Vocabulary. Clarity of syntactic structures

Analyzing the use of participial phrases in speech, the editor often notices errors in the formation of participles and, eliminating them, replaces this construction with a subordinate qualifying clause. Let's look at examples of such stylistic edits.

1. It is not easy to find a researcher who would take on this complex topic. - It is not easy to find a researcher who would take on this complex topic.

2. Everyone who sees this picture cannot help but be indignant. - Everyone who sees this picture cannot help but be indignant.

3. There was long, unceasing applause. - There was applause that did not stop for a long time (applause that did not stop for a long time).

4. The order carried out by our company is special. - The order that our company carries out is special.

In the first example, the participle is formed from a subjunctive verb, in the second, the present participle is formed from a perfective verb, in the third, the passive participle is formed from an intransitive verb, and finally, in the fourth, the active participle from a reflexive verb wrongfully replaced the passive fulfilled. The editor eliminated all these violations of the language norm by replacing participial phrases with parallel syntactic constructions. A similar stylistic edit allows you to avoid stringing together participial phrases that make the sentence cumbersome and ponderous.

The mechanical properties of steel, tested on samples made from rods forged from a piece cut from the profit of ingots, presented in Table 2, meet the requirements of the specifications. - Samples for mechanical testing of steel were cut from rods, which were obtained from the profitable part of the ingots. The test results showed (Table 2) that the mechanical properties of the steel meet the requirements of the specifications.

There are errors associated with violation of the word order in the participial phrase: Delegates who arrived at the conference must register - the word being defined (delegates) ended up inside the participial phrase. The following stylistic edit is possible: Delegates who came to the conference must register or: Delegates who came to the conference... finally, Delegates who came to the conference must register.

A variety of tense forms of the predicate verb and participle is unacceptable, which the editor must also monitor. Stylistic editing in this case comes down to bringing the verb forms into line:

1. The assignments received by students were completed on time. - The assignments received by the students (or: which the students received) were completed on time.

2. The plant will not be responsible for accidents that may occur due to improper use of the equipment. - The plant will not be responsible for accidents that may occur due to improper use of the equipment.

3. Many valuable proposals were implemented to improve the quality of fabrics produced by the factory. - Many valuable proposals were implemented to improve the quality of the fabrics produced by the factory.

As you can see, the use of parallel syntactic constructions is very convenient when eliminating errors in participial phrases, although this does not mean that participial phrases as a grammatical category are inconvenient. We talked about their merits and note that when literary editing a text, much more often there is a need to replace the attributive clause of a complex sentence with a participial phrase. Let's look at a number of examples:

1. In the distance one could see the peaks of the mountains, which were covered with snow that sparkled in the sun. - In the distance one could see the peaks of mountains covered with snow that sparkled in the sun.

2. This problem is the subject of mathematical logic, which has developed into an exact science that applies mathematical research methods. - This problem is the subject of mathematical logic, which has developed into an exact science and uses mathematical research methods.

3. To solve this problem, a closed exact system is used, which takes into account all interactions of electrons and ions, which correspond to obtaining a series of expressions for the electron gas, which is studied by the method of functions. - To solve this problem, a closed exact system is used, which takes into account all interactions of electrons and ions, corresponding to obtaining a number of expressions for the electron gas, studied by the method of functions.

In the first example, replacing the subordinate part of a complex sentence with a participial phrase clarified the word being defined (not mountains, but peaks), in the second, it clarified the grammatical connections (the first definition refers to the word logic, the second to the word science); In addition, the repetition of allied words and the stringing of similar subordinate clauses with sequential subordination are eliminated, which improves the syntactic structure. In the third example, the stylistic edit was dictated by the editor’s desire to “lighten” the construction by abandoning the sequential subordination of attributive clauses in a complex sentence.

When assessing the use of adverbial phrases in speech, the editor is faced with errors in the construction of sentences: the adverbial phrase is used “independently” - with an absent subject (which happens in an impersonal sentence) or refers to a different subject of action than the predicate verb: After reading the manuscript carefully, the editor it became clear that there would be a lot of work with her; Having escaped from Chechen captivity, the soldier was soon found by his mother. For stylistic editing of such sentences, parallel syntactic constructions are usually used: When the editor read the manuscript, it became clear to him or: After reading the manuscript carefully, the editor understood... However, other methods of stylistic editing are possible, for example:

1. Looking into the house, we were presented with an interesting picture. - Looking into the house, we saw an interesting picture.

2. Description of the experiments is given in table. 1, using experimental data. - Description of the experiments is given in table. 1, where experimental data are used.

In the first example, the editor replaced the impersonal construction with a personal one, in the second, instead of an adverbial phrase, he used an attributive clause.

When the use of verbal nouns is stylistically unjustified, the editor tries to replace them with verbs, eliminating the inappropriate clerical coloring of speech, for example:

1. Ivanova’s request to be admitted to the sports section was rejected due to the student’s poor academic performance. - Ivanova’s request to be accepted into the sports section was rejected, since the student is a poor student.

2. The tractors were not repaired due to lack of spare parts. - The tractors were not repaired because there are no spare parts.

Often the editor has to resort to parallel syntactic structures:

1. It is necessary to deepen the knowledge of students through the use of computer technology. - It is necessary to deepen the knowledge of students using computer technology in teaching.

2. We reached an agreement by resolving misunderstandings. - We reached an agreement (agreed), settling misunderstandings.

3. Specialists were awarded for identifying additional opportunities to save raw materials. - Specialists who found additional ways to save raw materials were awarded.

Thus, the use of parallel syntactic constructions facilitates stylistic editing of texts in which errors were made in the construction of sentences.

Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language - M., 1997

Speech is a channel for the development of intelligence,
the sooner the language is acquired,
the easier and more completely the knowledge will be absorbed.

Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin,
Soviet linguist and psychologist

We think of speech as an abstract category, inaccessible to direct perception. Meanwhile, this is the most important indicator of a person’s culture, his intelligence and a way of understanding the complex connections of nature, things, society and transmitting this information through communication.

It is obvious that when learning and already using something, we make mistakes due to inability or ignorance. And speech, like other types of human activity (in which language is an important component), is no exception in this regard. All people make mistakes, both in speech and in speech. Moreover, the concept of speech culture, as the idea of “”, is inextricably linked with the concept of speech error. In essence, these are parts of the same process, and, therefore, striving for perfection, we must be able to recognize speech errors and eradicate them.

Types of speech errors

First, let's figure out what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live, work and communicate normally with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success depends on it, this is unacceptable.

The author of the classification of speech errors given below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.

Types of speech errors:

Examples and causes of speech errors

S. N. Tseitlin writes: “The complexity of the speech generation mechanism is a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's look at special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.

Pronunciation errors

Pronunciation or spelling errors arise as a result of violation of the rules of spelling. In other words, the reason lies in the incorrect pronunciation of sounds, sound combinations, individual grammatical structures and borrowed words. These also include accentological errors - violation of stress norms. Examples:

Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plotlit” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktrichesky” (“electric”), “colidor” ("corridor"), "laboratory" ("laboratory"), "tyshcha" ("thousand"), "shchas" ("now").

Accent: “calls”, “dialogue”, “agreement”, “catalogue”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beets”, “phenomenon”, “driver”, “expert”.

Lexical errors

Lexical errors are violations of the rules of vocabulary, first of all, the use of words in meanings that are unusual for them, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They come in several types.

