled, gradually turned into a mature market, in which the sovereign decisions of the buyer play a decisive role. This led to the need to take into account the importance of the consumer and the economy. Secondly, the possibility of additional growth of resources - land, labor, capital - decreased significantly. The question arose about searching for a more rational and efficient use of available funds.

It was at this time that representatives of the so-called marginal school formed a modern approach to microeconomics - the science of the command of economic entities, firstly y about firms and households. ENGLISH ECONOMIST Alfred Marshall in his work (Principles of Economics (1890) gave a scientific the name is “economics” (“economics”). This word, often given in Russian without translation, has the closest meaning to the fundamental term. “Economic theory”. It is characteristic that there is no “state accent”, which was present in the past. named.

A little later, within the framework of the Keynesian school, the foundations of modern macroeconomics were laid - the science of the principles of functioning of the national economy in general. The English economist John Maynard Keynes in his work “The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money” (1936) presented his version of government official policy of macroeconomic regulation. This policy was then actively and successfully applied in a number of countries for decades.

The complete dominance of the ideas of state regulation in the economy in the middle of the 20th century was replaced by in the 1970s, a return to the traditions of economic liberalism. For several decades, monetarism gained the main position in world economic theory. The head of the monetarists, American economist Milton Friedman, and other representatives of this scientific school recommended limiting government intervention in the economy, to pursue the so-called policy of deregulation. To a greater extent, this policy was implemented in the cabinet of M. Thatcher in England (the policy of “Thatcherism”) and D MINISTRATION OF R. REAGAN IN THE USA (the policy of “Reaganomics”). In Russia, many of the first reform governments—the cabinet of E. Gaidar—were under the strong influence of monetarist concepts.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Fig. 1.5.

Increasing the security of bank operations reduces profits

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com In the natural sciences, the empirical method is based on experiments. Under strictly controlled conditions, scientists study a phenomenon. For example, the temperature in the reactor is used in order to understand what its effect on crystal growth is. At the same time, all other conditions (for example, the composition of the solution) are maintained unchanged. If the same result is repeated from experiment to experiment (crystallization begins at a certain temperature), it becomes possible to talk about some regularity Both of these points: control of parameters and repeatability of the outcome are critically important in order to draw any conclusions based on the experiment. In the opposite case, it is easy to obtain an unreliable result.

In economics, for obvious reasons, it is very difficult to conduct experiments, especially on a national scale. It is impossible, say, to repeat the devaluation of the ruble in 1998 several times in order to select the optimal percentage of depreciation for the country. Therefore, in economic science, the empirical method in its observational variety is usually used. That is, economists record events that happened on their own, and not at the will of the experimenter, and then We are trying to understand their meaning.

At the same time, it is extremely difficult for economists to observe both the principle of controllability of conditions (in life, the state of the economic environment is constantly changing), so is the principle of repeatability of the result (twice, not to mention repeated, many economic events simply do not happen). Moreover, the task of interpreting observations becomes more complex. In material that is not entirely homogeneous and distinguishes specific features, the economist needs to be able to identify identical and repeating features.

We come across this problem more than once in this book. When encountering the clause “all other things being equal” in the text, the reader should understand that we are talking specifically about the requirement to comply with the same conditions. For example, the phrase “the rise of the yen, other things being equal, reduces the volume of demand” means that, except for the yen, all other prices The parameters are considered unchanged. That is, the quality of the product does not improve, advertising does not increase, customer income does not grow, etc.

However, as we are about to see, it is managers who, more than any other economists, can rely on for direct experiments. The fact is that a company is able to consciously change the internal organization of its work (for example, introduce new forms remuneration systems, a new management accounting system), and in relations with the outside world (for example, to regulate price klamny policy). In fact, by changing the parameters of the company’s activities (say, by changing the media in which advertising is placed), the experiment manager Mentions the ability to find the optimal scheme for doing business.

However, observations also occupy a significant place in the work of a manager. So, by comparing the sales dynamics that spontaneously developed in his company in different regions, and the methods of product promotion used there, he can establish the reasons for the company's successes and failures, and then disseminate the best experience to all branches of the company.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com international recognition of the national monetary unit. In this case, recognition should be understood not as some kind of international agreement, but as the real readiness of global economic entities (foreign firms, banks, states) to accept this money as a means of payment.

When using full-fledged money, the functions of world money were performed by the gold they contained (after crossing the border, it was not the denomination of the money that mattered, but the weight of the precious metal contained in it). After the transition of all countries of the world to incomplete money, the functions of world money began to be performed by the so-called freely convertible currencies (this term is used in relation to national monetary units that can be exchanged without any restrictions for the most stable foreign currencies: dollar, Swiss franc , yen, etc.), as well as collective currencies (international units such as the European currency euro). The proportion of the exchange of one currency for another or the yen of one currency expressed in another is called the exchange rate. and the yen of any product in a market economy, the exchange rate depends on the ratio of demand for a given currency and its supply.

If the state does not fix the exchange rate at a certain level (there are a number of countries whose currencies are “tied” to the strongest world currencies - the dollar, euro, yen), then it is subject to constant fluctuations. A distinction is made between a free-floating currency regime, when the change in its exchange rate is not limited by anything, and a currency corridor regime, when the state keeps exchange rate fluctuations within known boundaries. A sharp decrease in the exchange rate of the currency is called devaluation, and an increase is called revaluation.

The modern Russian ruble is a partially convertible currency. This means that its exchange is possible, but is associated with a number of restrictions. In addition, exchanging the ruble for other currencies outside Russia and the CIS is extremely difficult. The ruble is practically not used as world money.

At the same time, the ruble exchange rate has a significant impact on the subjects of our economy, since with its change the value of all cost indicators, one way or another involved in foreign economic activity, also changes.

For example, the devaluation that occurred in 1998:

For consumers, it resulted primarily in an increase in prices for imported goods, and then (and to a lesser extent) for domestic ones;

For domestic producers, it provided an opportunity to expand production at the expense of foreign competitors being forced out of the market;

For debtors who took out loans abroad, it became a difficult ordeal. To cover the debt to foreigners, they had to find many times larger sums in rubles than they expected when taking out a loan.

Accordingly, the strengthening of the ruble in subsequent years caused (but not in such a dramatic form) reverse processes in the economy.

From the point of view of a manager, the monetary economy represents the habitat of his company, to which it must be perfectly adapted. Moreover, one must not only be able to conduct business with ONLY for INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com in the normal circulation of money, but also survive in conditions of its disorder. Thus, many Russian enterprises would not have survived if they had not made barter transactions. With all the shortcomings of barter described above, it was the only salvation in conditions of hyperinflation, when money depreciated by 30-40% every month, or in the resulting situation of a total shortage of money among enterprises. However, after the normalization of money circulation, moving away from barter became an important way to increase the economic efficiency of firms. Problems of money circulation are studied in the discipline “Money circulation and credit.”

THE STATE IN THE MARKET ECONOMY, SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF THE MARKET

The role of the state in a market economy can be partly explained by a number of political and social reasons. However, a more important fact is that the market mechanism cannot independently perform all economic functions.

Let us make a special reservation: in a market system, the role of the state is limited, the state does not assume the functions of managing all economic entities, otherwise the market mechanism of self-regulation is destroyed - the main advantage this system. However, limited does not necessarily mean weak. Using this term, economists mean that the basic economic questions: what, how, for whom to produce? - The market economy is mainly responsible for itself.

And yet, there are problems in society that the market cannot solve due to its inherent limitations. In the economic literature, failures in the operation of the market mechanism are called differently: shortcomings, imperfections, fiasco, limitations, etc.

Most scientists agree that the main limitations of self-regulation of the market system are:

Inability to solve non-commercial problems (i.e., to produce public goods - from justice and national defense to solving environmental problems);

v failure to distribute income among different sections of the population in accordance with the goals of a democratic society;

Elements of inefficiency due to market imperfections;

Elements of instability of the macroeconomic system, expressed in the lack of full employment of the population and instability of the level of yen.

Let's consider these restrictions one by one.

A good is public if it is consumed collectively by all citizens - on a non-commercial basis (i.e., regardless of payment). National defense, public safety, environmental protection, and the installation of beacons are public goods.

Public goods are characterized by non-competitiveness of consumption - this means that its consumption by one person does not reduce the possibilities of consumption by other people. For example, when the army protects the country from an external threat, maintaining the personal safety of one person in no way interferes with maintaining the safety of his family, relatives, neighbors, or complete strangers. Even if a foreign tourist comes to this country, the army will automatically ensure his safety. Night street lighting will also not become less for a given person if other people go out into the street (and, therefore, use the light).

Another feature of public goods is their inaccessibility: if such goods exist, then it is impossible to exclude anyone from the number of consumers. In both examples given, it is impossible, for some reason, to limit a person’s access to public goods. So, even if a citizen has not paid taxes, the army physically cannot stop his personal protection, as long as it continues to provide protection for the entire country. In the same way, it is impossible to prohibit visiting foreigners from using the night lighting of the city, although they do not pay for it in any way.

The properties of non-competitiveness and public availability of consumption lead to the fact that public goods and services, unlike most other goods (the latter are called private goods), cannot be provided to consumers through the market system, by concluding transactions between individual consumers and producers. The market system allows taking into account only individual needs, and not the majority of social, collective needs. In some cases, the market does not cope with such tasks at all, in others it functions ineffectively.

