Plan.
Organization of central regulation of movements.
Characteristics of voluntary and involuntary movements.
The concept of muscle tone and their “operant” rest.
Formation of motor stereotypy.
The structure of the peripheral speech apparatus.
The role of the muscular system in the functioning of the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus.
Speech articulation as an example of the highest level of development of voluntary movements.
Formation of speech motor stereotypy.
Speech breathing as the energetic basis of oral speech. Formation in ontogenesis of articulatory-respiratory coordination in the process of oral speech.
At present, largely in connection with the successes of Russian physiology, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas of the central nervous system and at its various levels and are combined between constitute the unity of working action.
Understanding the role of individual private brain systems in its holistic activity allows us to conduct a systemic analysis of speech disorders.
Selective disorders of the speech functional system develop in connection with organic lesions of the brain of a focal nature due to trauma, inflammatory and vascular diseases, etc. and are always accompanied by functional neurodynamic disorders in structures adjacent or even quite distant from the lesion.
Functional speech disorders are associated with pathological changes in the course of basic nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) and especially with disturbances in their mobility.
In some cases, these disorders are a consequence of temporary inhibition of individual parts of the speech functional system and are easily recorded as incorrect speech skills.
In other cases, speech disorders can be entirely determined only by functional disorders, as exemplified by many cases of stuttering, accelerated speech rate, incorrect sound pronunciation, and voice disorders.
Various analyzers are related to the functional speech system - primarily motor, auditory and visual.
Each analyzer consists of a receptor apparatus that perceives irritations, conductive pathways and a central section in the cerebral cortex, where higher analysis and synthesis of the received irritations occurs.
The results of the activity of all cortical analyzers taking part in the formation of speech reactions are transmitted along the pyramidal tracts to the nuclei of the cranial nerves of the brain stem of their own and especially the opposite side. Nerves depart from the nuclei and go to the peripheral speech apparatus, in the muscles of which the endings of the motor nerves are located (Fig. 1).
Motor nerves carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles, regulating tone and causing the muscles to contract, resulting in the production of voice and characteristic speech noises. Sensitive stimuli from the peripheral speech apparatus (auditory, kinesthetic, tactile) go to the central nervous system.
The functional organization of such manifestations of speech activity as shouting and babbling is the simplest; they are carried out on the basis of the activity of the structures of only the stem and subcortical parts of the brain and are observed in children from the first months of life.
In the early periods of development, the child begins to master the intonation aspect of speech, which, apparently, may also be associated with the activity of the subcortical nuclei of the brain.
At the age of 7-9 months, the child begins to imitate the sounds of speech of those around him, and by one year he is already imitating entire sound sequences. This means that the cortical sections of the auditory and motor analyzers begin to function, and moreover, jointly.
The child learns to subordinate the activity of his articulatory apparatus to signals coming from the auditory analyzer. This skill is necessary for the development of speech, which is proven by the facts of muteness of children who lost their hearing in the early periods of development.
Gradually, the activity of the auditory and motor analyzers becomes more complicated. A child of the first years of life (2-5 years), under the control of hearing and kinesthetic stimulation (as well as vision), learns to control his articulatory apparatus according to the laws of the linguistic environment in which he lives. He develops a phonemic sound system, which is used in different types of speech activity to distinguish the meanings of words. Finally, at primary school age, the child begins to master written speech (writing and reading), for which the visual analyzer is of particular importance.
In an adult, speech is somehow involved in all of his mental processes, cognitive activity, thinking, memory, etc. This, however, does not exclude the fact that individual speech processes (own speech, speech perception, reading, writing) are provided primarily by different departments a holistic functional speech system, which is clearly revealed in speech pathology. The speech therapist must be familiar with the activities of the main analyzers (auditory and motor) that take part in the formation and implementation of speech.
The human auditory function is performed by the auditory analyzer, the peripheral perceptive apparatus of which is the organ of Corti of the inner ear, followed by the auditory nerves, central pathways and the cortical part of the auditory analyzer, located in the temporal lobes of the brain. The most complex analysis and synthesis of speech auditory signals with their generalization into the phonemic system of the language is carried out by the secondary and tertiary sections of the cortex of the left temporal lobe of the dominant hemisphere.
A person perceives sounds and differentiates them by strength, pitch, sound duration and timbre, but this hearing turns out to be insufficient for the perception of even elementary speech.
The ability to differentiate complex sound sensations and especially speech sounds develops in a child under the influence of the surrounding speech environment, and in the process of active mastery of a particular language.
This ability, acquired in individual development, is called semantic or phonemic hearing.
Hearing impairments, especially in childhood, deprive speech movements of their normal sensory basis and lead to the fact that articulations, which have lost their control from hearing, are underdeveloped in the child.
Hearing impairment can be peripheral or central.