Using a word in a meaning that is unusual for it. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type there are three subtypes:

Mixing words that are similar in meaning: “He read the book back.”
Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, colossus - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
A mixture of words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diploma holder, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignoramus. “Cashier for business travelers” (required – business travelers).

Word writing. Examples of errors: Georgian, heroism, underground, spender.

Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the lines of their material meanings. For example, you cannot say: “ I raise this toast", since “to lift” means “to move,” which is not consistent with the wish. “Through a door that is ajar” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (open a little) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.

This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “the month of May”, “traffic route”, “residence address”, “huge metropolis”, “be on time”. Tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “We were given a task,” “The organizer was a public organization,” “I wish you long creative life.”

Phraseological errors

Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in a meaning that is unusual for them. Yu. V. Fomenko identifies 7 varieties:

Changing the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “As long as the matter is the case” instead of “As long as the trial is the case”;
Truncation of phraseological units: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseological unit: “beat his head against the wall”);
Expansion of the lexical composition of phraseological units: “You have come to the wrong address” (phraseological unit: go to the right address);
Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: “I can’t stand sitting with my hands folded.” Correct: “folded”;
Contamination (combination) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything with your sleeves folded” (a combination of phraseological units “carelessly” and “hands folded”);
Combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "Random stray bullet";
Use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: “Today we will talk about the film from cover to cover.”

Morphological errors

Morphological errors are incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers away”.

Syntax errors

Syntactic errors are associated with violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules of combining words. There are a lot of varieties, so we will give just a few examples.

Incorrect matching: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
Mismanagement: “Pay for travel”;
Syntactic ambiguity: “Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression”(have you read Mayakovsky or have you read Mayakovsky’s works?);
Design offset: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention”;
Extra correlative word in the main clause: “We looked at those stars that dotted the whole sky.”

Spelling mistakes

This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of writing, hyphenation, and abbreviation of words. Characteristic of speech. For example: “the dog barked”, “sit on the chairs”, “come to the train station”, “Russian. language", "gram. error".

Punctuation errors

Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks when...

Stylistic errors

We have dedicated a separate section to this topic.

Ways to correct and prevent speech errors

How to prevent speech errors? Work on your speech should include:

Reading fiction.
Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
Communication with educated people.
Constant work to improve speech culture.

Online course “Russian language”

Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course “to” to these topics. During the classes, you will have the opportunity to practice competent writing skills using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of material through simple exercises and special memorization techniques.

Sources

Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. – St. Petersburg, 1997.
Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors...
Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. – Novosibirsk: NSPU, 1994.
Tseytlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Education, 1982.

The accuracy and clarity of speech is determined by the correctness of grammatical structures, the construction of phrases and sentences.

The ability to combine words into phrases in different ways creates ambiguity: The teacher had to explain a lot(did the teacher explain it or did someone explain it to him himself?).

The reason for the ambiguity of a statement may be the incorrect order of words in a sentence: 1. Spacious loggias are framed by reinforced glass screens. 2. Seven operating platforms serve several hundred people. In such sentences, the subject does not differ in form from the direct object and therefore it is unclear what (or who) is the subject of the action. An example of such confusion is The sun was covered by a cloud.

Of course, such sentences can be corrected if they are used in written speech; just change the word order: 1. Reinforced glass screens frame the spacious loggias. 2. Several hundred people operate seven operating platforms. And of course: Cloud closedSun . But if you hear a phrase with the wrong word order, you may misinterpret it. This is what A.P.’s joke is based on. Chekhov: I wish you to avoid all kinds of troubles, sorrows and misfortunes.

Semantic ambiguity sometimes arises in combinations like letter to mother(written by her or addressed to her), criticism of Belinsky, portraits of Repin and so on.

Ambiguity can also arise in complex sentences with attributive clauses such as: Illustrations for stories,which were sent to the competition , executed masterfully(were illustrations or stories submitted to the competition?). In these cases, it is recommended to replace subordinate clauses with participial phrases: Illustrations submitted for stories. Or: Illustrations for submitted stories.

Chapter 3 Richness of speech Vocabulary

In reviews of the style of good writers you can hear: “What a rich language!” And about a bad writer or speaker they say: “His language is so poor...” What does this mean? What is the difference between rich speech and poor speech?

The very first criterion of the richness and poverty of speech is the number of words we use. Pushkin, for example, had more than 20 thousand words in circulation, and the famous heroine of Ilf and Petrov, Ellochka Shchukina, “easily and freely managed with thirty.” So a person’s active vocabulary may be completely inconsistent with the lexical richness of the Russian language.

The Russian language has a huge number of words. In one of the most interesting Russian dictionaries - “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, compiled in the middle of the last century by V.I. Dahlem, 250 thousand words collected. And how many more words came into our language after that time!

But the richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. It is also important that many of them have not one, but several meanings, that is, they are multi-valued. For example, the word house. In what meanings is it used by Pushkin? - Lord'shouse secluded, protected from the winds by a mountain, stood above the river (house- building, structure); I'm scared to leavehome (house- a dwelling where someone lives); Everyonehome Ruled by one Parasha (house- household); ThreeHouses call for evening (house- family); House was on the move (house- people living together). As you can see, different meanings of the word expand the boundaries of its use in speech. Thus, we ourselves can increase the riches of our native language if we learn to discover their new and new meanings in words.

The accuracy and clarity of speech is determined by the correctness of grammatical structures, the construction of phrases and sentences.

The ability to combine words into phrases in different ways creates ambiguity: The teacher had to explain a lot(did the teacher explain it or did someone explain it to him himself?).

Of course, such sentences can be corrected if they are used in written speech; just change the word order: 1. Reinforced glass screens frame the spacious loggias. 2. Several hundred people operate seven operating platforms. And of course: Cloud closed Sun. But if you hear a phrase with the wrong word order, you may misinterpret it. This is what A.P.’s joke is based on. Chekhov: I wish you to avoid all kinds of troubles, sorrows and misfortunes.

Semantic ambiguity sometimes arises in combinations like letter to mother(written by her or addressed to her), criticism of Belinsky, portraits of Repin and so on.

Ambiguity can also arise in complex sentences with attributive clauses such as: Illustrations for stories, which were sent to the competition, executed masterfully(were illustrations or stories submitted to the competition?). In these cases, it is recommended to replace subordinate clauses with participial phrases: Illustrations submitted for stories. Or: Illustrations for submitted stories.

Chapter 3

Richness of speech

Vocabulary

But the richness of a language is judged not only by the number of words. It is also important that many of them have not one, but several meanings, that is, they are multi-valued. For example, the word house. In what meanings is it used by Pushkin? - Lord's house secluded, protected from the winds by a mountain, stood above the river (house- building, structure); I'm scared to leave home(house- a dwelling where someone lives); Everyone home Ruled by one Parasha (house- household); Three Houses call for evening (house- family); House was on the move (house- people living together). As you can see, different meanings of a word expand the boundaries of its use in speech. Thus, we ourselves can increase the riches of our native language if we learn to discover their new and new meanings in words.

Variety of word meanings

The young woman was no longer young,- Ilf and Petrov noted about Ostap Bender’s fiancee, and, while agreeing with them, we are still surprised at the inconsistency of this statement. If we analyze it from a linguistic point of view, it is easy to determine that the word young used here in different meanings: 1) just married and 2) young, not yet mature. The clash of different meanings of the word in this statement gives rise to comedy.