If we assume, for example, that a market was formed for the organization of national defense, it is not difficult to predict that citizens would not have adequate incentives to acquire “their share of defense potential.” Everyone would be very tempted to wait until someone else pays for national defense. After all, protection from an external threat, due to the general availability of this good, would extend to the defaulter. And since the desire to enjoy freely the results of the efforts of others would become universal under these conditions, no one would pay for national defense. And it would eventually fall apart. The only way out in this and similar situations is the “non-market” state provision of public goods.

Another broad field of government activity is the social sphere. Competition serves as a counterbalance to the individualism of a market economy in the sense that it forces entrepreneurs to direct their efforts not to realizing their fantasies, but to satisfying the real needs of society. But competition in no way prevents the successful capitalist from becoming rich, sometimes even super-rich, if he correctly grasps the demands of the market. This creates the strongest motivation for entrepreneurial activity and serves the progress of the economy. But at the same time, the market system also encourages the social polarization of society.

Economic power is concentrated in the hands of resource owners and entrepreneurs. A significant part of the population is for INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com deprived of ownership rights to production resources (land, capital), which creates economic dependence of this part of the population. It is no coincidence that owners and entrepreneurs act as employers, and the majority of the population act as hired workers (many European languages even have the words “employee”, “employee”). Income differentiation and property stratification are taking place. In other words, automatically, by itself, the market system does not ensure social justice; on the contrary, many of its mechanisms act in the opposite direction south side.

That is why the problems of social inequality have played and are playing a huge role in the fate of countries developing in market conditions. Once a certain critical measure of social inequality is exceeded, mass strikes, unrest, and, in the most extreme cases, revolutions begin.

It is no coincidence that it was precisely under the conditions of the dominance of market forces that such a scientific and ideological movement as Marxism arose, viewing the history of mankind through the prism of the struggle of classes defending their material interests in an irreconcilable battle. Historical experience shows: the stronger the social injustice in a country, the stronger the position of Marxism and related teachings in it. In a market economy, where material success is one of the highest values, the protest of the disadvantaged sections inevitably takes radical forms.

Because of this, in modern developed market societies a number of institutions have been formed that limit the degree of social inequality. The role of the state is especially great in the social sphere. 1 Thus, in most countries (except Russia) there is a system of progressive taxation, which forces the rich to pay significantly more than the poor pay. State expenditures largely benefit socially vulnerable segments of the population.

In the implementation of various social programs existing in developed countries, budget financing plays a major role. Pension provision, health insurance, unemployment benefits, basic free education and much more guarantee the minimum consumption that ensures a decent existence even for the poor.

There are dozens of such programs in the USA, Germany, Great Britain and France. Germany was a pioneer in the matter of social protection in the 19th century, which was explained by the existence in this country at that time powerful social democratic movement. Then, also under the influence of the experience of the USSR, social protection systems became widespread in most developed countries.

Currently, they have become a permanent social security mechanism that protects people from cradle to grave.

In addition to the state, trade unions, consumer societies, and charitable foundations play a large role in smoothing out social problems.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com the product melts. The government also borrows from financial markets by selling its bonds and then repays the debt by buying them back with interest.

In addition, as part of its social functions, the state makes a number of social payments. Farmers receive pensions, scholarships, various types of subsidies from the state (for example, for rent), and public sector employees receive wages. All these payments are called transfers.

Enterprises whose activities deserve to be stimulated from the point of view of the interests of the entire society also receive transfers from the state in the form of subsidies and tax breaks.

Let us draw attention to an important feature of the state’s participation in the circular circulation of product and capital. A significant part of its actions is non-economic in nature. Thus, taxes, as is known, are collected in a forced manner, regardless of the desire of the taxpayer. Public goods, subsidies, and other transfers are provided by the state free of charge. In order to solve the problem of the production of public goods and its financing, the country must find a certain way of mutually acceptable solution to how much to spend, for example, on defense, what benefits to provide to pensioners and how much for all this o g o collect taxes. The economic side of democracy (the organization of elections, the work of parliament, etc.) consists, first of all, in creating mechanisms for making this kind of collective decisions.

BUSINESS PROBLEM: RUSSIAN ECONOMY IN TRANSITION AND MANAGER

Transitional economy of the traditional type In addition to the three main types of economic systems (traditional, socialist and market), there are intermediate forms. Thus, in the process of establishing a market economic system, a so-called transitional economy arises. In this economy, the main signs of a market are taking shape, the general patterns of functioning of a market economy are already manifested in it, but there is incomplete development of market institutions.

The process of forming a market economy usually proceeds through the gradual transformation of traditional society. The institutions of the patriarchal economy (elements of feudal, slave-owning) coexist with the institutions of the market economy during the transition period. or tribal system).

Accordingly, those countries that are moving toward a traditional market civilization are classified as transitional economies of the traditional type.

Modern developed countries of Europe went through the stage of economic transition and the traditional type in the 16th-18th centuries, the USA and Japan - in the 19th century. A relatively small group of developing countries (South Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, Chile and other so-called newly industrialized countries) turned into developed countries FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com night states in the last decades of the 20th century . Most countries of the “third world” in Asia, Africa and Latin America are still continuing the transition to a market economy in a relatively slow, mainly evolutionary way.

New New transitional or post-socialist economy and perekholnaya economy is usually called the economy of countries that are moving towards a market economic economic system not from the traditional, but from socialist.

Russia also belongs to the post-socialist type of country, which differs in many respects from the usual transition economy. In recent years, two main reforms have been carried out in our country, causing the transformation of the socialist economy into a market economy. Firstly, privatization was carried out. Vatization is the process of transferring or selling state property to private individuals. As a result, state ownership that dominated under socialism was replaced by private ownership typical of a market economy. Secondly, the reforms led to the dismantling of central planning institutions and their replacement by free market forces.

Two main features of the post-socialist economy can be distinguished: 1) a relatively high level of economic development and 2) the immature nature of market institutions.

Potential Indeed, in the transitional economy of a new type, even in the post-Children era, many elements of the high-level economy of the twisted economy were laid down. M&: we mean the existence of large enterprises with high technologies, a highly qualified workforce, powerful scientific potential, high standards in the social sphere and much more. Such a high basic, fundamental potential does not exist either in a traditional economy or in a transitional economy of the old type until they achieve great success in market transformations. We can say that the resource base of post-Socialist countries is very strong. In Russia, the powerful man-made potential is further strengthened by the wealth of natural resources. Therefore, after the completion of the painful transition to the market, post-socialist countries can most likely expect an economic miracle, a rapid rise to the ranks of world leaders. By the way, without putting on rose-colored glasses, every manager should be psychologically prepared for this future breakthrough. International experience shows that companies that quickly responded to the onset of an economic miracle and radically expanded their business during this favorable time can lay the foundations for their prosperity for many decades.

Institutions Unlike countries with developed market economies, post-transition socialist countries have not yet created many market economy institutions. More often, a situation occurs when market institutions in a transition economy exist, but are very different from their counterparts in a developed market.

Table 2.2 briefly summarizes the manifestations of the incomplete maturity of market institutions in the Russian economy.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com the effect is protected by law. This is especially clear in the example of privatized enterprises. Ownership rights in them are “blurred” among three main groups of subjects: 1) employees of enterprises; 2) management of the same enterprises; 3) the so-called external owners (shareholders), which most often include private firms and banks. Between this and the subjects there is often a struggle for possession of the entire bundle of rights or the main ones.

In the language of economic categories, it can be said that in Russia a general transfer of property rights into private hands has occurred, and their specification is still in the process of becoming e n i i. To this is added the fact that only by way of exception, the property was transferred to its current owners without any violations or illegal actions. That is, the legitimacy of property rights in many cases can be challenged.

For a manager, this situation means the need to take into account the constant danger of redistribution of property or individual components of rights to it.

The experience of the most scandalous transfers of property from hand to hand shows that the other side almost always used an unclear method SPECIFICATIONS OF PROPERTY RIGHTS:

Directors or external managers (during the bankruptcy procedure) “diverted” assets to the side, usurping the owners’ right to dispose of them;

Large owners (the so-called major shareholders) deprived small owners of the right to income (business was done in such a way that there were no officially declared profits, and hidden profits were distributed only among “their own”) and (or) deprived them of the very right to a share in the property of the company r m s;

Smaller owners (or minority shareholders) on occasion usurped the right of large owners to manage the company (special the provisions on the meeting of shareholders to seize power in the company);

Creditors, with the help of directors, deprived the owners of the company of their property through the procedure of artificial bankruptcy, etc.

With the development of market relations in Russia, speciﬁcation should enter a new phase, when, as a result of the redistribution of a bundle of property rights (resales, partial x mutual assignments, bankruptcies of poorly managed firms and they will be consolidated and transferred to the most efficient owners We are capable of using these rights rationally and at the same time protecting ourselves from usurpers. One of the most important ways to achieve this state of affairs is to increase the degree of transparency as a structure r s and its financial statements. A company that is open to external control is more protected from fraud in property rights, “Blurriness” of proprietary rights The absence of genuine control over the implementation of legislation leads to the flourishing of the shadow economy in post-socialist countries. In essence, it is informal and based on the violation of legal property rights, and therefore violates the rules of the market game farms.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com

It is possible to distinguish at least two fields of its existence:

1) gray, or illegal, market, i.e. in principle, permitted but not officially recorded economic transactions;

2) black, or criminal, market, i.e. types of activities prohibited by law.