By peripheral hearing impairments, often leading to deaf-muteness in childhood, we mean those disorders that occur when the middle ear, which conducts sound to the sound receptor apparatus in the inner ear, is damaged, or this apparatus itself. Damage to the auditory nerves can also lead to deafness.
Central hearing loss is observed when the projection zone of the cortical end of the auditory analyzer in the temporal lobe of the brain is damaged (unilateral damage to this zone does not cause a significant decrease in hearing acuity due to the cross-course of the auditory pathways); cortical deafness develops only in the case of bilateral lesions of the projection cortical zone of the auditory analyzer, which is extremely rare.
Finally, with damage to the secondary and tertiary cortical fields of the auditory analyzer, in the dominant (usually left) hemisphere of the brain, hearing acuity does not decrease, but sensory alalia, or sensory aphasia, develops.
The speech motor analyzer includes the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nuclei, central descending motor tracts, nuclei of the brain stem (primarily the medulla oblongata) and peripheral nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles (see Fig. 1).
For the activity of the speech motor analyzer, kinesthetic stimuli coming from the muscles of the speech apparatus to the cerebral cortex are also essential. According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, kinesthetic stimulation is a basal component of speech; together with auditory stimuli, they play a large role in the formation of phonemic hearing; Visual perceptions of articulatory movements are also of some importance.
The trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and hypoglossal motor cranial nerves take part in the innervation of the muscles of the speech apparatus.
The trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles of mastication and the muscles that close the mouth; facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that perform closure
and stretching of the lips, grinning, puffing out and retracting the cheeks; glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal cords, pharynx and soft palate; in addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue; accessory nerve - neck muscles; hypoglossal nerve - muscles of the tongue. The nuclei of the last four nerves are located in the medulla oblongata, and therefore they are called bulbar nuclei. There are many nerve fibers that connect individual bulbar nuclei with each other and with other nuclei of the peripheral nerves, which ensures their joint activity.
Peripheral speech apparatus.
The peripheral speech apparatus includes: organs of the oral cavity, nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, chest and diaphragm (Fig. 2).
The respiratory apparatus is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. The main purpose of the breathing apparatus is to carry out gas exchange, i.e., the delivery of oxygen to the body and the removal of carbon dioxide, and it also simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions.
The movement of the chest walls during inhalation is carried out due to the action of the so-called inspiratory muscles (Fig. 3). Some of them expand the chest, mainly to the sides and forward (external intercostal muscles and levator ribs), others - downwards (diaphragm), others - upwards (muscles attached at one end to the upper ribs and clavicles, and at the other to the base of the skull ).
The diaphragm is a flat muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity and has a dome-shaped shape; when you inhale, it goes down and becomes flatter, which allows the lungs to expand, and when you exhale, it goes up again (see Fig. 3).
In addition to the main respiratory muscles, there are also auxiliary muscles (for example, the muscles of the shoulder girdle and neck). The participation of auxiliary muscles in the act of breathing usually indicates that the main muscles cannot provide the necessary air supply (during running, heavy physical activity).
The processes of vital and speech breathing differ significantly from each other.
The process of vital breathing proceeds rhythmically, in the same sequence: inhale-exhale-stop, inhale-exhale-stop. Inhalation is the most active part of the entire process. Immediately after it, the respiratory muscles relax, returning to a state of rest, in which they remain until a new breath is taken. In a healthy adult, 16-18 complete respiratory movements occur per minute. The time spent on inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same (4:5); inhalation occurs through the nose, exhalation through the mouth. The amount of air exhaled at one time is approximately 500 cm 3 , but the lungs are never completely freed from air; so-called residual air always remains. The rhythmic change of breathing phases occurs involuntarily, reflexively, outside of our consciousness.
The features of speech breathing are associated with the fact that speech breathing is included in the speech process, serves it, and is the basis of voice formation, the formation of speech sounds, and speech melody.
Breathing in speech is associated with its varied flow and alternation of speech units: syllables, their groups and syntagmas, which, depending on the content, can be long and short. Thus, the moments of inhalation (speech pause), the amount of air taken in, and the intensity of its expenditure cannot follow each other in a monotonous rhythmic sequence. 
In speech breathing, exhalation is the most important and active link of the entire process; it is much longer than inhalation - 1:20 or even 1:30; the sequence of phases changes as follows: inhalation - stop - exhalation. Inhalation will occur mainly through the mouth (the path of inhaled air through the mouth is shorter and wider than through the nose, so it occurs faster and more discreetly). In addition, when inhaling through the mouth, the velum palatine remains raised, which corresponds to its position when pronouncing most speech sounds.