Polysemy, or polysemy (from Greek. poly- a lot and sema- sign), - the ability of a word to be used in different meanings. Some words may have two or three such meanings, while others may have up to ten. Usually, even the narrowest context (word combination) clarifies the semantic shades of polysemantic words; quiet voice, quiet disposition, quiet riding, quiet weather, quiet breathing etc.

Different meanings of words are given in explanatory dictionaries: the main one is indicated first (it is also called direct, primary, main), and then the derivatives from it (non-basic, figurative, secondary). A word taken in isolation is always perceived in its basic meaning.

The development of figurative meaning in a word is usually associated with the likening of one phenomenon to another. The figurative meanings of words that are fixed in the language often lose their imagery (grape tendrils, clock striking), but can also retain a metaphorical character (whirlwind of events, fly towards, bright mind, iron will).

The polysemy of vocabulary is an inexhaustible source of its renewal, unusual, unexpected rethinking of the word. Under the artist’s pen, every word, as Gogol wrote, reveals “an abyss of space, every word is immense.” And if we take into account that polysemantic words make up about 80% of the vocabulary of the Russian language, then without exaggeration we can say that the ability of words to have polysemy gives rise to all the creative energy of the language.

Homonymy

Homonymy (from the Greek. homoc- identical and onuma- name), that is, a coincidence in the sound and spelling of words with completely different meanings. For example: marriage in meaning marriage And marriage- spoiled products. The first word is formed from the Old Russian verb brothers using the suffix - To(cf.: get married); homonymous noun marriage borrowed at the end of the 17th century from the German language (German. brack- lack, goes back to the verb brechen- break). True, there are cases when homonymy develops from polysemy, but even then the divergence in meaning reaches such a limit that the resulting words lose any semantic similarity and act as independent lexical units. For example, A. Griboyedov light meaning “sunrise, dawn”: A little light - I’m already on my feet, and I’m at your feet; And light in the meaning of “earth, world, universe”: I wanted to travel around the whole world and didn’t travel a hundredth part.

Words that are not related in meaning, but coincide in spoken or written speech, are quite diverse. Among them are words that belong to different parts of speech and coincide only in one form (homoforms):

Snow said:

When I flock,

There will be a river pigeons,

It will flow, shaking flock

Reflected pigeons.

A word and two (three) words may match:

You puppies! Follow me!

Will you according to the roll,

Look, don't talk,

Otherwise I'll beat you up!.

Two words sound the same here (by roll) and one (I'll beat you) although there is no coincidence in their spelling. This homophones(from Greek homoc- identical and phone- sound). Homophony occurs when not only individual words, but also parts of words coincide in speech.

Homophones must be written correctly, without confusing unstressed vowels: He's been with us for an hour sat; He's completely turned gray from grief; Mother brought together child to school; Martin twist nest under the window.

The idea of a graphic image of a word eliminates homophony. However, in written language, homography may become unclear. Homographs(from Greek homoc- identical and grapho- I’m writing) are words that sound different, but are the same in writing. Homographs usually have stress on different syllables, and this changes the sound of words that are spelled the same: castle- castle, mugs - mugs, forty- forty, arrows- arrows, fell asleep- fell asleep, got caught- hit etc. Usually the accent on a letter is not indicated, so homographs can cause misunderstanding of the text. For example, how to read a sentence: Have the arrows stopped? After all, the first word can mean both hands and hour hands.

Play on words

In a casual conversation, witty people like to resort to verbal play; it greatly enlivens speech. Remember the dialogue between Chatsky and Sophia in Griboyedov’s “Woe from Wit”? Chatsky: ...But Skalozub? Here's a sight for sore eyes: he stands for the army with the strength and straightness of his figure, face and voice hero... Sophia: Not my novel.

The word implied in Sophia's remark hero can be understood in two meanings at once: 1) a person outstanding for his courage, valor, and dedication, performing a feat; 2) the main character of a literary work. The word is also involved in the play on words novel, meaning "a large narrative work of fiction with a complex plot." This word has a homonym meaning “a love relationship between a man and a woman.” Both meanings are combined in the word novel in Sophia's answer.

This play on the meaning of a word is called pun.

Puns have always been appreciated. Pushkin's puns are well known: Take a wife without state, I'm in condition, but I go into debt because of her rags unable.

Often, modern humor writers in their jokes use ambiguous words in both literal and figurative meanings: Radio wakes up thought even in those hours when you really want to sleep; Children- flowers of life, do not give them, however, blossom (E.K.).

But sometimes the speaker does not notice the play on words that arose in speech when using ambiguous vocabulary. In such cases, the polysemy of the word becomes the reason for distortion of the meaning of the statement. This can lead to all sorts of misunderstandings if interlocutors understand the same word differently. Here are examples from the essays: Old woman Izergil consists of three parts; Our guys are used to everything good take each other...; We planned to visit the city museum and endure from it all the most valuable, the most interesting. The ambiguity of such proposals is obvious.

A word game based on the collision of different meanings of polysemantic words in a text can give shape to speech paradox, that is, statements whose meaning diverges from the generally accepted, contradicts logic (sometimes only externally). For example: One is nonsense, one is zero(M.).

Along with polysemantic words, homonyms are often involved in word games. The collision of homonyms is always unexpected, which creates great stylistic possibilities for playing with them. In addition, the use of homonyms in one phrase, emphasizing the meanings of consonant words, gives the speech special entertainment and brightness: Whatever There is, but wants There is (proverb).

Puns can be based on various sound coincidences: homonyms themselves - The tram was a field abuse (E.K.); homoforms - May be,- old- and didn’t need a nanny, maybe my thought seemed to her went, only the horse rushed, stood up, neighed and went (M.); homophones - "Iskra" plays with the spark(sports review headline); finally, the coincidence in the sound of a word and two or three words - Everything is above him alone halos, halos...More thorns over he would (Sim.).

The so-called individual-author homonymy deserves special attention. At the same time, well-known words are interpreted in a new way; individual authorial homonyms underlie many jokes: hussar- poultry house, goose farm worker: sackcloth - Dentist; goner- winner in race walking, etc.

Unexpected perceptions of famous poetic lines are also close to such a play with words, for example: Souls beautiful impulses- from the verb choke? With fire Promethea- from the verb bend! But with fiery, captivating, alive- fiery nose? With lead I lay motionless in my chest- with wine? Is it possible to be indifferent to evil? - goat?

Lexical synonymy

The richness of speech can also be judged by how we use synonyms in our native language. Synonyms(from Greek synonymos- eponymous) are words that have the same meaning and often differ in additional semantic shades or stylistic coloring. There are few completely unambiguous words in the Russian language: linguistics- linguistics, here- here during- in continuation etc. Synonyms that have different semantic and stylistic shades are more common. For example, let’s compare the meanings and stylistic coloring of synonyms in the following passages from works of art: And I will go, I will go again, I will go to roam in dense forests, along a steppe road wander (Full); And I'll go to stagger, - I'll never fall asleep now(L.); And the country of birch chintz will not lure hang around barefoot!(Es.).