Gray operations are most often carried out for tax or other similar reasons. Enterprises produce products and provide services, but do not document their activities, thereby avoiding paying taxes.

And by using gray schemes when delivering products, paying wages, importing foreign goods and in other situations, the manager significantly increases the profit of his company. Moreover, in a number of cases, a company in a transition economy can only survive with the help of the gray market. But by taking this path, the manager comes into conflict with the law. This is one reason why well-performing firms usually have very strong legal departments: by exploiting loopholes and officially sanctioned benefits, lawyers are often able to achieve the goals set by the manager, but in violation of the law.

Clearly criminal types of business such as racketeering, drug trafficking or pimping thrive on the black market. Both shadow markets touch and intertwine. Very often, it is gray business that falls under the control of criminal groups, since its owners themselves operate illegally and therefore do not decide to resort to the protection of the law.

The extent of the shadow economy in Russia is completely unknown. According to the State Statistics Committee of Russia, the shadow sector produces 25% of goods and services produced in the country. According to indirect data, the shadow economy is even larger (usually the figure is 40%).

In all cases, it is large enough to seriously disrupt market mechanisms.

Subjects The main subjects of the transition economy are the same as the subjects of the transition economy: enterprises (firms), households of the economy and the state. But their behavior has not yet acquired a market character. For example, most of the former state-owned factories have not yet learned to live according to the laws of the market and have not turned into real companies. Therefore, there is the release of uncompetitive products, wasteful use of resources, and poor knowledge of the market. And what is perhaps worst of all is the incomplete awareness of these problems.

A special problem is that contractual discipline is low at Russian enterprises. Obligations assumed (contracts concluded) are often fulfilled untimely, with violation of quality parameters and other delivery conditions, and delays in payments. At the same time, it has been in force since March 1998.

The insolvency (bankruptcy) law was so strict that it created the possibility of initiating bankruptcy proceedings against most domestic enterprises. Only at the end of 2002 did a new Law on Insolvency (Bankruptcy) appear, which prevents the use of the bankruptcy procedure for the purpose of illegal transfer of property.

FOR REFERENCE ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com First of all, let us pay attention to the fact that according to tradition in economic theory (unlike other sciences), the value of the independent variable is usually plotted along the vertical axis, and the value of the dependent variable is along the horizontal axis.

Line D in Fig. 3.1 is called the demand curve.

It shows how much of a product (Q) buyers are willing to buy:

1) at each given level of yen (P);

2) in a specific period of time;

3) with other factors remaining constant.

In other words, movement along the demand curve (from one point to another) reflects a change in the demand for a product that occurs as a result of one and only one reason - a change in the yen of the product. The inverse relationship between the level of yen and the quantity of purchased products in a graphical interpretation is manifested in a decrease in the demand curve with an increase in Q.

Let us make an important methodological clarification that relates not only to the demand curve, but also to other graphs, of which, starting from this chapter, there will be many in our textbook. In most cases, for educational purposes, it is enough to know the general appearance of curves, and not their exact trajectory. Therefore, the reader should not be confused, for example, that the demand curve is often called a line that looks like a straight line on the graph. Or that in some cases a certain value appears as a slightly curved curve, and in others as a straight line. In fact, in almost all cases, real graphs would look like curves, and quite complex irregular shapes. In the textbook, each time such simple lines are depicted, which in this case most clearly convey the essence of the phenomenon (we already said in Chapter 1 that reasonable simplification is a prerequisite for drawing up any model).

What stands out are those cases when, of several theoretically possible forms of graphs in the real economy, one particular one predominates. Moreover, this feature of the curves can be of significant importance for management practice. In such situations, we will definitely make those adjustments to the general theoretical analysis that are dictated by the facts of real business.

Graphic interpretation is very convenient due to its clarity, therefore, for educational purposes, it is most often used. By tracking the dynamics of the curve (and often many curves) with the eye, you can immediately understand what, for example, the main indicators will be activities of the company as sales volumes increase.

But graphs are good not only in textbooks. Trying to understand the relationship between several simultaneously occurring market processes, the manager also usually draws corresponding graphs.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Now let's take a closer look at some of the listed non-yen demand factors.

Typically, the richer the population, the greater the demand for goods and services, i.e., the income of the population and the amount of accumulated property are related to with a direct dependence. Let us emphasize, however, that this is the case in most, but not all cases. In economic theory, it is customary to distinguish between normal and abnormal goods.

The latter are usually products that are perceived as a worse alternative in comparison with others, but the above does not apply: as incomes rise, the demand for them falls. And when income falls, it grows.

It is well known, for example, that in the region of low-income people there is a high share of bread, potatoes, pasta and low meat and dairy products and fruits. This does not mean that these are the food habits of the poor, but they simply do not have enough money to eat differently. Therefore, with the growth of population incomes, we should expect a fall in demand for bread, potatoes, pasta and a switch among consumers to other products.

A manager working in the market segment of anomalous goods must take this phenomenon into account when forecasting demand for his company’s products or make efforts to About his finished product moved into the category of normal. Thus, the demand for expensive and high-quality varieties of pasta is not abnormal. The consumer perceives elite pasta as a delicacy and expands, rather than reduces, their consumption with rising income. This fact is already widely used by a number of Russian companies, which are gradually rebuilding their pasta production at an expensive level ment of the market.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com It is obvious that, being the sum of individual surveys, the market value is also subject to the law of demand, those. The market demand curve has a negative slope. One cannot expect anything else. After all, let's say, a low yen increases the quantity of goods purchased by each buyer, and therefore by all buyers. Similarly, shifts in the market demand curve are caused by the same factors that affect individual demand, for example, changes in yen for substitute goods, changes in income, etc. u s o v, fashion.

However, unlike individual demand, market demand reflects the pattern of behavior not only of an individual consumer, but also of an aggregate of consumers. Thus, market demand is influenced by autonomous (i.e., not related to changes in yen) fluctuations in the number of consumers. Let's say, the demand for baby strollers directly depends on current birth rates, and for school textbooks - on the birth rate 7-17 years ago (depending on what grade of school they are intended for). In addition, it is in market, and not in individual demand, that the structure of the totality of all consumers manifests itself, for example, the degree of differentiation of income of the population and I. Let’s say that a winter holiday in Mallorca becomes fashionable, then what matters is not only its attractiveness for an individual Russian, but also the appeal of our fellow citizens who can afford it.

Among other things, considering market demand only as the sum of individual demands is permissible only under the condition of independent consumer behavior. However, in real life, the individual demand of each person is also influenced by the behavior of the people around him. This influence is described in economic theory as the result of three effects;

1) the effect of joining the majority;

2) e f f e c t a s n o b a;

3) the effect of demonstrative behavior.

The effect of joining the majority (the effect of craze) appears when consumer behavior is dictated by desire m to keep up with others in consumption. This effect leads to an increase in individual demand after market demand reaches a certain critical point of consumer coverage (all our friends have already been to Antalya, and we we won’t get together!)* The snob effect, on the contrary, occurs in cases where the consumer is driven by the desire to not be like others.

The desire to stand out from the crowd leads to the fact that individual demand for some people falls when market demand increases.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com The effect of demonstrative behavior (or, in the name of the American scientist who discovered it, the Veblen effect) occurs when when an individual buys goods that are not available to others at a price, which makes these goods prestigious and emphasizes the social status of their owner.

The listed effects have different significance for different markets and do not always manifest themselves. But skillful accounting of them is the responsibility of the manager. Let's say, with the growth in the popularity of a product, you should be prepared for a sharp jump in demand for it at the moment when this comes into force the effect of joining the majority. Otherwise, a profitable situation may be lost without return. Similarly, knowledge of the implementation of the snob effect requires the reporting manager to keep in the assortment of his company’s offerings 1-2 positions for people who don’t want to look like everyone else, For example, along with a wide selection of fashionable shoes (with some square or, conversely, exaggeratedly elongated noses) it is wise to keep several parka classic styles in the store. And the manufacturer of goods, who are the object of demonstrative behavior, must be very careful when facilitating availability of your product. It is worth reducing the entry fee or simplifying the rules for admission to an elite club, and the best clients will flee from it.

Another important point, from the point of view of a practical manager, is the derivative nature, which in many cases is in demand. Thus, the demand for air tickets to resort destinations (for example, Moscow - Sochi) is not independent, but depends on the demand for summer holidays in a given place . It is very important that not only the demand for some consumer goods is arbitrary, as in the example given, but also the demand for all consumer goods.

If a company produces goods of derivative demand, then in order to plan its behavior in the market it is obligatory to study the factors of demand for final products, h And that is the essence of which are its products. That is, say, a wool yarn manufacturer would act wisely if it regularly monitors the dynamics and trends in demand for knitwear, even if he doesn’t produce them. And sometimes it is useful to analyze not one, but two or three links in the technological chain. The nickel producer should be interested in the situation not only in ferrous metallurgy, where nickel is used as an additive to steel, but also in the automotive industry, which is a large consumer of alloy steel. And having learned, for example, about an increase in customs duties on foreign brands, the manufacturer can safely raise the price of nickel, since the demand for it as a result The growth in the production of domestic cars will inevitably increase.

Analysis of the logic of buyer behavior, which influences the market situation through demand and its changes, needs to be supplemented by consideration of the logic of behavior seller, which is reflected in the patterns inherent in the offer. And since it is possible to sell on a systematic basis only something that is also systematically produced by someone, then in the field The manufacturer (by the way, often acts as a seller) inevitably falls under the spotlight.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Line (5) in fig. 3.3 is called the supply curve. It shows how much goods producers are willing to sell at each given level of yen in a specific period of time.