The entire breathing process becomes more voluntary. During the stop, air is retained in the chest, and then a gradual controlled exhalation occurs. Not only the duration of exhalation is important, but also its smoothness and ease. In order for this or that movement to be smooth and elastic, it is necessary that both agonists (in this case, inhalers), which remain tense at the end of inhalation) and antagonists, i.e. muscles acting in the opposite direction, take part in this movement. direction (in this case, exhalers). The described phenomenon is called respiratory support. 
The child first uses vital breathing skills in speech, and only in the process of speech development, under the influence of the speech of others, does he develop speech breathing. In cases of early-onset speech pathology, breathing often remains at the vital level.
The vocal section consists of the larynx (Fig. 4). The larynx borders the pharynx at the top and the trachea at the bottom and is a cone-shaped tube consisting of several cartilages. The entire anterior and most of the posterior surface of the larynx is formed by the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. They are connected to each other by ligaments and muscles. The larynx, through various muscles, is attached above to the pharynx and hyoid bone and below to the sternum. The hyoid bone, in turn, is attached by muscles below to the larynx and to the sternum, and above to the lower jaw and the temporal bone of the skull. Thus, movements of the larynx, pharynx, mandible and tongue can influence the position of each of these organs.
The opening leading into the larynx from the pharyngeal cavity is called the laryngeal inlet. It is formed in front by the epiglottis, behind by arytenoid cartilages, and on the sides by aryepiglottic folds (muscles).
The epiglottis consists of cartilaginous tissue shaped like a sheet. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: falling backward and downward during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.
Inside the larynx, at some distance from the entrance to it, there is a glottis formed by the vocal cords. (The vocal cords are located at the level of the base of the arytenoid cartilages.) They are formed by the thick thyroarytenoid muscle, which diverges on both sides of the lumen of the larynx (in the horizontal direction). With their mass, the vocal cords almost completely cover the lumen of the larynx, leaving a relatively narrow glottis (Fig. 5, a). When inhaling, the glottis expands and takes the form of a triangle (Fig. 5, b), with its top facing forward and its base facing backward. When you exhale, the gap narrows. 
Outward from the vocal cords, slightly above them, in the same direction go the so-called false vocal cords, which are two folds of the mucous membrane covering the submucosal tissue and a small muscle bundle. Normally, the false vocal cords take some part in closing and opening the glottis, but they move sluggishly and do not move closer to each other.
The vocal cords have a special muscular structure, different from the structure of other muscles. Due to the special structure of the muscles, the vocal cords can vibrate either with their entire mass or just one part, for example, half, third, edges, etc. While part of the vocal muscle vibrates, the rest of the muscle mass can be in a state of complete rest . Those muscle fibers of the vocal cords that run in an oblique direction compress a certain area of the vocal muscle and cause only one or another segment of it to vibrate (they play the role of mufflers). The activity of all these internal laryngeal muscles ensures the generation of sound. 
The external laryngeal muscles surround the larynx and hold it at a certain level, which is extremely necessary, since the air exhaled from the lungs with one force or another tends to lift the larynx upward, and without fixing the larynx in a low position, voice formation becomes impossible. Fixation of the larynx is possible due to the tension of mutually oppositely acting muscles that attach it to the hyoid and sternum bones. Its low position depends on the position of the lower jaw, tongue and the degree of tension of the muscles of the pharynx and pharynx: a) when the lower jaw is not sufficiently lowered, the hyoid bone, and with it the larynx, rises upward; b) the tongue, hunched over and moved away from the front teeth, also pulls the hyoid bone and larynx upward thanks to the muscle connecting the tongue to the hyoid bone; c) the elevation of the larynx is also facilitated by excessive tension of the velopharyngeal muscle.
Articulation department (Fig. 6). The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palate. The active organs are the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw.
The main organ of articulation is the tongue. It is customary to distinguish a group of external muscles of the tongue and a group of internal muscles of the tongue.
External muscles of the tongue (Fig. 7).
Genioglossus muscle (paired) - the strongest muscle of the tongue, making up the bulk of its mass. From the mental tubercle of the mandible, its lower fibers run horizontally to the base of the tongue and the body of the hyoid bone. As they contract, they push the tongue forward and lift it slightly. Most of the muscle fibers extend from the same mental tubercle in a fan-shaped manner to the back of the tongue, from its tip to the root. These fibers pull the tongue, especially the front part, back and down. The presence of such antagonistic fibers in the main muscle of the tongue contributes to its elastic tension and its normal tone, which protects the tongue from falling into the pharyngeal cavity during deep inhalation and swallowing.
Styloglossus muscle (paired) - long, stretching from the styloid process of the temporal bone to the tip of the tongue downwards, inwardly and somewhat anteriorly. From the level of the lingual-palatine arch, the muscle runs horizontally in the lateral parts of the tongue to its very apex and pulls the tongue back and upward, stretching it in width.