All these synonyms have a common meaning of “walking without a specific goal,” but they differ in shades of meaning: the word wander has the additional meaning of “to get lost, to lose one’s way”, in the word to stagger there is a connotation of “walking around without anything to do”, verb hang around, emphasizes disobedience, disobedience. In addition, the given synonyms also differ in stylistic coloring: to roam- stylistically neutral word, wander has a more bookish coloring, to stagger And hang around- colloquial, and the last one is rude.

The Russian language is rich in synonyms. In any synonymous dictionary you will see two, three, or even ten synonymous words, which determines the great expressive capabilities of Russian vocabulary. Moreover, the synonymous riches of the Russian language do not make writing easier, but rather complicate it, because the more words that are similar in meaning, the more difficult it is in each specific case to choose the only, most accurate one that will be the best in the context. The “torment of the word” of poets usually lies in the search for an elusive, elusive synonym.

The hard work of wordsmiths in selecting synonymous means can be judged by the draft versions of their manuscripts. They contain many lexical substitutions; the authors cross out what they have written many times, choosing a more precise word. For example, A.S. Pushkin, describing Dubrovsky’s impression of a meeting with the hostile Troekurov, first used the following words: Noticed spiteful his smile enemy, but then I replaced two of them with synonyms: poisonous his smile enemy. This correction made the statement more accurate.

Without mastering the synonymous riches of your native language, you cannot make your speech expressive and bright. Poverty of vocabulary leads to frequent repetition of words, tautology, and the use of words without taking into account the shades of their meaning. K.I. Chukovsky, calling for wider use of the synonymy of the Russian language, asked the question: “...Why do they always write about a person - thin, but not lean, Not thin, Not puny, Not skinny! Why not cold, A cold! Not shack, Not shack, A hut! Not tricky, Not trick, A intrigue! Many... think that girls are only beautiful. Meanwhile they happen pretty, pretty, handsome, good-looking,- and you never know what else.”

Synonyms become a source of emotionality and expressiveness of speech if they are used with a special stylistic task.

Often several synonyms are used simultaneously in a literary text. In this case, they receive a certain stylistic load. By stringing together synonyms, writers achieve strengthening and emphasizing the main meaning of the word. For example: Yes there's something in me disgusting, repulsive, - thought Levin, leaving the Shcherbatskys(T.). Often in such a synonymous series, words mutually complement each other’s meanings or emphasize or strengthen a certain idea.

However, sometimes new synonyms in speech do not add anything to what was said. For example: Violation of the rules for using gas leads to trouble, misfortune, To dramatic consequences And tragic cases. Such use of synonyms indicates helplessness in handling words, an inability to accurately express a thought.

The use of several synonyms in a row is only aesthetically justified when each new synonym clarifies and enriches the meaning of the statement. The stringing of synonyms gives rise to gradation if each subsequent synonym strengthens (more rarely, weakens) the meaning of the previous one. In Chekhov, for example, we read: In two hundred- three hundred years of life on Earth will be unimaginable beautiful, amazing; To him(Korovin) I wanted something gigantic, immense, amazing.

However, in the construction of gradation, errors are not excluded, which is often observed in hasty, chaotic speech. A.F. Koni, describing the performance of a bad speaker, quotes the following phrase from a loquacious lawyer:

Gentlemen of the jury! The defendant's position before he committed the crime was truly hellish. It is impossible not to call him tragic to the highest degree. The dramatic state of the defendant was terrible: it was unbearable, it was extremely hard and, in any case, at least uncomfortable.

A pile-up of synonyms with their inept, disorderly arrangement gives rise to speech redundancy; “clarifying” definitions, destroying the gradation, create illogicality and comedy in the statement.

Based on a common meaning, synonyms often emphasize various features of similar objects, phenomena, actions, and signs. Therefore, synonyms can be compared and contrasted in the text if the author wants to pay attention to precisely those shades of meaning that distinguish these words that are close in meaning. Thus, in Chekhov’s Notebooks: He is not ate, A ate; Doctor invite, and the paramedic call.

Synonyms allow you to diversify your speech and avoid using the same words. But writers do not mechanically replace a repeated word with its synonym, but take into account the semantic and expressive nuances of the words used. For example, from Ilf and Petrov: My rook was just standing in this place!- shouted one-eyed; It's outrageous!- yelled one-eyed; Comrades!- squealed one-eyed.

It is especially often necessary to avoid repeating words when conveying dialogue. In such cases, not only synonyms are used, but also words with similar meanings. So, from Turgenev:

- I'm so glad- he started ... - I hope, dear Evgeniy Vasilyevich, that you will not get bored with us,- continued Nikolai Petrovich...- So how, Arkady,- spoke Nikolai Petrovich again...- Now,- picked up father.

The choice of synonyms must be stylistically justified.

Antonymy

A special place in the Russian language is occupied by antonyms(from Greek anti- against and entanglement- name) - words with opposite meanings, for example: good- bad, really- lie.

The existence of antonyms in language is determined by the nature of our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed, but also closely related to each other: the word Kind evokes the word in our minds angry, far away reminds me of the word close, speed up- O slow down

The use of antonyms underlies a variety of stylistic devices. Antonymy gives special significance to objects and concepts: “War and Peace”, “Days and Nights”, “The Living and the Dead”. Antonyms become a kind of italics, highlighting words on which logical emphasis falls: The taste of life is not realized in in many ways, and in small. (Solzh.). Antonyms give special poignancy and aphorism to winged words: At home new, and prejudices old (Gr.); Than the night darker, the brighter stars (Mike.).

Antonyms help reveal the contradictory essence of objects and phenomena: He(Block)... wanted to be alone. And I couldn’t tear myself away from hateful - And beloved Russia (Deputy). It is not surprising, therefore, that antonyms are constantly used in antithesis- a stylistic device consisting of a sharp contrast of concepts, positions, images, states. An example of a classical antithesis is found in Nekrasov: You and wretched, you and abundant, you and mighty, you and powerless, Mother Rus'.

The opposite of antithesis is a stylistic device consisting in the denial of contrasting features of the subject: In the gentleman was sitting in the chaise, not handsome, but also not bad looking, not too much thick, not too much thin; can't say that old, however, not so much that young (G.). Stringing antonyms with negatives emphasizes the mediocrity of a person, his lack of bright qualities and clearly defined characteristics.

It is also possible to use one of the members of the antonymic pair with negation: The athlete's character is developed not the triumph of victories, but the bitterness of defeats. This combination of antonyms creates speech redundancy, which can give speech a special emotionality.

The phenomenon of antonymy is also used in oxymoron(from Greek, literally witty-silly). This stylistic device consists of creating a new concept by combining words with contrasting meanings: "Beginning of the End"; "Bad Good Man"(title of article, movie). These oxymorons are based on a collision of ordinary antonyms, but more often in such cases words are used that are combined as a qualifying and a defining: "Living Dead".

A special stylistic device is the use of a word in the opposite meaning for the purpose of irony. For example: Where, smart one, are you wandering from?(Kr.). Word smart said in mockery of the donkey, and we understand that behind this definition is its antonym - stupid. Using a word in the opposite meaning is called antiphrasis. For satirists, this is a surefire way to ironically describe events and heroes. Gogol depicted the “efficiency” of legal proceedings in the analysis of Ivan Ivanovich’s complaint against his neighbor: Then the process began with extraordinary speed, for which courts of justice are usually so famous... The writer calls the two squabblers who have been waging this litigation for years nothing less than beautiful people, resorting to antiphrases.