Movement along the supply curve reflects changes in supply caused only by changes in the yen, that is, while keeping other conditions constant.

In analytical form, a proposal can be presented in General form as a certain function

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Equations (3.9) and (EVIL) are fulfilled at the equilibrium point simultaneously, i.e. form a system of equations.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com The equilibrium yen, formed as a result of market competitive forces, performs the most important functions in the economy:

Tire forma ionic - its value serves as a guideline for all subjects of the market economy;

I normalize - it normalizes the distribution of goods, giving a signal to the consumer about whether this product is available to him and how much he can calculate the volume of consumption of goods at a given level of income. At the same time, it influences the manufacturer, showing whether he can recoup his costs or whether he should hold back profit from production. This normalizes the manufacturer's demand for resources;

Stimulating, because it forces the manufacturer to expand or reduce production, change technology and assortment, so that costs “fit within” the yen and remain still some profit.

It is obvious that selling (actual market) yen does not always coincide with the equal value, i.e. The market is not always in a state of equilibrium. HOWEVER, the economy gravitates toward a state of equilibrium. And or, otherwise, the state of market equilibrium has a tendency to stability. To substantiate this statement, let's look at what happens in the event of a violation of market equilibrium.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com In other words, both possible options for the yen’s deviation from the equilibrium are unstable. In this case, internal market forces arise that strive to return the Situation to a state of equilibrium.

The explanation for the establishment of equilibrium due to fluctuations in prices, during which their increase or decrease leads the market to a state of equilibrium, belongs to the Swiss economist L. Walras.

FOR REVIEW ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Both approaches reflect market realities, and the action of each of them is better manifested in a very specific time interval. Thus, fluctuations of the yen (Walrasian mechanism) contribute to the establishment of equilibrium in the short term period. Feeling a shortage of his products, the manager in most cases raises the yen, and, having realized the overstocking (increasing volumes of unsold finished products), reduces them. In fact, when goods have already been produced in a certain quantity, it is possible to adjust the volume of supply to the size of demand only by changing the yen. In other words, production levels are set in the short run, and the variables are the yen.

Changes in the volume of supply (the mechanism for achieving A. Marshall's equilibrium), on the contrary, come to the fore in a long period. After all, given time, it is possible to build production capacity to satisfy any, even the largest volume of demand. The main thing is that it brings profit And under such conditions, it is the yen that becomes the main reference point. Depending on how attractive it is, production is either increased or reduced. In other words, the yen acts as a given value, and the supply of goods as a variable value.

The models of establishing market equilibrium that we have considered are not the only approach to explaining the mechanism of formation of the equilibrium yen

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com An example of elastic demand is the demand for luxury goods: jewelry, furs, black caviar, etc. The same is typical for fairly expensive consumer goods, such as cars, TVs, washing machines, audio and video equipment, personal computers. The demand for essential goods with relatively low yen is inelastic - for bread, potatoes, clothing, shoes, underwear, travel on public transport, etc.

Giving a graphical interpretation of elasticity (Fig. 3.11), let us pay attention to the fact that in a first approximation, the more. In a strict sense, this is true only for graphs presented in the so-called double logarithmic axes. For our purposes, it is enough to understand that if through If two straight lines pass through a certain point, then in the immediate vicinity of it the straight line that looks flatter will be more elastic. Due to the circumstances described, the depiction of more or less elastic demand in the form of curves of different slopes should be considered only as an approximate illustration. Alya For simplification, we will use such graphs in the future.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com my change is yen. However, to carry out the corresponding calculations, it is necessary that the demand function be known.

Usually this formula is unknown to the manager, just as the demand curve is unknown. Instead, he has empirical material about the magnitude of demand for the company's products at certain discrete price levels. Let's say, as in our examples from the previous paragraph, he knows that with a yen there are 30 rubles. demand is 150 units. goods per week, and at a price of 40 rubles. - only 100 liters

About what the value of demand would be, say, if the yen was 32 rubles.

52 kopecks, one can only guess.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Knowledge of cross elasticity is important for a manager for two reasons. First, cross elasticity measures the responsiveness of competing products to changes in yen.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com It is important for a producer of a certain type of wine, for example, to know whether (and if so, to what extent) the demand for its product reduces the level of other wines. Or the unique taste and reputation of his wines make him stand out from his competitors. This elasticity exists not only in relation to others, but also in relation to one’s own products.

The latter, for example, is observed when a company produces an entire line of products (for example, televisions of several models) Changing by one model, the manager must understand that this step will affect not only the demand for it, but also the sales volume of other models. It is quite possible, for example, that by lowering the price of an expensive model, the company will achieve not an increase in the overall demand for its products, but a simple redistribution of demand from one product to another.

Secondly, the value of cross elasticity allows us to clearly outline the circle of competing goods. This is not a simple problem at all. The fact is that, when speaking about complementarity, interchangeability and indifference of goods, we mean their economic, and not physical characteristics. For example, an apartment and a car in physical terms are not substitutes and, it seems, should not s to compete. However, having spent money on a car, the consumer quite possibly will not find the means to simultaneously expand his living space. Another consumer, saving up money for an apartment, will remain indifferent to any cars, not because he is not interested in them at all, but because at all There won't be enough money right away. That is, in the economic sense, the interchangeability of both goods is obvious: they are clearly “fighting” for the consumer. Accordingly, the indicator of interchangeability will be a positive value on the coefficient about cross elasticity of both products. Let us note that this is not an abstract theory. RUSSIAN sales of foreign cars constantly observe a decrease in demand for their products when lucrative offers appear on REAL ESTATE MARKET.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com the exchange rates vary sharply in different regions. For example, if different advertising campaigns are carried out in different regions.

However, structural analysis is also not perfect.

The most obvious drawback is the incomparability of data across regions. Indeed, in addition to the variables being compared, regions differ in a host of parameters, including subtle ones. How to take into account, say, the influence on the demand for a particular model of refrigerator of the metropolitan sophistication of Muscovites, the intelligence of the residents of Tomsk, the industrial mentality of Chelyabinsk residents and the seaside spirit of the population of Vladivostok? And this influence cannot be ignored either. It is quite possible that advertising that was effective in Moscow did not work in Tomsk not because it was not intensive enough there (as, for example, the table numbers show), but because it seemed vulgar to Tomsk residents and pushed them away from buying the product.

The theory of data processing and interpretation that underlies passive methods of information collection is studied in detail in the course of economic statistics.

Active methods of collecting information involve special efforts of the company aimed at obtaining the necessary information, for example, companies conduct market research through direct contact with consumers through surveys, observations, and surveys. Most often the following are used: a) laboratory experiment; b) interviews or surveys; c) market experiment.

In a laboratory experiment, an artificial choice situation is created for a certain group of potential consumers of a product. For example, everyone is given a certain amount of money and is allowed to spend it on purchasing the product under study or products competing with it. By changing the price of the product, the amount of money given, the social group of consumers attracted for the experiment and many other parameters, one can track how the demand for the product reacts to these changes.

Interviews, or surveys, involve asking actual or potential consumers of a given product certain questions. For example, you can ask all store customers who purchased a competing brand of beer about the reasons that led to such a choice. And then ask them about the level to which the yen for your company’s beer would need to be reduced in order for them to change their decision. You can ask customers who have already purchased the product under study how much they would increase their consumption if the price were reduced by 10%, etc.

A market experiment involves changing the actual conditions of sale in limited (or better yet, isolated) market segments. For example, you can agree with the director of a store remote from other retail outlets that the yen for the company's goods will be slightly higher or lower than the usual level. You can also start intensive advertising aimed at one group of consumers. Suppose, for the sake of testing, to show it not on national television, but on cable television in an urban area. At the same time, it is necessary to organize the collection of information about changes in the level of demand by the consumers covered by the experiment.

The advantages of active methods of collecting information lie primarily in their experimental nature. The manager is able to repeat the study many times, changing some of its parameters (say, the level of yen); may specify additional conditions (for example, offer goods in different packaging), may focus attention on different customer groups. Therefore, the information obtained by active methods is usually very valuable.

A common disadvantage of all active methods is the high cost of their use. Such research involves hiring special personnel or diverting company employees from their main duties, stimulating clients for agreeing to participate in the experiment, concluding agreements with trade organizations on its conduct, etc. A particular problem for laboratory experiments and interviews is their isolation from reality. The client spends specially issued money completely differently than his own, and the answers to questions do not always correspond to real behavior. Market experiments are conducted in an environment similar to normal business conditions. But such experiments are especially difficult to organize: not every company works with isolated groups of consumers, and most often the market cannot be divided into parts where the experiment is carried out and ordinary commerce takes place. In addition, market experiments usually become known to competitors, which provokes countermeasures.

The principles of active information collection are studied in detail in a marketing course, and the methods of correctly setting up experiments (conducting surveys) and processing the data obtained are studied in economic statistics. Based on the collected data, the manager needs to choose the type of equations to describe the demand curve of interest to the company. This is achieved by an approximate comparison of the values of independent variables and the corresponding demand volumes. If this relationship is approximately linear (say, each doubling of advertising intensity increases the level of demand by 2.5-3 times), then the equation will look like The choice of such a function is justified when the data shows that an increase in, say, advertising intensity leads not just to an increase in the volume of demand, but to its accelerating growth.