Hyoglossus muscle (paired) - a flat muscle running from the hyoid bone to the lateral parts of the tongue upward and anteriorly. Pulls the tongue down and back.
Palatoglossus muscle (steam room). The muscle fibers stretch between the soft palate and the lateral part of the tongue, entering the transverse fibers of their side. With a fixed soft palate, the root of the tongue is pulled upward and backward.
Internal muscles (Fig. 8). 
Superior longitudinal muscle
(unpaired). The muscle bundles lie directly under the mucosa throughout the entire tongue. Acting together with the inferior longitudinal muscle, it shortens the tongue, and it becomes thicker and wider. Can bend the tongue upward in the longitudinal direction. Contracts and bends the tip of the tongue.
Inferior longitudinal muscle (steam room). Starting from the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue, the muscle fibers go down and forward to the inferolateral parts of the tongue up to the apex of the tongue. Shortens the tongue and may lower the raised tip of the tongue.
Transverse muscle (paired ). The muscle fibers narrow the tongue and can bend it upward.
Vertical muscle (steam room) flattens the tongue.
The structural features of the muscles of the tongue, the variety and complexity of the movements they perform suggest a constantly changing, but nevertheless very precise coordination of the work of its muscle bundles.
Voluntary movements of the tongue always represent complex muscle synergies. To protrude the tongue from the oral cavity (contraction of the necessary bundles of the genioglossus muscle), and especially to bend the tip of the protruding tongue upward, towards the nose, the fibers of the same muscle, pulling the tongue back and down, must be relaxed. On the contrary, when moving the tongue backwards and downwards, the lower muscle bundles should be relaxed. Its middle bundles are antagonists of the fibers of the superior longitudinal muscle, which arches the back of the tongue upward. In the downward movement of the tongue, the hyoglossus muscle is an antagonist of the styloglossus, but in the backward movement, both of these muscles are agonists.
Lateral movements of the tongue require relaxation of the paired muscles of the other side. Contractions of the fibers of the transverse muscles of the tongue (which makes the tongue narrow) require relaxation of the fibers of the vertical muscles and the bundles of hyoglossus and styloglossus muscles that run along the edges of the tongue and participate in the effect of its compaction and expansion.
In all movements of the tongue along the midline (forward, up, down, backward), the analogous muscles of the right and left sides must work as agonists, otherwise the tongue will deviate to the side. At the same time, the attachment of the muscle bundles is such that in the case of the work of the hyoglossus and styloglossus muscles, it deviates towards the more tense muscles, and in the case of the work of the genioglossus muscles - towards the less tense ones.
Perhaps the most complex muscle synergies are in the process of articulation of anterior lingual sounds (stops, fricatives, and especially the trembling sound p). The subtle movements of the tongue's own muscles required for this are carried out provided that the root of the tongue is fixed by its external muscles, as well as by the muscles of the hyoid bone and neck. In this case, of course, the muscles of the vocal cords, soft palate and pharynx, and respiratory muscles work.
All muscles of the tongue are innervated by the hypoglossal nerves, only the palatoglossus receives nerve impulses from the glossopharyngeal nerves.
Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e. the structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows, firstly, to represent the complex mechanism of speech in normal conditions, secondly, to take a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and, thirdly, to correctly determine the paths corrective influence.
Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions of a person.
The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.
Back at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a widespread point of view according to which the function of speech was associated with the existence of special “isolated speech centers” in the brain. I. P. Pavlov gave a new direction to this view, proving that the localization of speech functions of the cerebral cortex is not only very complex, but also changeable, which is why he called it “dynamic localization.”
Currently, thanks to the research of P.K Anokhin,. A. N. Leontyev, A. R. Luria and other scientists have established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas of the central nervous system, at its various levels and are united between constitute the unity of working action.
Speech is a special and most perfect form of communication, inherent only to humans. In the process of verbal communication (communications), people exchange thoughts and influence each other. Speech communication is carried out through language. Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The speaker selects the words necessary to express a thought, connects them according to the rules of the grammar of the language, and pronounces them through articulation of the speech organs.
In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be regular and accurate. At the same time, these movements must be automatic, that is, those that would be carried out without special voluntary efforts. This is what actually happens. Usually the speaker only follows the flow of thought, without thinking about what position his tongue should take in his mouth, when he needs to inhale, etc. This occurs as a result of the mechanism of speech production. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus.
The structure of the speech apparatus
The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).
The central speech apparatus is located in the head. Brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical ganglia, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.
What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?
Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of primary importance in the formation of speech. These are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of predominantly the left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right). Frontal gyri (inferior) They are the motor area and are involved in the formation of one’s own oral speech (Broca’s area). The temporal gyri (superior) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perceiving someone else’s speech is carried out. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech. The occipital lobe is a visual area and ensures the acquisition of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech thanks to his visual perception of the articulation of adults.