The stylistic functions of antonyms are not limited to expressing contrast. Antonyms help us show the completeness of coverage of phenomena: The rich and the poor, the wise and the foolish, the kind and the cruel sleep(Ch.); latitude of spatial and temporal boundaries: I will lay the fields for lovers, let them sing in a dream And in reality (High).

Antonymy can reflect alternation of actions, change of phenomena: A clear lightning flashed in the distance, broke out And went out... (Bl.); My friends have beautiful features will appear And will dissolve again (B.Akhm.).

The collision of antonyms gives rise to pun. For example, from Kozma Prutkov: Where Start Togo end, which ends with Start?; Most remote point of the globe to something yes close, and the most close from something yes distant.

The wealth and variety of antonyms in the Russian language create unlimited expressive possibilities and at the same time oblige us to take seriously and thoughtfully the use of these contrasting words in speech. The collision of antonyms, not noticed by the speaker, makes the phrase illogical. For example, Famusov says to Skalozub: For a long time colonels, and serve recently? And one of Dostoevsky’s heroes suggests: Put mine on old boots. They are still new.

A careless attitude to antonyms can make speech absurd and funny: Affairs in the village are improving All worse And worse; - How is your hedgehog doing? - He lives poorly: He died.

It also happens that inappropriate oxymorons appear “spontaneously” in speech: It's hard to get things going in case of absence necessary materials. There are also unmotivated antiphrases: Not talkative , but also not talkative (should: not silent), he attracted people to himself with some kind of inner strength.

Truly “poverty with wealth”: having the opportunity to use in speech such expressive means of our native language as synonymy and antonymy, we often do not speak the word.

Paronymy

Even more difficulties arise when using words with the same root that are close in sound but do not have the same meaning, that is paronyms(from Greek para- nearby and entanglement- name), for example: to know- admit, dress- put on, signature- painting. Their sound proximity and similarity in meaning are explained by the fact that they have the same morphological root. There are paronyms that have different prefixes (typos- fingerprints); paronyms differing in suffixes (creature - entity); paronyms, one of which has a non-derivative base, and the other - a derivative (height - age, brake- braking).

Paronyms are partly reminiscent of synonyms: both are close in meaning. However, the discrepancy in the meaning of paronyms is usually so obvious that replacing one word with another is impossible. At the same time, there are known cases of paronyms turning into synonyms. Yes, before the word come to terms with had the meaning “to become meek, submissive, humble,” and its use in the meaning of “to reconcile” was considered unacceptable. However, this verb increasingly meant “get used to, come to terms with something” (come to terms with poverty, come to terms with shortcomings). Now in Russian language dictionaries this meaning is indicated as the main one. Thus, former paronyms can become synonyms over time.

The semantic difference between paronyms usually does not extend to antonymy, but some paronyms can be contrasted in context: Not a position, but a duty; I'd be happy to serve, but being served is sickening(Gr.).

Who hasn’t had doubts when faced with paronyms? How to say: dress or put on glasses; put yours painting or signature : standing at the cash register travel allowances or business travelers ; stand up on tiptoe or become etc.? In these cases, it is recommended to use highlighted words, but in everyday speech we often see erroneous word usage.

Mixing paronyms is considered a gross lexical error, so paronyms deserve attention no less than synonyms.

The skillful use of paronyms helps us express thoughts correctly and accurately. It is paronyms that reveal the great possibilities of the Russian language ъ conveying subtle shades of meaning. For example, how A.S. Pushkin introduced paronyms into the tsar’s speech in the drama “Boris Godunov”: I thought I would calm my people in contentment, in glory. His love is generous gain, - I scattered gold for them, I gave them found work,- they told me raging, they cursed (to gain- to deserve, to acquire something, find- find). More examples: Putting on wide bolivar, Onegin goes to the boulevard; Azure, lush sundress dressed Lyudmila has a slender figure.

In other cases, paronyms are placed side by side. At the same time, the author often draws attention to the semantic difference between paronyms despite their apparent similarity. Thus, A. Yugov wrote in the book “Thoughts about the Russian Word”: A writer who knows the language of his people will not confuse wasteland And wasteland: the wasteland is being plowed up, and the vacant lots are being built up.” Another example: I remembered is he(Saburov) about Anya these days? No, I didn't remember- He remembered about her, and the pain did not go away(Sim.). Consequently, the use of paronyms can be a means of clarifying thoughts.

A comparison of paronyms is possible if the author wants to show subtle semantic differences between them: I don't like plastic wrists on dancers. She is mannered, conventional and sentimental, she has more beauty, how beauty (Stanisl.).

A striking stylistic effect is created by the contrast of paronyms: I am disturbed by the futility of meetings, which neither the heart nor the mind, and neither conviviality, A idleness, in my guest house(Ev.). Usually in this case, paronyms are connected by an adversative conjunction and one of the consonant words is given with a negation: I wanted to live faster than anyone else. I was thirsty affairs, but not acts. But where is true success? success, but not prosperity?! (Ev.)

Unrelated consonant words are also contrasted: not a company, but a form; a flag, not a weather vane; Now he became interested not in sports, but in alcohol. The apparent illogicality of bringing together similar words gives special expression to the phrase: She's all in white, white, white, and I- V the past (song).

Paronyms and even more often consonant unrelated words are used in puns: Monument to the first printer (I. and P.): The search for the runaway groom is not got married success. At the same time, one of the words being played out may be absent from the text, but we definitely remember it under the influence of sound associations; flaying essays, feigned actors, worm conceit.

A lexical error, consisting in replacing the desired word with its distorted word-formative version, is close to mixing paronyms. In colloquial speech instead of an adjective extraordinary use extraordinary, instead of outstanding- outstanding, instead of borrowed- mutually. Such words are formed contrary to the literary and linguistic norm; their use indicates an extremely low speech culture.

Stylistic possibilities of word formation

The Russian language stands out among other languages due to its richness derivational suffixes. Compare: house- house- little house- house- domina; Brother- bro- brother- little brother; hand- hands- pen- little hand- little hand. Some sound affectionately, others - dismissively, ironically; the positive assessment of objects is reflected in some words (girl, old man, old lady), in others - negative (girl, old man, old man).

There are suffixes that indicate the size of objects and at the same time reflect the speaker’s attitude towards them (house, domina, legs, fellow, huge, hefty- house, room, small room, baby, tiny, tiny). Words to which diminutive suffixes are attached very often receive an affectionate connotation: little house, tiny girl.

Using a suffix you can give a word a humorous connotation. (paperwork, old woman); tinge of disdain (soldier's, sailor's) negative estimated value (slumber, sourness, vulgarity, hubbub, boredom).

In the Russian language, nouns with suffixes denoting a person are distinguished by an exceptional wealth of expressive shades: girl- girly- girly- girl- girl- girl- girl- girl- girl. You can string together suffixes of subjective evaluation, so that they are doubled or tripled: little daughter, granny, tiny little thing, stuffy thing.

Suffixes create a wealth of possibilities for variation when using not only nouns and adjectives, but also other parts of speech. For example: a thousand, a billion, a bit too much, a little, a little, a row, a long time ago, squatted, nothing, nothing, bayushki, bayunushki, ohohonyushki, no, thank you etc.