Practice shows that modeling demand using linear equations usually produces fairly accurate results and there is no need to resort to more complex nonlinear models. After the model selection stage, the stage of its analysis follows. To construct a demand curve, so-called regression analysis is used, through which the dependence of a certain indicator (in our case, the amount of demand) on several independent variables (regressors) is determined. Most of the regression calculations are for INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com language, such a line is called a trend line). The statistical method used to find the trend line is called the least squares method and is used in the analysis of most regressions, including nonlinear ones, and taking into account not one, but many variables.

The vertical distance between the points presented on the graph and the straight line is called deviations, or scatters. It is obvious that the less accurately the trend line is drawn through the points, the greater the deviations will be. The least squares method assumes that the optimal trend line will be the straight line for which the deviations are minimal. There is a math. Based on the resulting equation, the manager can predict that the sales volume of refrigerators at a yen of 10 thousand rubles.

will be equal to 20 thousand pieces. in a year. This prediction will be quite conditional, since the demand for refrigerators that the manager is interested in depends not only on the yen, but also on other factors. To further refine the forecast, a regression equation is needed that allows one to take into account their influence.

If a certain parameter is influenced by more than one independent variable, then the multiple regression method, which also uses the least squares method, is used to construct the equation. To use multiple linear regression, a set of observations is required for all variables affecting the demand for refrigerators (for example, fully completed tables such as Tables 3.4 and/or 3.5). Suppose that by entering the available data into a computer and using a program for regression analysis, we obtain the equation. By substituting into this equation the expected values of the independent variables (yen, household income, advertising costs), the manager can make a forecast of demand for refrigerators, taking into account the actual the effects of all factors present in the equation. It can “play” against models and different scenarios. For example, to establish how it is more profitable for a company to attract consumers - by reducing yen. More precisely, the coefficients are selected so that the sum of squared deviations is minimal. This, by the way, is where the name of the method comes from. FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com tions, a relatively modest improvement in quality or expansion of the sales network can have a decisive impact on demand.

But it also happens, of course, that the consumer reacts almost only to the level of the yen. The manager must know the elasticity of demand for all controllable variables of his company and use those of them that, at equal costs, give the greatest increase in demand 1.

Uncontrollable variables include variables that describe the behavior of competitors, consumers, the government, and the effects of other external factors. Thus, the firm’s efforts are directly opposed by four strategic variables already familiar to us (yen, product quality, advertising efforts, density and geography of the sales network), but not at its disposal, but subject to the control of competing firms. The influence of this group of factors is similar to the influence of the yen of competing goods (substitute goods) that we have already described in the course of cross-elasticity analysis.

The actions of competitors are deliberately directed against the company.

At the same time, just as the position of a company depends on the behavior of competitors, the well-being of the latter can be destroyed as a result of the actions of this company. This creates a kind of system of checks and balances. For example, a threat on the part of firms to respond to competitors' price reductions even more sharply by reducing their own prices can deter competitors from yen aggression. In the same way, a St. Petersburg milk producer planning an invasion of the Moscow market (expansion of the sales network - O n) must understand that Muscovites may well respond by opening a “second front” in St. Petersburg itself. Therefore, almost all strategic variables at the disposal of competitors (yen, advertising activity, density and geography of the sales network, but not the development of a new product - this is too long and creative a process to be influenced from the outside) are partly Variables that can be influenced by a given firm.

The behavior of consumers, the government, and the influence of other factors (for example, exchange rates or weather) are not specifically directed against a given company. External changes can be both favorable and unfavorable for the company. But almost always these factors cannot be influenced by her 2.

For example, a company is in no way able to influence the level of income of the country's population or the summer drought.

The general principle of demand management is to:

Optimally use four controlled strategic variables to achieve its desired volume;

Instead of elasticity of demand in these terms, one can also use the estimated regression coefficients discussed in the previous paragraph.

The exception is the tastes and preferences of consumers, which can be somewhat influenced with the help of advertising and marketing means.

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Strive to influence partially amenable variables in such a way as to prevent them from changing in a direction undesirable for the company, and if this is impossible, at least anticipate the dynamics of these variables and take appropriate protective measures measures;

Forecast the development of other uncontrollable variables and build the company's policy in accordance with the forecast.

We still have to talk in detail about the manager's use of advertising and product quality characteristics to manage demand (see Chapters 6 and 7) and, of course, repeatedly discuss the impact of pricing policies on the level of demand (see Chapters 6, 9 and 10).

For now, it is important to understand the general principle of managing the yen demand. More precisely, to discuss the problem of the reaction of demand to changes in yen by one company, and not by the entire industry.

The factors that determine the size and price elasticity of industry-wide demand are extremely important for the practical activities of any company, since they characterize the market in which it conducts its business. In other words, the patterns of industry-wide demand make it possible to understand the characteristics of the environment in which both the given firm and its competitors simultaneously exist. Nevertheless, the manager must take into account that industry demand and the demand for the products of a particular company are far from the same thing. Let us consider, as an example, the situation with some well-known product, say, aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid). The overall demand for this well-known analgesic and antipyretic drug is undoubtedly relatively inelastic. To verify this, it is enough to evaluate the previously mentioned elasticity factors for a given product. It is easy to see that all the main factors force the consumer to purchase aspirin, even if the yen for it is high or rising rapidly (many people need this medicine; there is no exact replacement for it; having bought a package, the buyer will not go broke; the disease does not bark to postpone the purchase until later). That is, industry demand for acetylsalicylic acid should indeed be inelastic.

Moving on to the analysis of the elasticity of demand for products produced by a specific manufacturer, we, however, will be faced with a fundamentally different situation. On the Russian pharmaceutical market, for example, there are always at least a dozen domestic variants of acetylsalicylic acid, a number of relatively cheap foreign analogues of the same drug, and a significantly more expensive upsarin (trademark of acetylsalicylic acid from the company “UPSA”). and aspirin itself (this trademark belongs to Bayer). In other words, usually the buyer is faced with the question not of whether to buy acetylsalicylic acid at all, but of which of its varieties to choose.

And here the joint with competitors or, on the contrary, unilateral nature of price changes by the firm comes to the fore.

If all aspirin producers increase the yen for some reason (for example, due to the introduction of a new tax), then each of them will notice only a small change in demand for their products:

will be affected by the low elasticity of demand for common goods ONLY for INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com And only outside the segment AB, when the yen of the second product approaches the yen of the best (or, conversely, the worst) product, Substitution processes will begin actively and cross elasticity will again come to the fore. When approaching the yen P 3, the second product will quickly lose its adherents, who will prefer to choose a higher quality product for the same money. And when the yen decreases to a level close to Ri, the number of buyers of the second product will sharply increase at the expense of those who previously could only afford the N-T product. In addition, “ defectors" and from the group of consumers of the best quality product No. 3. They may be tempted by the unusual cheapness of product No. 2 and for this reason sacrifice their usually increased quality requirements, As a result, the demand curve for a differentiated product with a unilateral change in its yen acquires a characteristic zigzag shape: in the central segment AB, changes in yen cause moderate changes in demand (elasticity is not high ), but at the edges (outside the segment AB) the reaction of demand to a change in yen will be very sharp (high elasticity).

In addition to qualitative (in the narrow sense of the word) and price differences between products, consumer loyalty to a particular product can be ensured by its properties. Thus, many buyers prefer the Lada station wagon (“Quartet”) to other VAZ cars, not because this car is cheaper or better than others, but because it has a more spacious body.

12B FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com namely to sharply raise the yen for basalt fiber and thereby significantly increase your income?

The paradox is resolved if we take into account the predominance at different levels of yen of either general or cross elasticity. Figure 3.24 gives a graphical interpretation of the situation.

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SECTION II

MANAGER

AS A PRODUCER:

PRICE OPTIMIZATION

AND VOLUME OF ISSUE

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com to conduct business in an economical way. That is, the task of minimizing accounting costs comes to the fore.

And yet, we also cannot forget about opportunity costs.

The equipment of the flax mill allows the production of several strands of final products. Which one is more profitable to stop at?

Or in what proportions should several types of goods be produced? When searching for answers to such questions, the problem of economic costs comes up again.

Thus, in the practical activities of a manager, accounting and economic methods constantly change and refine each other, ultimately allowing the most informed commercial decisions to be made .

We especially emphasize that both the concept of accounting costs and the concept of opportunity costs are equally applicable to both transformation (production) and transaction costs. In the examples given earlier, more was said about production costs, but everything said completely applies to transaction costs.

That said, advertising costs (typical transaction costs) can also be estimated by the amount of payments for display commercials on television (accounting approach), and by comparison with the commercial results of another way of using resources. For example, you can estimate the lost income that would have arisen if the money had not been spent on advertising, but had been spent on improving the quality of the product (an alternative approach).

Analysis of the nature of costs gives us the key to determining profit (traditionally denoted by the Greek letter).

In general, profit is the difference between total revenue (TR)1 from sales of products and total costs (TC). If resource costs are estimated using the accounting method, then the difference between revenue and accounting costs is equal to and this is accounting profit:

The letter designation is an abbreviation of the English words “total return*.

The letter designation is an abbreviation of the English words “total costs*.

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At zero production volume, gross total costs are equal to the value of fixed costs. Further, when production volume increases, gross costs increase by the sum of variable costs at the corresponding point.

We see that the TC curve repeats the configuration of the TVC curve, but is located above the latter by the amount of fixed costs (Fig. 4.5).