The subcortical nuclei control the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.
Leading paths. The cerebral cortex is connected to the speech organs (peripheral) by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.
Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal path begins” in the cerebral cortex in Broca’s center.
From the periphery to the center, i.e. From the area of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, centripetal paths go.
Centripetal path begins in proprioceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors located inside muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs:
Proprioceptors stimulated by muscle contractions . Thanks to proprioceptors, all our muscle activity is controlled. Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. When we speak, irritation of the proprio- and baroreceptors occurs, which follows a centripetal path to the cerebral cortex. The centripetal path plays the role of a general regulator of all activities of the speech organs.
The cranial nerves originate in the nuclei of the brainstem. All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated (Innervation is the provision of any organ or tissue with nerve fibers, cells) by 1 cranial nerves. The main ones are: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and sublingual.
Trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw; facial nerve – facial muscles, including muscles that perform lip movements, puffing out and retracting cheeks; glossopharyngeal And vagus, nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is the sensory nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and cardiac organs. Accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck, and hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and gives it the possibility of a variety of movements.
Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one. Nerve impulses move the speech organs.
But this path from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one constitutes only one part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is feedback - from the periphery to the center.
Now let's turn to the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus (executive).
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).
The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea.
Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to another, main one - gas exchange). Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the time of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing.
It is clear that for a longer exhalation a larger supply of air is needed. Therefore, at the moment of speaking, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (about 3 times). Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation at the time of speech is carried out with the active participation of the expiratory muscles (abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles). This ensures its greatest duration and depth and, in addition, increases the pressure of the air stream, without which sonorous speech is impossible.
The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people.
From above the larynx passes into the pharynx. From below it passes into the windpipe (trachea).
At the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. It consists of cartilage tissue shaped like a tongue or petal. Its front surface faces the tongue, and its back surface faces the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.
In children before the onset of puberty (i.e., puberty), there are no differences in the size and structure of the larynx between boys and girls.
In general, in children, the larynx is small and grows unevenly at different periods. Its noticeable growth occurs at the age of 5-7 years, and then during puberty: in girls at 12-13 years old, in boys at 13-15 years old. At this time, the size of the larynx increases in girls by one third, and in boys by two thirds, the vocal folds lengthen; In boys, the Adam's apple begins to appear.
In young children, the larynx is funnel-shaped. As the child grows, the shape of the larynx gradually approaches cylindrical.
How is voice formation (or phonation) accomplished? The mechanism of voice formation is as follows. During phonation, the vocal folds are in a closed state. A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, moves them somewhat apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original, i.e., median, position, so that as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, they again move apart, etc. Closing and opening continues until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse and not the longitudinal direction, i.e. the vocal folds move inward and outward, rather than upward and downward.
When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back part between them there remains a gap in the shape of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate, but the friction of the air stream against the edges of the small triangular slit causes noise, which we perceive as a whisper.
The power of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (span) of vibrations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the amount of air pressure, i.e., the force of exhalation. The resonator cavities of the extension pipe (pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity), which are sound amplifiers, also have a significant impact on the strength of the voice.
The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, influence the individual “color” of the voice, or timbre. It is thanks to timbre that we distinguish people by their voices.
The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibrations of the vocal folds, and it, in turn, depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense they are, the lower the voice sound.
Articulation department. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile.
The main organ of articulation is language. The tongue is a massive muscular organ. With the jaws closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is mobile, the back part is fixed and is called root of the tongue. The movable part of the tongue distinguishes between the tip, the leading edge (blade), the lateral edges and the back. The complexly intertwined system of tongue muscles and the variety of their attachment points provide the ability to change the shape, position and degree of tension of the tongue within a wide range. This is very important, since the tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonant sounds (except labials). An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to the lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, and alveoli. Articulation consists in the fact that the listed organs form slits, or closures, that appear when the tongue approaches or touches the palate, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth..
The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.
In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals (for example, a monkey), the pharynx and mouth are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - the supernatant. It performs the important function of a speech resonator. The extension pipe in humans was formed as a result of evolution.
Due to its structure, the extension pipe can vary in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe create the phenomenon resonance. As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are enhanced, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when pronouncing a sound A the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and stretches... And when pronouncing a sound And, on the contrary, oral. the cavity contracts and the pharynx expands.
The larynx alone does not create a specific speech sound; it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in the resonators (pharyngeal, mole and nasal)."
The extension pipe performs a dual function in the formation of speech sounds: resonator And noise vibrator(the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds, which are located in the larynx).
The noise vibrator is the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the teeth, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the closures between these organs broken by a stream of air.
Using a noise vibrator, voiceless consonants are formed. When the tone vibrator is turned on simultaneously (vibration of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorant consonants are formed.