For the verb, even greater possibilities are the formation of new words using consoles, For example: run - run around, run around, run away, leave, leave, laugh, earn extra money, grab, hold etc. It is the prefixes that create a special expressiveness of verbs, indicating a high degree of intensity of the action or various shades of its manifestation (exhaustion, limitation, etc.) and giving the words a reduced, conversational coloring.

Russian fiction contains many interesting examples of the skillful use of word formation to express various shades of meaning and emotional coloring of words. For example, in Griboyedov Famusov uses them to express his affection for his interlocutor (Skalozub): You are cold, we will warm you; otdushnik We'll open soon. In other remarks, these same suffixes give the speech an ironic coloring: Be inferior, yes, if there are two thousand tribal souls,- he and the groom; create a familiarly relaxed tone of his monologues: How will you introduce cross whether, to small town, well, how can you not please your loved one? little man!

Silent's preference for diminutive words gives his speech an ingratiating tone, emphasizing his dependent position: Your Pomeranian- a lovely Spitz, no bigger than a thimble, I stroked him all over; like silk fur. In Chatsky’s monologues, words with evaluative suffixes sound satirical: Frenchy from Bordeaux; You'll see in the evening he feels small here king.

Gogol ironically described the fascination with diminutive words of the ladies of the city of N, who sprinkled their empty speech with sentimental exclamations: Scallops, all scallops: a cape made of scallops, scallops on the sleeves, epaulettes made of scallops, scallops below, scallops everywhere.

The use of the expressive possibilities of Russian word formation in the work of our best writers was determined both by the characteristics of their style and by specific artistic goals.

However, oddly enough, our speech is spoiled by the unmotivated use of “affectionate” words. Imagine an athletic young man who complains: Head hurts, leg turned up, driving ball on the football field; a little bit I'm limping. Wouldn't he seem funny?

Some people have a bad habit of making their speech "too polite";

Two ticket, I ask you to!

Please give me two salad and two sausages!

I need a certificate assure, Please!

In everyday speech, and especially in public speeches, you should not overuse diminutive words: they will only demonstrate your ignorance of the laws of eloquence.

State budgetary educational institution

secondary vocational education

Moscow region

"OREKHOVO-ZUEVSKY MEDICAL COLLEGE"

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

PRACTICAL LESSON FOR STUDENTS

Subject:

Discipline: "Russian language and culture of speech"

Specialty: “Pharmacy”

II course

Compiled by:

teacher

O.I. Filippova

Orekhovo-Zuevo

year 2013

Subject: "Syntax. Use of syntactic constructions in speech.

Errors and ways to correct them"

Purpose of the lesson: After studying the topic, the student must:

Know:

basic units of syntax;

the main types of syntactic and syntactic-stylistic norms of the Russian literary language;

reasons for variability in management and coordination;

causes of syntactic and syntactic-stylistic errors and ways to eliminate them.

Be able to:

build your speech in accordance with the syntactic and syntactic-stylistic norms of oral and written speech of the Russian literary language:

follow the rules of agreement and management in phrases and sentences;

use synonymous constructions to express basic semantic relationships;

take into account the stylistic coloring of syntactic means in oral and written speech;

correctly construct sentences with homogeneous and isolated members;

construct complex sentences correctly.

recognize and correct errors and inaccuracies in your oral and written speech in accordance with the syntactic and syntactic-stylistic norms of oral and written speech of the Russian literary language.

Lesson duration: 2 lessons of 45 min. (90 min.).

Type of lesson: practical

Literature:

L.A. Vvedenskaya, M.N. Cherkasova, “Russian language and culture of speech”, Rostov-on-Don, “Phoenix”, 2003, pp. 163 –187;

L.A. Vvedenskaya, “Culture of Speech”, Rostov-on-Don, “Phoenix”, pp. 375 – 410.

Grekov V.F. "Russian language". Manual, Moscow: Education, 2002, pp. 31 – 35.

Additional:

A.D. Deikina, T.M. Pakhnova, “Russian language. Practical textbook for high school”, “Verbum-M”, 2003, pp. 121 – 164.

Lesson plan.

I. Organizational moment - 3 min.

II. Checking background knowledge

Milestone testing - 10 min.

III. Teacher's message - 15 min.

IY. Independent work of students

with theoretical material - 20 min.

Y Carrying out practical tasks

followed by a collective check - 30 min.

Y I. Final check. Current testing - 10 min.

YII. Summing up the lesson. Homework - 2 min.

Methodological instructions for working in class and doing independent work.

I. Organizing time.

1. Check your readiness for class: appearance (availability of a robe), notebooks for theoretical material and practical tasks.

2. Open your notebooks for theoretical material and write down the topic of the lesson.

Check out the relevance of this topic.

II. Testing background knowledge on the topic.

Milestone testing.

Complete the test task (Annex 1) and submit it to your teacher for review.

III. Formation of new knowledge.

Independent work with theoretical material (Appendix 2).

Read the material presented in the information block, note down the main provisions in the form of a plan.

III. Carrying out practical tasks followed by mutual checking.

Open the practical part (Appendix 3) and complete tasks No. __________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

III. Final check.

Complete the current test task (Appendix 4). Submit it to your teacher for review.

Homework:

Learn theoretical material (notes). Familiarize yourself with the material studied in the educational literature.

Annex 1

LITERAL TEST

(morphological norms)

Indicate the numbers of examples where an error was made in the formation of word forms

2) one hundred grams

3) according to their orders

4) laughed merrily

1) burn the evidence

2) eight kilograms

3) lecturers

4) in one hundred fifty-six cases

1) without fables

2) highest

3) wonderful doctors

4) up to forty degrees

1) about six hundred meters

2) take from the princesses

4) no stockings

1) both girlfriends

2) higher

3) in two thousand and three

4) orange harvest

1) her hat

2) with sixty rubles

3) the holidays have begun

4) two hundred meters

Appendix 2

INFORMATION BLOCK

Syntax. Syntactic norms of the Russian language.

Syntax (from GreekSyntax – clutch, connection) is a branch of the science of language that studies the laws of organization of coherent speech and the ways in which words are connected in the process of communication.

Basic units of syntax – sentence and phrase.

The phrase does not have an independent communicative meaning; it is part of the sentence and occupies a subordinate place in the syntax.

The sentence has grammatical meaning.

To illustrate, here is an example from academician L.V. Shcherba, who constructed the following sentence: The glok kuzdra shteko budlanula bokr and curly haired bokrenok.

A Russian person understands the grammatical structure of this text: it is clear that glokaya is an adjective associated with the noun kuzdra in zh. R. and I.p.

The grammatical basis of the sentence (subject and predicate) is also easy to distinguish. We can even distinguish homogeneous predicates.

Syntax rules/errors.

Order of words in a sentence

The bicycle crashed into the tram.

Did you immediately understand the meaning of this sentence? It takes some effort of thought to understand that the culprit of the accident was not the bicycle, but the tram, and the bicycle ended up in the role of the “victim”.

In the Russian language, the order of words (the order of sentence members) is relatively free: there is no strictly assigned place for one or another main or minor member of a sentence.

However, there is an accepted, more common order of the members of a sentence - straight order and deviations from it - back order (inversion).

STRAIGHT: A large cloud slowly covers the rays of the sun.(agreed definition before the defined noun) – subject – circumstance of the manner of action precedes the predicate – predicate (after the subject) – complement (follows the predicate) – inconsistent definition (after the defined noun).