The actual gross cost schedule is obtained by vertically summing the TFC straight line and the TVC curve. We will subsequently use this method - vertical summation - repeatedly in the graphical interpretation of many economic processes. Vertical combination (data summation) is used whenever certain cost parameters relate to the same units of production.

So, in our case, in order to produce 100 units of goods, it is necessary to incur both fixed and variable costs. It is clear that the total costs will be the sum of their sum.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com any maintenance or improper operation. This form is not related to the production of products and can be classified as fixed costs.

Physical wear and tear of the first kind is a normal and economically justified phenomenon. In contrast, physical wear and tear of the second type, although absolutely inevitable to some extent, generally represents an example of inefficient use of resources. After all, the costs in this case are not associated with any useful result.

The manager's task, in principle, is to reduce, and even better, to avoid physical wear and tear of the second type. And in cases where it is associated with elementary mismanagement (inappropriate storage, violation of operating rules, etc.), taking measures to prevent it is the direct responsibility of the company’s management. But often preventing wear and tear costs itself requires significant costs. For example, reducing the wear and tear of cars in winter involves spending on the construction (and then maintenance) of a heated garage.

In such cases, the manager has to decide which costs are lower:

for physical wear of the second type or for its prevention.

We will have to talk about how the corresponding quantities are compared in Chapter 11, but for now we will only pay attention to the fact that this is another problem of alternative choice.

A decrease in the value of capital goods may not be associated with the loss of their functional characteristics. In this case, we are dealing with obsolescence. Traditionally, two genera are distinguished. Obsolescence of the first kind is due to an increase in the efficiency of production of capital goods. It is caused by the emergence of similar, but cheaper capital goods. So, if a year ago your company bought computers with a Pentium IV processor, but due to unexpected problems with renting premises, it was unable to install them and kept them in the warehouse completely new, now the yen of computers of this type has still decreased. During this time, I learned how to produce Pentium IV processors more efficiently, and it became possible to buy computers exactly like yours much cheaper.

Obsolescence of the second kind is associated with the emergence of new capital goods that perform similar functions, but are more advanced and productive. As a result, the value of old capital goods decreases. Thus, with the advent of the more productive Pentium V, the yen of other Pentiums fell.

Obsolescence is very widespread in the modern economy. He can comprehend virtually any long-lived economic benefit, including even intangible assets. Intangible assets refer to the company's exclusive rights to intellectual property. These objects include such results of intellectual activity as inventions, industrial designs and models, computer programs and databases, know-how and secret formulas, as well as scientific and commercial experience. It is clear that physical wear and tear of, say, the drug formula is impossible. But it can become outdated and lose value. In most cases, you can even predict ONLY for INFORMATION www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com how many years, for example, one generation of aitibiosics will be replaced by another.

In addition to the results of intellectual activity, the company’s intangible assets own exclusive rights to a trademark, brand names, as well as positive business e p u t a i i a f i r m y. Oddly enough, they are also subject to obsolescence. For example, a certain brand of shoes goes out of fashion and begins to be associated not with high quality, but with the clothing style of the past decade. The rate of deterioration of intangible assets of this kind, however, is very uncertain: one brand lives for decades, another “dies” in a few years.

Ultimately, any obsolescence, no matter how long-term goods it occurs, can be considered as a decrease in their market yen, not caused by the loss of these capital goods themselves of their original consumer properties. Both forms of obsolescence are a consequence of technological progress. From the standpoint of the entire economy, they are justified and even necessary, since as a result of replacing obsolete goods, old equipment, technologies, brands, and so on are replaced with more progressive ones. As a result, the overall production efficiency increases. At the same time, for a particular company, this positive phenomenon also has negative features: it results in an increase in costs.

Obsolescence is not a consequence of changes in production volume, so it should be classified as a fixed cost. Physical wear and tear, as we remember, is partly related to the scale of production (the first form), and partly not (the second form ). Figure 4.6 summarizes the relationship between different forms of wear and tear and the main types of costs.

In economic literature, the term “depreciation” is used in two meanings. This is also called wear and tear itself (the phrase “the degree of depreciation of equipment at a plant reaches 60%” means that it is worn out by 60%), and the accumulation of funds to compensate for wear and tear about the fund.

The characteristics of wear and tear also predetermine the specific method of reimbursing the costs of capital resources or their reproduction.

Capital goods last for more than one year, their cost is transferred to manufactured products gradually, as they wear out. It is obvious that the costs of rms for the purchase of machinery, equipment, structures, etc. (often millions and even billions

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com depreciation charges determine the size of the taxable income tax base. Wear and tear (especially moral wear and tear) is difficult to account for objectively. In addition, as already noted, the entire service life of a capital good has the nature of internal costs - the company does not need to make any payments for the current period due to incomplete depreciation. In the absence of rules for the implementation of depreciation deductions, nothing prevents a company from overestimating the amount of depreciation on paper. Accordingly, the company's costs will increase, and profits (again on paper; there may not be any left at all). To prevent companies from engaging in such abuses, the state introduces certain rules for calculating depreciation rates.

The principles for establishing depreciation rates are as follows.

1. First of all, the range of depreciation objects is determined. For example, in Russia, in accordance with the current Tax Code, depreciable property includes fixed assets with a useful life of more than 12 months and a cost of more than 10,000 rubles, as well as intangible assets taken into account for tax purposes.

2. Next, the service life of the assets is established. In our country, 10 depreciation groups are distinguished depending on the typical useful life of the relevant assets. At the same time, for each object, the company determines this period independently, but taking into account the Classification of fixed assets included in depreciation groups approved by the Government of the Russian Federation.

3. Finally, formulas for calculating depreciation charges are established by law. In accordance with the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, a company has the right to choose one of two methods for calculating depreciation.

1. Linear method. The essence of this method is to evenly distribute the amount of deductions over the entire service life of equipment or other capital goods. Using

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com, which, in principle, would need to be set aside for the future replacement of a hundred night park, it may well be spent on paying off debts for electricity. However, the fact that when a company's funds are spent on certain needs, depreciation charges are practically indistinguishable from funds of other origins does not mean that their special nature does not matter.

The volume of funds allocated for depreciation should be at least sufficient to renew worn-out equipment and other capital goods. Compliance with this principle is crucial for the successful functioning of a business entity. If the company does not renew capital resources in a timely manner and depreciation funds are used for other purposes, i.e. not for the reproduction of worn-out capital goods (but for example, for paying wages, replenishing stocks of raw materials, repaying accounts payable), then there is a narrowing of the firm’s capital base, or leasing.

This policy affects the long-term aspects of the company's activities. Since there is no money to buy new equipment to replace worn-out equipment, a reduction in the scale of production becomes inevitable. Often there is a deterioration in the current financial condition of the company. Of course, through depreciation deductions it is possible (and even necessary!) to repay a “burning” bank loan or pay taxes on time, thereby avoiding bank debt today. Similar phenomena have been repeatedly observed in Russian practice in recent years. But tomorrow, outdated, frequently breaking equipment will become a production bottleneck. Low quality of products, increased consumption of energy and materials, a high percentage of defects, irregular production due to breakdowns will be the price to pay for the misuse of depreciation funds. In other words, variable resources replenished from depreciation funds, when combined with worn-out (and therefore ineffective!) fixed resources, also do not provide the proper return and are used inefficiently.

The result is an increase in variable costs. Therefore, even having spent depreciation funds for other purposes, the company must subsequently, at the first opportunity, find money to restore depreciation accumulations. Thus, the absence in the accounting system of a separate account called “Depreciation Fund” does not mean that there is no need to accumulate funds for replacement of worn-out capital goods.

We can say that the depreciation background, which is not formed in accounting, must necessarily exist in the manager’s head.

Otherwise, the company will face a bad future.

At the same time, not allocating accumulating depreciation charges to a separate account is not a whim of accountants. The renewal of worn-out equipment is not an end in itself, but part of the company’s overall investment policy. Worn-out machines should be replaced with the same ones, but new ones, or it is better to purchase more productive machines, i.e. not just to compensate for the disposal of equipment, but to create a basis for expanding production? Or maybe it would be better to switch to a new production technology, which will require fundamentally different equipment ONLY for REVIEW www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com? Or, finally, would it be most advisable to take advantage of the breakdown of existing machines to painlessly stop the production of a new product and move to a different assortment and make capital investments for a new product?

To summarize, we can say that in practice, the replacement of worn-out equipment is inseparable from the acquisition of a machine park to expand production, as well as from its technological restructuring. The use of depreciation deductions to compensate for depreciation from this point of view should be considered as an investment project and, as such, compete with other investment projects for the right to be implemented5.

4.4. AVERAGE AND MARGINAL COSTS

A powerful tool for economic analysis is the study of average costs, i.e. level of costs per unit of production.

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Marginal costs Dynamics The behavior of marginal costs (Fig. 4.10) is similar to the differential costs and average variable costs: graph of the MC function first

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com a year. This position of things is reflected by the short-term average cost curve of ATC], corresponding to a given scale of production (Fig. 4.12). However, what happens when demand increases?

When deciding on an option for expanding a plant, the manager will take into account two main factors: the amount of demand and the value of the costs at which the required volume of products can be produced. It is necessary to select a production scale that will ensure that demand is met at minimum cost per unit of production.