The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all sounds of the Russian language. If a person has correct pronunciation, then the nasal resonator is involved only in pronouncing sounds m And n and their soft variants. When pronouncing other sounds, the velum palatine, formed by the soft palate and the small uvula, closes the entrance to the nasal cavity.
So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second - to form the voice, the third is a resonator, which gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the artnulation apparatus.
In order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program. The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer in the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems.
Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result, certain speech sounds arise and oral (or expressive) speech is formed.
The concept of feedback. We said above that nerve impulses coming from the central speech apparatus set the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus in motion. But there is also feedback. How is it carried out? This connection functions in two directions: the kinesthetic pathway and the auditory one.
For the correct implementation of a speech act, control is necessary:
using hearing;
through kinesthetic sensations.
In this case, a particularly important role belongs to kinesthetic sensations going to the cerebral cortex from the speech organs. It is kinesthetic control that allows you to prevent an error and make an amendment before the sound is pronounced.
Auditory control operates only at the moment of pronouncing a sound. Thanks to auditory control, a person notices an error. To eliminate the error, you need to correct the articulation and control it.
Reverse pulses go from the speech organs to the center, where it is controlled at what position of the speech organs the error occurred. An impulse is then sent from the center, which causes precise articulation. And again the opposite impulse arises - about the achieved result. This continues until articulation and auditory control are matched. We can say that feedback functions as if in a ring - impulses go from the center to the periphery and then from the periphery to the center.
This is how feedback is provided and a second signaling system is formed. An important role here belongs to systems of temporary neural connections - dynamic stereotypes that arise due to repeated perception of language elements (phonetic, lexical and grammatical) and pronunciation. The feedback system ensures automatic regulation of the functioning of the speech organs.
Lecture 4. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech (4 hours)
speech therapy speech disorder
Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e. the structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows, firstly, to represent the complex mechanism of speech in normal conditions, secondly, to take a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and, thirdly, to correctly determine the paths corrective influence. Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions of a person. The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain. Back at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a widespread point of view according to which the function of speech was associated with the existence of special “isolated speech centers” in the brain. I.P. Pavlov gave a new direction to this view, proving that. The localization of speech functions of the cerebral cortex is not only very complex, but also variable, which is why he called it “dynamic localization.” Currently, thanks to the research of P.K. Anokhin, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other scientists, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas central nervous system, on its various levels and are united by the unity of working action.
Central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical ganglia, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.
What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?
Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of primary importance in the formation of speech. These are the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of predominantly the left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus (inferior) is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech (Broca's area). The temporal gyri (superior) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perceiving someone else’s speech is carried out. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important for understanding speech. The occipital lobe is a visual area and ensures the acquisition of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech thanks to his visual perception of the articulation of adults.
The subcortical nuclei control the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.
Conducting pathways. The cerebral cortex is connected to the speech organs (peripheral) by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.
Peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).
IN respiratory Department includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea.
Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to another, main one - gas exchange). Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent. Exhalation is much longer than inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of inhalation and exhalation is approximately the same).
Voice Department consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people. From above, the larynx passes into the pharynx. From below it passes into the windpipe (trachea). At the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during the swallowing movement, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.
During phonation, the vocal folds are closed. A stream of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original, i.e., median, position, so that, as a result of the continued pressure of the exhaled air stream, they again move apart, etc. Closures and openings continue until the pressure of the voice-forming exhalatory stream stops. Thus, during phonation, vibrations of the vocal folds occur. These vibrations occur in the transverse rather than longitudinal direction. As a result of vibrations of the vocal folds, the movement of the stream of exhaled air turns over the vocal folds into vibrations of air particles. These vibrations are transmitted to the environment and are perceived by us as vocal sounds.
Articulatory Department. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile.
The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created by resonators. Resonators are located throughout superimposed pipe
The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.
In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds.
So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.
Description of the presentation by individual slides:
1 slide
Slide description:
2 slide
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In order to correctly represent the complex mechanism of normal speech activity, take a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech disorders and competently determine the paths and directions of correctional work, knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech is necessary.
3 slide
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Speech is one of the complex higher mental functions of a person, which is ensured by the activity of the brain. Research by P.K. Anokhina, A.N. Leontyeva, A.R. Luria et al. established that the basis of any higher mental function is complex functional systems, in the formation of which various parts of the brain take part, united by the reflex mechanism. The speech apparatus consists of central and peripheral sections.
4 slide
Slide description:
Structure of the speech apparatus 1 – brain; 2- nasal cavity; 3 – hard palate; 4 – oral cavity; 5 – lips; 6 – incisors; 7 – tip of the tongue; 8 – back of the tongue; 9 – root of the tongue; 10 – epiglottis; 11 – pharynx; 12 – larynx; 13 – trachea; 14 – right bronchus; 15 – right lung; 16 – diaphragm; 17 – esophagus; 18 – spine; 19 – spinal cord; 20 – soft palate.