To prevent speech from being sadly monotonous, writers use reverse word order in sentences.

INVERSION (back):

Example: To emphasize the action denoted by the predicate or the attribute expressed by it, the predicate is often placed before the subject.

My troubles are over (A. Kuprin); Winter evenings are good (M. Makarenko); He arrives in four days. Azamat to the fortress (M.Yu. Lermontov).

To enhance the expressiveness of speech, inversion can also apply to secondary members of a sentence (last example).

Conclusion: The arrangement of words in a sentence depends on what goal we set for ourselves when creating this sentence.

Thus, the sentence has two parts (current division):

1st – the basis statements (subject): this is what we know from the previous text or from the very setting of the speech.

2nd – core statements (rheme): this is what is new, what is being communicated, what the proposal itself is built for.

Word order violation

We not only received a textbook, but also a collection of exercises.

Here we are dealing with a violation of word order with the double conjunction “not only, but also.” It will be right: We received not only a textbook, but also a collection of exercises.

Predicate agreement

1. There are five students in the circle.

Et or -yut? Both forms are acceptable: the first shows the quantity as one whole, meaning joint action, in the second Separately crossed out its completion.

Compare: Send five soldiers elk to reconnaissance (in a group)

Send five soldiers lis into reconnaissance (each with his own task).

2. With numerals two three four, included in the subject, the predicate is usually placed in the plural. h.

Three houses are calling for the evening. Four dogs were running behind the stroller.

3. At the words a lot, a little, a little, a lot, how much, so much the predicate, as a rule, is put in the singular.

There were many books on the shelves. Many children vacation at the dacha every year.

4. If the subject contains a collective noun with a quantitative meaning (majority, minority, row, part, etc.), then the predicate can be put in the singular form. h. and pl. h.

Most of the delegates arrived (arrived) at the congress.

5. Brother and sister left to the village (both persons have equal rights in their actions (subject - combination brother and sister).

Brother and sister left to the village (the main character (subject) is the brother, and the sister is the accompanying person (object).

Harmonization of definitions

Orphan, orphan

The definition for common nouns is given in the form m.r. or f.r. depending on what gender the person is denoted by the noun.

A terrible bully, a desperate bully, a terrible glutton, an incorrigible bungler, a dirty fellow.

Our family occupies two large (large) rooms.

Both forms of agreement are acceptable, although the first is less common.

The definition is given in unit form. h., if in meaning it refers not only to the first (closest) noun, but also to the others.

The wild goose and duck arrived first - we could not talk about a wild goose and a domestic duck.

Her magnificent fur coat and hat did not make any impression - both the fur coat and the hat are gorgeous

The definition is put in the plural form, when it may be unclear whether it refers only to the nearest entity or to the entire series of homogeneous members.

The room had a brown wardrobe and a sofa. A ten-year-old boy and girl walked past.

How would you say : I haven't seen you for a long timemy (or my) brother and sister?

Application coordination.

In the city of Orel, but at Orel station.

The names of cities are usually agree in all cases with a defined word: in the city of Moscow, near the city of Smolensk.

The compound names of cities usually do not agree: In the city of Mineralnye Vody

The names of rivers are usually agree with a defined word: on the Dnieper River, between the Ob and Yenisei rivers, near the Vistula River.

However, little-known river names do not agree: on the Ros River, a tributary of the Seversky Donets River.

Names of lakes, bays, straits, bays do not agree with generic names: on lakes Elton and Baskunchak, near the Gulf of Alaska, in the Bosphorus Strait, in the Golden Horn Bay.

The names of islands, peninsulas, mountains, mountain ranges, deserts, as a rule, too do not agree: on the island of Novaya Zemlya, off the island of Madagascar, in the Karakum desert, near Cape Chelyuskin.

- Well acquaintances agree names often used in speech: on Sakhalin Island - the northern half of Sakhalin Island. (two options)

Names of stations, ports do not agree: in the port of Odessa, at the Moscow-Passenger station.

Street names in the form of zh.r. agree, rest do not agree: on Sretenka Street, on the corner of Arbat Street, near Oleniy Val Street.

Astronomical names do not agree: orbit of the planet Mars.

Names of foreign administrative-territorial units do not agree: in Michigan

Names of foreign republics agree, if ending in -iya, other names do not agree: In the Republic of Bolivia, trade between Russia and the Republic of India, in the Republic of Cuba (Cyprus).

Violation of agreement.

A young doctor came for an appointment.

Here we are dealing with a violation of agreement between the subject “doctor” and the definition “young”, which is unacceptable. And the discrepancy between the subject and the predicate (the doctor has come) is an acceptable option. It will be right: A young doctor came (or came) for an appointment ( if we are talking about a woman).

Control

This is a connection between the members of a sentence, which is expressed in the correct choice of case form 9 with or without a preposition).

A) Non-prepositional construction pay for (what?) travel, workers’ labor, business trip expenses.

B) Prepositional construction pay (for what?) for travel.

C) In other cases, the constructions are equal

To go by tram - to go by tram, to ask for help - to ask for help.

Guilt (synonymous prepositions, although different according to LZ: “inside something”, “on the surface of something”)

A) IN: - with geographical objects: in the city, in Belarus

in enclosed spaces: in the cinema, in the theater, in the circus (if we mean a performance, then AT a play, at a concert, at an opera).

B) ON: - with names of mountains (in singular) and mountainous areas: on Mount Ararat, in the Caucasus (with names of mountains in plural - V.: in the Alps, in the Pyrenees)

When naming vehicles: by train, by metro (if inside a vehicle - in a train)

With the names of islands, peninsulas: in Kamchatka, in Taimyr

IN – FROM, ON – WITH: went to Crimea - returned from Crimea (sometimes: went to the Volga region - returned from the Volga region), went to the Urals - returned from the Urals.

ABOVE and FOR: “Study an object without interfering with its “behavior” (watch the stars)“to study a phenomenon and regulate it "(observation of experimental animals)

PO: We miss you according to YOU or according to YOU:

with the 3rd person pronoun PO controls D.p. (by him, by them)

with pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons, combined with P..p. (miss you)

Impaired control

It is necessary to distinguish between constructions with words and phrases that are similar in meaning and have different controls.

Superiority over something - an advantage over something;

Confidence in something - belief in something;

Pay for travel - pay for travel

There are syntax errors in the following sentences:

Making sure there's nothing morefrom You can’t get the speakers out, so they decided to close the debate.

IN(at) the first stage of the competition, both students and employees of the institute can compete.

Often in sentences with two or more control words there is general addition. Such constructions are correct, if control words require the same case and preposition: read and take notes on a book, talk and write about modern literature. But if the dependent word comes with the words , requiring different controls, an error occurs: We love and are born by our Motherland ( love What? We are proud how?). Therefore, it will be correct: We love our Motherland and are proud of it.

Participial

The book lying on the table has been read.

The disadvantage lies in the incorrect word order: defined noun book turned out to be in the middle of a participial phrase, although according to the rules it should be either before the entire revolution or after it ( The book lying on the table has been read; The book lying on the table has been read).

Keep in mind: The stylistic feature of the participle and participial phrases is that they give the statement a bookish character(!)

Participial turnover

Errors in the use of participial phrases

As I approached the station, my hat flew off.

The rule for using participial phrases has been violated.

An adverbial phrase denotes an additional action to the main one. In this sentence, the main action is expressed by the verb “flew”. This predicate refers to the word "hat". It turns out that the hat was approaching the station.