Here, the points and intersections of adjacent short-term average cost curves are of fundamental importance (points A and B in Fig. 4.1 2). A comparison of the production volumes corresponding to these points and the magnitude of demand determines the need to increase the scale of production. In our example, if the demand does not exceed 120 thousand cars per year (i.e. does not reach point A), it is advisable to carry out production on a scale described by the ATC curve, i.e. on existing facilities. In this case, average costs are minimal.

If demand increases more strongly, then there is no point in “holding on” to existing capacities: with large output values, the ATC curve grows very quickly. Moreover, if demand has grown to less than 280 thousand cars per year, the most suitable plant will be with a production scale described by the ATC2 curve. If demand exceeds 280 thousand cars per year, it will be necessary to expand the scale of production to the size described by the ATC3 curve.

8 in the long term there will be enough time to implement any possible investment project. Therefore, in our example, the long-term average cost curve will consist of successive segments of short-term average cost curves up to the points of their intersection with the next such curve (thick wavy line in Fig. 4.12).

Thus, the LATC long-term cost curve determines the dynamics of the minimum achievable unit costs with production growth in the long run (i.e., taking into account the possibility of changing the scale of discretion).

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com costs (AFC). A more monotonic decrease along the hyperbola will be periodically interrupted by abrupt returns to higher levels. Thus, many types of costs, traditionally perceived as constant, in practice often show their variable nature.

At the same time, part of the variable costs in real situations may exhibit pronounced features of constancy. For example, the wages of the personnel of a trading enterprise as a whole should be classified as variable costs, since they change as production (trade turnover) grows. But by hiring one more salesperson in the grocery department, the entrepreneur actually incurs fixed costs. After all, a worker’s salary is fixed, no matter how much pasta or rice he sells per day.

The curves of gross variable and average variable costs (TVC and AVQ, therefore, also become intermittent, as shown in Fig. 4.17. They have the familiar appearance of smooth curves only when viewed in general, so to speak, from a bird’s eye view (in the graph, these generalized trend lines are shown as blurred stripes.) A more detailed structure of gross variable costs (TVQ is a system of “mini-platforms” where they are constant.

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In particular, we will make sure that in a number of cases the correct distribution of costs incurred between jointly produced goods is achieved through optimization of the production of all these goods to a single whole, and not by calculating costs for each product separately.

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1) the intervals between measurements cannot in any way be considered extremely small. In this regard, the resulting MC value should be interpreted as a certain average for the corresponding interval. Here, the manager may be faced with the incomparability of costs related to different periods arising due to changes in yen *. To cope with this difficulty, it is useful to recalculate all of the holdings as if the yen had not changed (say, at the current level all along).

Such approximately estimated marginal costs are usually called gradient, or incremental costs. We still have to actively use the last term (see paragraph 6.3), and therefore we are already introducing the corresponding letter designation into the table - 1C.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com (in the table and graph, it is not by chance that we placed the data on the size of MS between the points of real measurements of average costs);

2) measurements are usually extremely unevenly distributed. They are often found in a certain range of capacity utilization (in our example, between 2000 units and 4000 units) and much less often beyond it. Accordingly, rare, fragmentary information is not always reliable.

Nevertheless, the estimates obtained using the described method are quite suitable for practical use. For example, if a company earns 4 rubles from the sale of each unit of production, then it is clear that increasing output beyond 2600-2700 units. (see graph in Fig. 4.18) is clearly impractical. After all, the marginal costs of producing additional goods after exceeding these volumes will be more than 4 rubles. and their production, therefore, will bring nothing but losses to the company (the logic of making such decisions is discussed in more detail in Chapters 5 and 6).

What does the marginal cost curve typically look like for real firms? Numerous statistical studies conducted in developed countries around the world (there is no such information for Russia, but there is no reason for the general pattern in our country to be violated) show that in the operating range of production capacity utilization (i.e. close to to the technological optimum) the value of marginal costs is constant and approximately equal to the value of average variable costs, or for

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FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com Market competition is the struggle for limited consumer demand, waged between firms in the parts (segments) of the market accessible to them. In a market economy, competition performs an important function a counterbalance to the individualism of market subjects and at the same time its complement. It is especially important that competition curbs the selfishness of producers. It forces them to take into account the interests of the consumer, and therefore the interests of society in general.

Indeed, formally, a manufacturer can release an arbitrarily bad product (say, to save on costs). However, the consumer, having compared many competing goods, will select from them only those that are most attractive to him. It is their producers who will be able to sell their products. Other goods will remain unclaimed, and the companies that produced them will receive losses instead of the expected savings.

In other words, if there were no competitive environment in a market economy, an individual (for example, a manufacturer) would have the opportunity to satisfy his own interests without regard to others. In a competitive environment, the only way to realize one’s own interests is to take into account the interests of others.

Essentially, the competition between competing firms is carried out for the better satisfaction of other people's needs.

Thus, the essence of competitive relations is closely related to two circumstances.

Firstly, with the competition of economic agents for the possession of some limited resource. Most often, limited effective demand acts as such a resource. And as a means of competition - giving the product attractive characteristics (price and non-price), ensuring the consumer’s choice of this particular product.

Secondly, with the thaw of economic power. When it is absent, the consumer is deprived of choice and is forced to either completely agree to the conditions dictated by the manufacturer, or be completely left without the benefit he needs. On the contrary, when economic power is split and the consumer has to deal with many suppliers of similar goods, he gains the opportunity to choose the one he prefers. which best suits his needs and financial capabilities.

According to the degree of development of competition in economic theory, four main types of markets are distinguished:

1) a perfectly competitive market;

2) market of imperfect competition, in turn subdivided:

a) monopolistic competition;

b) oligopoly;

c) a monopoly.

In a perfectly competitive market, the division of economic power is maximum and the mechanisms of competition work in full force. There are many manufacturers operating here, deprived of any leverage to impose their will on consumers. With imperfect competition, the division of economic power is weakened or completely absent. Therefore, the manufacturer acquires a certain degree of influence on the market.

FOR INFORMATION ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com The degree of imperfection of the runk depends on the type of imperfect competition. In conditions of monopolistic competition, it is small and is associated only with the ability of the manufacturer to produce special varieties of goods that differ from those of competitors. In oligopoly, the imperfection of the market is significant and is dictated by the small number of firms operating on it.

Finally, monopoly means the dominance of only one producer in the market. Four main types of markets can not only be classified as markets of perfect or imperfect competition, but also polypolistic and oligopolistic markets can be distinguished among them. With this approach, the central attention is paid to whether there are many economic entities operating in the market (in this case they are called polypolistic markets) or a limited number of them (in this case they are called oligopolistic markets).

The first type includes perfect and monopolistic competition, as well as “broad” (with a relatively large number of participants) oligopoly. The mechanisms of market functioning under polypoly conditions are decisively determined by the competition of participants, although this competition is not necessarily perfect. The second type - oligopoly in the broad sense - includes most of the varieties of oligopolistic markets themselves, as well as monopoly. Here, what comes to the fore is not so much competition as coordination of the actions of participants up to their complete collusion, or sole decision-making by a single (or dominant in the market) firm.

The described classification is of particular importance for state regulation of the economy. More precisely, the state usually refrains from interfering in the functioning of gender and political markets and necessarily regulates oligopolistic markets in one way or another.

As we see, when classifying markets, the main attention is paid to one side of competition - the degree of splitting of economic power. This is exactly the emphasis that will be placed in the next few chapters of our textbook. This will make it possible to understand the environment in which the company and its management have to operate in each of these markets.

The second side of competition - the competition between participants - will remain in the shadows for the time being. We will return to it when considering the problems of the company. The emphasis in the analysis will shift to the principles of entrepreneurship (and, accordingly, to the activities of managers performing the functions of an entrepreneur).

Now we will consider in detail the situation developing in a perfectly competitive market.

Perfect competition is a theoretical model of a certain ideal market in which numerous economic agents act, strictly rationally pursuing their own selfish interests (theirs and only theirs!) and not having any restrictions in their activities. Essentially, this model explains how in the market, without centralized planning or other form of conscious coordination of the activities of producers and consumers, the main problems of the company are solved, FOR REFERENCE ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com 8 in this form Two fundamental ways to increase profits are especially clearly visible.

This can be achieved:

9 increasing the average profit An, i.e. the amount of profit contained in each product sold, or

By increasing the size of the implementation, i.e. number of goods sold.

– – –

FOR REFERENCE ONLY www.moimirknig.com for www.mirknig.com therefore it is depicted as realistically as possible, exactly as it usually looks in practice: in a certain range of production volumes (from QA to QB) the level of variable costs is kept at almost constant and close to the minimum level. And then, when approaching full capacity utilization, the rate rises sharply 5.

Let us pay attention to the fact that the position of the first critical point depends more on average constant costs, while the second one depends more on average variable costs. Indeed, the graph clearly shows that in the area of the first point the contribution of variable costs to the total value of average total costs is small No. 2, February 2008 Social phenomenon of money: pros and cons from the point of view of cultural economics and sociology 3rd year student Faculty of Sociology, State University - Higher School of Economics Kozhevnikova Evgeniya Social..."