5 slide
Slide description:
The central section of the speech apparatus includes the brain - its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves. The frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of predominantly the left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handed people, the right) are of primary importance in the formation of speech. The frontal gyrus is a speech motor area and is involved in the formation of oral speech (Broca's area). The temporal gyri, being a speech-auditory area (Wernicke's center), are responsible for the perception of someone else's speech. The parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex ensures the understanding of speech, and the occipital lobe, being a visual area, is important for the acquisition of written speech. The subcortical nuclei are responsible for the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech. Pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the peripheral speech organs. Centrifugal pathways go from the center to the periphery, and centripetal nerve pathways go from the periphery to the center.
6 slide
Slide description:
The following cranial nerves take part in the innervation of the muscles of the speech apparatus: The trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw; Facial nerve - facial muscles, including muscles that move the lips and cheeks; The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves are the muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. The glossopharyngeal nerve is also a sensory nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and cardiac organs; The accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck; The hypoglossal nerve allows the tongue to make various movements.
7 slide
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The peripheral speech apparatus consists of the respiratory, vocal and articulatory sections. The respiratory section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the vocal section serves to form the voice, and the articulatory section forms the characteristic sounds of our speech as a result of the activity of the organs of the articulatory apparatus. The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase, so during speech the exhalation is much longer than the inhalation (1:20 or even 1:30). A long exhalation requires a larger supply of air. Therefore, at the moment of speech, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases almost 3 times. In a child, speech breathing is developed gradually, in the process of speech development. At first, the child uses vital breathing skills in speech. Such breathing remains in cases of early-onset speech pathology. The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a cone-shaped tube consisting of several cartilages. At the top, the larynx borders on the pharynx, and at the bottom on the trachea.
8 slide
Slide description:
The mechanism of voice formation is based on the vibration of the vocal folds of the larynx, which are influenced by air entering under a certain pressure from the bronchi and lungs. The vibrations are transmitted to the environment, and we perceive them as vocal sounds. The main organs of the articulation department are: tongue, lips, upper and lower jaws, hard and soft palate, teeth, alveoli, tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw - these are movable organs of articulation; teeth, alveoli and hard palate are immobile, do not change their position, but also participate in the formation of sounds.
Slide 9
Slide description:
Profile of organs of articulation 1 - lips, 2 - incisors; 3 – alveoli; 4 – hard palate; 5 – soft palate; 6 – vocal folds, 7 – root of the tongue; 8 – back of the tongue; 9 – tip of the tongue.
10 slide
Slide description:
The tongue is the most active and mobile organ of articulation; the tongue muscle system makes it possible to change its shape, position and degree of tension. The tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonants (except labials). The front part of the tongue is movable and is distinguished by the tip, anterior edges, lateral edges and back. The back of the tongue is fixed and is called the root of the tongue.
11 slide
Slide description:
From the middle of the lower surface of the tongue to the bottom of the oral cavity, a fold of the mucous membrane (the so-called frenulum) descends, which limits the extreme movements of the tongue. Some children have this frenulum shortened from birth. In infancy, this makes sucking difficult, and later interferes with the ability to pronounce sounds correctly. At an early age, the bridle is trimmed. At a later age, the help of a speech therapist and special exercises for the tongue are needed to help stretch the frenulum.
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Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e. the structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows, firstly, to represent the complex mechanism of speech in normal conditions, secondly, to take a differentiated approach to the analysis of speech pathology and, thirdly, to correctly determine the paths corrective influence.
The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs, in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.
Currently, thanks to the research of P.K. Anokhin, A.N. Leontiev, A.R. Luria and other scientists, it has been established that the basis of any higher mental function is not individual “centers”, but complex functional systems that are located in various areas central nervous system, at its various levels and are united by the unity of working action.
In order for a person’s speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be natural and accurate. To understand the mechanism of speech production, it is necessary to have a good knowledge of the structure of the speech apparatus.
Structure of the speech apparatus:
Central speech apparatus (regulatory):
Cortex:
* subcortical nodes
* pathways
* trunk kernels
Peripheral speech apparatus (executive):
Respiratory section:
* rib cage
Articulation department (sound-conducting):
* nasal cavity
* oral cavity * pharynx
The speech apparatus consists of two closely interconnected parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).
The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical ganglia, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata) and nerves going to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.
1-brain; 2-nasal cavity, 3-hard palate; 4-soft palate, 5-lips; 6 - incisors, 7 - tip of the tongue, 8 - dorsum of the tongue; 9 - root of the tongue, 10-pharynx, 11-epiglottis, 12-larynx, 13-trachea, 14-right bronchus; 15 right lung, 16 diaphragm, 17 esophagus, 18 spine, 19 spinal cord
Through the system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one. Nerve impulses move the speech organs.