It will be right: Approaching the station, I lost my hat.

Sentences with homogeneous members.

I drink tea with lemon and enjoy it

The words “with lemon and with pleasure” only superficially resemble homogeneous members, but they express incompatible concepts that are far from one another, therefore they cannot act as homogeneous members.

Same thing in the pun: It was raining and two students: one was going to school, the other was wearing galoshes.

Complex sentence.

The roosters have long since crowed and are playing the horn.

The whole point is in the incorrect punctuation of the sentence: there is no comma before the conjunction A. As a result, instead of a complex sentence, a simple sentence with homogeneous predicates was obtained.

Complex sentences.

Here's a dog without a tail

Who pulls the cat by the collar,

Which scares and catches the tit,

Which cleverly steals wheat...

These are poems by S.Ya.Marshak.

The repetition of conjunctions in this case is an artistic device of the author.

In written speech, this is a violation of the syntactic norm: with sequential subordination, the same allied words should not be repeated.

Syntax and stylistic norms/errors.

Ignorance of the features of the functional styles of the Russian literary language is the main reason for the occurrence of syntax and stylistic errors. As a rule, syntactic and stylistic errors are associated with the use of complex syntax and participial phrases in a conversational style.

He is my brother.

The use of the connective “to be” in the present tense is characteristic of the scientific style, but in the colloquial style this use is a syntax-stylistic error.

Appendix 3

PRACTICAL PART

Exercise 1. Correct errors, determine their type.

Why does he need superiority over his father?

Listening to this exciting music, I imagine a picture of a hurricane.

He didn't pay for the bus fare.

Conclusions are drawn on the preparation of various chemical compounds

Who will we decide on?

The artist depicted how Peter 1 led his troops into battle, adhering to the manner of Surikov.

They will subsequently be of greatest interest to posterity.

Ivanov said that I wouldn’t fall asleep, but I would learn all the tickets before the morning.

Today we worked not only in the office, but also in the laboratory.

He loved music and dancing.

The night was rainy and dark.

My brother was a doctor.

All measures within our power to prevent a disaster were taken.

According to the director's order, the deadline for submitting the report expires on May 1st.

It's hard to deal with a person when you know that he is a real prude.

The essay described well the surrounding area of the school.

In his speech, the speaker pointed out these shortcomings.

For many years, the United States was the leader in the development of computer programs.

Two heart attacks undermined his health.

Having read such slander, my hands began to tremble.

Having squandered his entire fortune, he had nothing to leave for his children.

Because I knew about his arrival, I was able to prepare for him.

Owners of plots pay a land tax to the city treasury, which is established in accordance with the law.

The food on board the plane was tasty, nutritious and uniquely presented.

The forest stretches along the river and is very picturesque.

The commander called the boy and said that we are taking you to the detachment.

I wrote my last test poorly. Because I missed the last two lessons.

Task 2.Correct the following text. Determine the type of mistakes made and explain their reasons.

Task 3.Come up with several coherent sentences (4 – 5) with syntactic and syntactic-stylistic errors on a non-medical topic. Exchange with your neighbor to find and correct them. Then evaluate his answer.

STANDARD FOR PRACTICAL PART

Exercise 1

Why does he need superiority over his father? (over father)

Listening to this exciting music, I imagine a picture of a hurricane. (I represent)

He didn't pay for the bus fare. (without FOR)

Conclusions are drawn on the preparation of various chemical compounds (after obtaining...conclusions are drawn).

Lizaveta was returning. Arriving home, Alena Ivanovna’s corpse lay in a pool of blood.

Who will we decide on? (about whom)

The speaker who reported this data and who turned out to be a passionate patriot of river transport made an interesting comparison.

The artist depicted how Peter 1 leads troops into battle, adhering to the manner of Surikov.

In the locksmith workshop we teach our children how to make things, to make things, not to break them.

Turgenev loved and told us about the inexhaustible power of nature, its undying beauty.

They will subsequently be of the greatest interest to posterity. (will be of interest... for posterity)

Ivanov said that I wouldn’t fall asleep, but I would learn all the tickets before the morning. (won't fall asleep)

Today we worked not only in the office, but also in the laboratory. (not only but)

A nursing textbook I read and really enjoyed.

He loved music and dancing.

The night was rainy and dark.

My brother was a doctor. (without WAS)

All measures within our power to prevent a disaster were taken. (All measures within our power to prevent a disaster were taken).

According to the director's order, the deadline for submitting the report expires on May 1st. (According to the director’s order, the deadline for submitting the report expires on May 1 ( after prepositions according to, thanks to, in spite of – nouns and places in D.p.)).

It's hard to deal with a person when you know that he's a real bigot. (It's hard to deal with a person when you know that he's a real bigot. (general noun meaning "person", so M.R.)

The essay described well the surrounding area of the school. (The essay described the surroundings of the school well.)

In his speech, the speaker pointed out these shortcomings. (In his speech, the speaker pointed out these shortcomings).

In the field of computer program development, the USA was the first for many years. (The USA was the first in the field of computer program development for many years).

Two heart attacks undermined his health. (Two heart attacks undermined his health).

Having read such slander, my hands began to tremble. (When I read this slander, my hands began to tremble.)

Having squandered his entire fortune, he had nothing to leave to the children. (Having squandered his entire fortune, he could not leave anything to the children).

Because I knew about his arrival, I was able to prepare for him. (Because (since) I knew about his arrival, I was able to prepare for him).

Owners of plots pay into the city treasury a land tax established in accordance with the law. (Owners of plots pay into the treasury of the city a land tax established in accordance with the law).

The food on board the plane was tasty, high-calorie and uniquely decorated. (The food on board the plane was tasty, high-calorie and uniquely decorated).

The forest stretches along the river and is very picturesque. (The forest stretches along the river, and it is very picturesque).

The commander called the boy and said that we are taking you to the detachment. (The commander called the boy and said that they were taking him into the detachment).

I wrote my last test poorly. Because I missed the last two lessons. (I wrote the last test poorly because I missed the last two lessons).

Task 2..

“A patient suffering from stomach ulcers for 10 years developed signs of internal bleeding. The patient is pale. Pulse 106. The abdomen is soft. Symptoms of peritoneal irritation are negative. What complication of the described disease has developed? To confirm the diagnosis, what extreme studies should be carried out?”

“A patient suffering from a gastrointestinal tract disease for 10 years showed signs of internal bleeding. The patient is pale. Pulse 106. Abdomen is soft. No symptoms of peritoneal irritation were found. What complicated the gastrointestinal tract disease? What examinations need to be performed to confirm this diagnosis?

Appendix 4

CURRENT TESTING

Syntax errors in the Russian language may be associated with:

incorrect formation of words;

violation of grammatical forms of words;

control disorder;

ignorance of the lexical meaning of the word;

contamination

violation of word order in a sentence;

violation of agreement;

incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial phrase;

unjustified repetition of identical conjunctions (conjunctive words) in a complex sentence.

What are they usually associated with?

A. Lexico-stylistic errors:

B. Syntax and stylistic errors.

using participial phrases in a conversational style;

using speech cliches in school essays;

using clericalism in an alien context;

using vocabulary with diminutive suffixes in scientific and business styles.

BENCHMARK for the current test

(syntax rules/errors)