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1 RECOMMENDED LIST of educational literature for 1st year students of the master's program in the direction of "Management" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. MODERN PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY - National Economy: Textbook / Ed. R.M. Nureyev.- M.: INFRA-M, THEORY OF ECONOMY AND LAW - Economic Law: Textbook / VZFEI; A.G. Chepurnoy and others - M.: University textbook: INFRA-M, BUSINESS FOREIGN LANGUAGE English - Krylova I.P., Krylova E.V. Practical English grammar: Textbook. 2nd ed. Reworked M.: Chero. Yurayt, 2000, 2001,2002, Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). Macmillan Guide to Economics + CD-ROM / Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). Edelvives: B.I., MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN MANAGEMENT - Garmash A.N., Orlova I.V. Mathematical methods in management: Textbook / VZFEI.- M.: University textbook: INFRA-M, Orlova I.V. Economic-mathematical methods and models: computer modeling: Textbook / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI.- M.: University textbook, 2011, (University textbook). 5. METHODS OF COMPUTER FORMATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS - Information systems in economics: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. A.N. Romanova, B.E. Odintsova.- 2nd ed. - M.: University textbook, Odintsov B.E. Inverse calculations in the formation of economic decisions: Textbook. - M.: Finance and Statistics, MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS - Microeconomics: a practical approach: (Managerial Economics): Textbook / ed. A.G. Gryaznova, A.Yu. Yudanova. - M.: KnoRus, ORGANIZATION THEORY AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR - Lapygin Yu.N. Organization theory and organizational behavior: Textbook / VZFEI.- M.: INFRA-M, CORPORATE FINANCE

2 RECOMMENDED LIST of educational literature for 1st year students Master's program in the direction of "Economics" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. MODERN PROBLEMS OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMY - National Economy: Textbook / Ed. R.M. Nureyev.- M.: INFRA-M, THEORY OF ECONOMY AND LAW - Economic Law: Textbook / VZFEI; A.G. Chepurnoy and others - M.: University textbook: INFRA-M, BUSINESS FOREIGN LANGUAGE English - Krylova I.P., Krylova E.V. Practical English grammar: Textbook. - 2nd ed., revised. - M.: Chero. Yurayt, 2000, 2001, Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). Macmillan Guide to Economics + CD-ROM / Raitskaya L. (Raitskaya L.K.). - Edelvives: B.I., MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN ECONOMICS - Garmash A.N., Orlova I.V. Mathematical methods in management: Textbook / VZFEI.- M.: University textbook: INFRA-M, Orlova I.V. Economic-mathematical methods and models: computer modeling: Textbook / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI.- M.: University textbook, 2011, (University textbook). 5. METHODS OF COMPUTER FORMATION OF ECONOMIC DECISIONS - Information systems in economics: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. A.N. Romanova, B.E. Odintsova.- 2nd ed. - M.: University textbook, - Odintsov B.E. Inverse calculations in the formation of economic decisions: Textbook. - M.: Finance and Statistics, (scientific fund) 6. MACROECONOMICS - Mankiw N. Gregory. Principles of macroeconomics: Textbook. - 4th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, MICROECONOMICS - Cheremnykh Yu.N. Microeconomics. Advanced level: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, Mankiw N. Gregory. Principles of microeconomics: Principles of microeconomics: Textbook for universities. Per. from English - 4th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, ECONOMETRICS

3 - Multivariate statistical analysis in economic problems: computer modeling in SPSS: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. I.V. Orlova.- M.: University textbook, 2009, Orlova I.V. Economic-mathematical methods and models: computer modeling: Textbook / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI.- M.: University textbook, 2011, (University textbook).

4 LIST OF MANDATORY educational literature for 2nd year students in the direction of “Management” master’s program “Financial Management” for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. RESEARCH METHODS IN MANAGEMENT - Ignatieva A.V. Research of control systems: Textbook / VZFEI. - 2nd ed.; reworked and additional - M.: UNITY, MODERN STRATEGIC ANALYSIS No literature available 3. FINANCIAL INVESTMENTS - Lukasevich I.Ya. Investments/ VZFEI.- M.: University textbook: INFRA - M, ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF BUSINESS VALUE 5. INFORMATION RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT - Information systems and management technologies: Textbook/ VZFEI; Ed. G.A. Titorenko. - 3rd ed. - M.: UNITI, 2010, Information systems in economics: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. G.A. Titorenko. - M.: UNITI, 2006, Aliev V.S. Information technologies and financial management systems: Textbook. - M.: FORUM: INFRA-M, Aliev V.S. Workshop on business planning using the Project Expert program: Textbook. - M.: FORUM: INFRA-M, FINANCIAL MATHEMATICS - Financial mathematics: Mathematical modeling of the financial market: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. V.A. Polovnikova, Pilipenko A.I.. - M.: University textbook, Orlova I.V. Economic-mathematical methods and models: computer modeling: Textbook / I.V. Orlova, V.A. Polovnikov; VZFEI.- M.: University textbook, 2011, Financial mathematics.- 2nd ed.- (in print) 7. SHORT-TERM FINANCIAL POLICY - Likhacheva O.N. Long-term and short-term financial policy of an enterprise: Textbook / O.N. Likhacheva, S.A. Shchurov; VZFEI;

5 Ed. AND I. Lukasevich.- M.: University textbook, p.- (University textbook). 8. MANAGEMENT OF INVESTMENT PROJECTS - Lukasevich I.Ya. Investments/ VZFEI.- M.: University textbook: INFRA M, INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS (elective disciplines) - Vakhrushina M.A. International Financial Reporting Standards: Textbook / VZFEI. - 4th ed.; revised and additional - M.: Reed Group, 2011.

6 LIST OF MANDATORY educational literature for 2nd year students in the direction of "Economics" master's program "Accounting, Analysis, Audit" for the 2012/2013 academic year in the disciplines: 1. SYSTEM OF INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS (advanced level) - Vakhrushina M .A. International Financial Reporting Standards: Textbook / VZFEI. - 4th ed.; reworked and additional - M.: Reed Group, MODERN CONCEPTS OF ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING - Vakhrushina M.A. Management accounting: Textbook / VZFEI.- M.: CJSC: “Finstatinform”, 2005, 2006, Babaev Yu.A. Accounting: Textbook /VZFEI; Yu.A. Babaev, L.A. Melnikova; Ed. Yu.A. Babaeva.- 3rd ed.; reworked and additional - M.: Prospekt, Vakhrushina M.A. International Financial Reporting Standards: Textbook / VZFEI. - 4th ed.; processing and additional - M.: Reed Group, COMPLEX ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY - Comprehensive economic analysis of economic activity: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. M.A. Vakhrushina. - M.: University textbook, LABORATORY PRACTICUM ON ACCOUNTING - Ponomareva L.V. Laboratory workshop on accounting (cross-cutting problem): Textbook / L.V. Ponomareva; VZFEI.- M.: University textbook, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING AND ANALYSIS - Vakhrushina M.A. Strategic management accounting: Full course MBA/M.A. Vakhrushina, M.I. Sidorova, L.I. Borisova; VZFEI.- M.: Reed Group, ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT IN THE SERVICE SECTOR - Accounting in the service sector: Textbook / Ed. M.A. Vakhrushina.- M.: Reed Group, (National Economic Education) 7. FORENSIC ACCOUNTING EXAMINATION

7 - Kevorkova Zh.A., Savin A.A. Forensic accounting: Workshop: Textbook / VZFEI.- M.: UNITI, Forensic accounting: Textbook / VZFEI; Ed. E.S. Rossinskaya, N.D. Eriashvili, Zh.A. Kevorkova. - 3rd ed. - M.: UNITY, ACCOUNTING - Klimova M.A. Accounting: Textbook / M.A. Klimova.- M.: INFRA-M, ACCOUNTING AND CONTROL IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS - Sosnauskiene O.I. Budget accounting in a new way: a practical guide for an accountant. - M.: Reed Group, (Accounting step by step).

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N Name of the subject, discipline (module) in accordance with the curriculum Providing educational program 080100.68 “Economics” profile “Accounting, analysis and audit” Code and name

Economics of organization General professional disciplines. 1 Economics of an organization (enterprise): Textbook for Wed. specialist. educational institutions / N.A. Safronov. - 2nd ed., with amendments. - M.: Master: Scientific Research Center Infra-M, 2013.

Ministry of Agriculture Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Education "Novosibirsk State Agrarian University" INTRODUCTION INTERDISCIPLINARY PROGRAM

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April 2014 New arrivals to the library 22.18ya73 I74 Informatics in economics: textbook / ed. B.E.Odintsova, A.N.Romanova. - M.: University textbook: - M.: INFRA-M, 2013. - 478 p. 6.2я73

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Basic disciplines in the field of Economics Foreign language Philosophy History Professional ethics and office etiquette Psychology Sociology Russian language and speech culture History of Kuban Linear algebra

BULLETIN OF NEW ARRIVAL FOR DECEMBER 2015 Jurisprudence Syrykh V.M. History and methodology of legal science: textbook. - M.: Norma: INFRA-M, 2014. - 464 p. Kabashov S.Yu. Anti-corruption expertise

2 1. Contents of sections and topics of the academic discipline 1. The concept of management as a science, art of management and type of activity. 2. The purpose and objectives of the organization’s management. Management principles. 3. Control functions

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERAL STATE BUDGETARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION “BELGOROD STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY named after. V.G. SHUKHOV"

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Authors and compilers: Davydenko M.V., Yurchenko V.S., Marikov O.P., Filipchik R.I., Shved N.A., Berezutskaya N.S.

MINSK 200

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legislation investment commercial foreign economic

Concept and characteristics of economic entities.

Methods, procedure and main stages of creating business entities

Types of economic entities

Commercial and non-profit organizations as business entities

Reorganization and liquidation of business entities

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