But this path from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one constitutes only one part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is feedback - from the periphery to the center.
Now let's turn to the structure of the peripheral speech apparatus (executive).
The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: 1) respiratory; 2) voice; 3) articulatory (or sound-producing).
The respiratory section includes the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea.
Producing speech is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed during the exhalation phase. During the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to another, main one - gas exchange). Breathing during speech is significantly different from usual when a person is silent.
The vocal section consists of the larynx with the vocal folds located in it. The larynx is a wide, short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissue. It is located in the front of the neck and can be felt through the skin from the front and sides, especially in thin people.
From above the larynx passes into the pharynx. From below it passes into the windpipe (trachea).
The pitch of the voice depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and this in turn depends on their length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense they are, the lower the voice sound.
Rice. 3. Profile of articulation organs: 1 - lips. 2 - incisors, 3 - alveoli, 4 - hard palate, 5 - soft palate, 6 - vocal folds, 7 - root of the tongue. 8 - back of the tongue, 9 - tip of the tongue
Articulation department. The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palates, and alveoli. Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are mobile, the rest are fixed (Fig. 3).
The main organ of articulation is language. The tongue is a massive muscular organ. When the jaws are closed, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is movable, the back is fixed and is called root of the tongue. The movable part of the tongue is divided into the tip, the leading edge (blade), the lateral edges and the back. The tongue is involved in the formation of all vowels and almost all consonants (except labials). An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to the lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, and alveoli. Articulation consists in the fact that the listed organs form slits, or closures, that occur when the tongue approaches or touches the palate, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth.
The volume and clarity of speech sounds are created by resonators. Resonators are located throughout extension pipe. pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.
In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds.
So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second to form the voice, the third is a resonator that gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, arising as a result of the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.
In order for words to be pronounced in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program. The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech motor analyzer - in the respiratory, phonatory and resonator systems.
The concept of feedback. We said above that nerve impulses coming from the central speech apparatus set the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus in motion. But there is also feedback. How is it carried out? This connection functions in two directions: the kinesthetic pathway and the auditory one.
For the correct implementation of a speech act, control is necessary:
1) using hearing;
2) through kinesthetic sensations.
In this case, a particularly important role belongs to kinesthetic sensations going to the cerebral cortex from the speech organs. It is kinesthetic control that allows you to prevent an error and make an amendment before the sound is pronounced.
Auditory control operates only at the moment of pronouncing a sound. Thanks to auditory control, a person notices an error. To eliminate the error, you need to correct the articulation and control it.
Reverse pulses go from the speech organs to the center, where it is controlled at what position of the speech organs the error occurred. An impulse is then sent from the center, which causes precise articulation. And again the opposite impulse arises - about the achieved result. This continues until articulation and auditory control are matched. We can say that feedback functions as if in a ring - impulses go from the center to the periphery and then from the periphery to the center.
This is how feedback is provided and formed. second signaling system. An important role here belongs to systems of temporary neural connections - dynamic stereotypes that arise due to repeated perception of language elements (phonetic, lexical and grammatical) and pronunciation. The feedback system ensures automatic regulation of the functioning of the speech organs.
The role of hearing and vision in the development of children's speech
For the development of a child’s speech, his full hearing is very important. The auditory analyzer begins to function from the first hours of a child’s life. The child's first reaction to sound is dilation of the pupils, holding his breath, and some movements. Then the child begins to listen to the voice of adults and respond to it. In the further development of a child's speech, hearing begins to play an important role.
The child masters the ability to subordinate the activity of his articulatory apparatus to signals coming from the auditory analyzer. With the help of hearing, the baby perceives the speech of others, imitates it and controls his pronunciation.
Children who are deaf from birth do not develop imitation of the speech of others. Their babbling appears in the same way as in normally hearing children. But it does not receive reinforcement from auditory perception and therefore gradually fades away. In such cases, without special pedagogical influence, children’s speech does not develop.
In early childhood, the child perceives the sounds, syllables and words of those around him unclearly and distortedly. Therefore, children mix one phoneme with another and poorly understand speech. Very often, children do not notice their incorrect pronunciation, so it becomes habitual, persistent and subsequently overcome with great difficulty.
Vision is also essential in the development of children's speech. The important role of the visual analyzer in the emergence of speech and its perception is confirmed by the fact that children blind from birth begin to speak much later. A sighted child carefully observes the movements of the tongue and lips of speakers, tries to repeat them, and imitates exaggerated articulatory movements well.
In the process of child development, a system of conditioned connections arises between auditory, visual and other analyzers, which constantly develops and is strengthened by repeated connections.