Superlative formed by adding a suffix to the base of adjectives -issim- and gender endings of adjectives of group I -us,a,um(-issĭmus, -issĭma, -issĭmum). Adjectives on -er form superlatives using a suffix -rĭ m-, wherein -e- the basics are preserved in all cases. Several adjectives on - ĭ lis(facĭlis,e easy; difficilis,e difficult; simĭlis,e similar; dissimilis,e unlike etc.) form the superlative degree using the suffix -lĭ m- and the same generic endings us,a,um:
latus,a,um lat-issĭm-us,a,um
wide, aya, oe widest, aya, ee
liber,ĕra,ĕrum liber-rĭm-us,a,um
free the most (very) free
salūber,bris,bre saluber-rĭm-us,a,um
healingmost healing
simĭlis,e simil-lĭm-us,a,um
similarVerysimilar
utĭlis,e util-issĭm-us,a,um
useful very useful
The superlative degree of comparison of adjectives has the same dictionary form as the adjectives of the first group: longissimus, a, um longest; latissimus,a,um widest etc.
§18. Cdegrees of comparison formed from different bases
Some Latin adjectives form degrees of comparison from different stems (cf. Russian: good - best - beautiful, etc.):
In anatomical terminology the words magnus And major are translated the same way: ‘large’, but the first form is usually used in relation to single formations, and the second - in relation to paired anatomical formations: foramen magnum (occipilāle); foramen ischiadĭcum maius et minus.
§ 19. Insufficient degrees of comparison
The following adjectives do not have a positive degree. For them, the form of the comparative degree is translated by the positive degree of the adjective:
From the superlative degree proximus,a,um the adjective proximālis,e is formed, denoting the part of the body located on the limbs closer to the torso. That part of the body that is located further from the torso is defined by the adjective distālis,e.
Uexercise
1. Complete the dictionary form of the comparative degree of adjectives: anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, major, minor.
2. Form a shapeGen. sing. Forthreechildbirththe followingadjectives: anterior, ius; inferior, ius; interior, ius; major, jus; melior, ius; minor, minus; pejor, jus; posterior, ius; superior, ius.
3. Declineand translatephrases: facies articularis superior; foramen posterius; muscŭlus latissĭmus.
4. Educatedegreescomparisonsthe followingadjectivenykh: latus,a,um; longus,a,um; parvus,a,um; magnus,a,um.
5. Agree the adjectives with the nouns, translate into Latin: anterior (muscle, surface, ligament, opening, lobe, tubercle, fossa, ridge); lower (muscle, vein, limb, shell, lip, process, arch, spine); large (horn, canal, wing, canal, bronchus, trachea, groove, head,); small (horn, muscle, opening, notch, wing, tubercle, fossa); posterior (arch, surface, ligament, line, tubercle, hole, spine).
6. Translate, name the wordsRnew form of words: muscŭlus latissĭmus dorsi, facies articulāris superior; forāmen sacrāle anterius; muscŭli capĭtis recti maior et minor; muscŭli oblīqui superior et inferior; crista nasālis anterior; cornua coccygea maiōra et minōra; processus articulāres superiōres; foramĭna venārum minimārum; arteriae palatīnae minōres; foramĭna palatīna minōra; forāmen venae cavae inferiōris; cingŭlum membri superiōris (inferiōris).
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
In Latin, as in Russian, among the adjectives there is a group of qualitative adjectives. They call something quality subject: handsome, kind and so on. These qualities may manifest themselves in a particular person or object to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, from one or another qualitative adjective forms can be formed that express a greater or lesser degree of this quality: kind - kindest and so on.
In Latin, there are three degrees of comparison of adjectives (this also includes the original forms):
· positive (gradus positivus), which includes adjectives already known to us
- comparative (gradus comparatīvus)
- excellent (gradus superlativus).
Comparative and superlative adjectives can be formed:
· using suffixes;
- using words indicating the degree of quality;
- from bases that do not coincide with the bases of a positive degree.
Comparative degree education
Formation with suffixes
N. sing. the comparative degree of adjectives of all declensions is formed from the base of the adjective, to which is added
· in the forms masculīnum and feminīnum - suffix -ior-
- in the form neutrum - suffix -ius:
longus, a, um long ; G. sing. long-i; the basis long-. Comparative degree :m- long - ior,f- long - ior, n- long - ius ;
brevis, e brief ; G. sing. brev-is, the basis brev-. Comparative degree :m- brev-ior,f- brev-ior, n- brev-ius .
The comparative degree changes according to the third consonantal declension:
Comparative degree of adjectives in -dĭcus, -fĭcus, -vŏlus is formed by adding an element to the base -entior: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnificentior, ius more magnificent.
Education with auxiliary words
Comparative degree from positive degree using adverb more form adjectives whose stem ends in a vowel sound (i.e. adjectives ending in N. sing. in -eus, -ius, -uus): necessarius necessary, magis necessarius - more necessary.
Using the comparative degree
The comparative degree can be used:
with a noun (pronoun) that is compared with something. The object of comparison is joined by a conjunction quam than: aer levior est, quam aqua air is lighter than water.
Ablatīvus comparatiōnis
The conjunction quam with the object of comparison can be omitted. In this case, the word that expresses the object of comparison is put in the ablative (in Russian the genitive case is used: air is lighter than water). Such an ablativus is called ablatīvus comparatiōnis (ąblative comparison): aēr levior est aquā .
The combination of a noun (pronoun) with a comparative degree depending on it can be used in isolation, without an object of comparison. In this case, the comparison occurs as if with a certain norm that exists in the mind of the speaker. This use of the comparative degree is called an independent comparative degree. The independent comparative degree is translated into Russian by a positive degree (i.e. an ordinary adjective) in combination with the words quite, somewhat, quite, too, excessively etc.: senex servior - too stern old man .
Superlative education
The superlative degree of adjectives can be formed in a suffix way:
· by adding an element to the base -ĭssim-, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter genders of the 1st - 2nd declension: long-us, a, um long > longissĭm-us, a, um the longest
- adjective on -dĭcus, -ficus u vŏlus form the comparative degree in -entissĭmus: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnific - entissimus, a ,um most magnificent.
- adjectives for -er form the superlative by adding the element to the base -rim-, and to it - endings of masculine, feminine and neuter gender: liber, -ĕra, -ĕrum free; the basis liber-; superlative liber-rĭm-us, a, um the freest.
It also forms a superlative adjective. vetus, ĕris old, ancient -> veterrĭmus, a, um oldest, most ancient.
· group of adjectives -lis forms the superlative degree with the suffix -lĭm-, to which the generic endings us, a, um are added:
facilis, e easy -> facil-lim-us, a, um the easiest, etc.
difficĭlis, e heavy, difficult
simĭlis, e similar
dissimilis, e different
humilis, e low
gracĭlis, e graceful.
Adjectives on -eus, -ius, -uus form the comparative degree of the positive using an adverb maxime most: necessarius, a, um necessary -> maxime necessarius most necessary.
Adjectives in the superlative degree change according to the 1st - 2nd declensions.
Meaning of superlative adjectives
Superlative adjectives can have two meanings:
· the highest degree of quality (actually gradus superlatīvus);
- very high degree of quality (this value is called gradus elatīvus).
One or another meaning of the superlative degree is determined by the context. The most commonly used elative is: flumen latissĭmum the widest river(superlative ), very wide river(elative).
The comparative degree can be strengthened with the help of an adverb multo much, significantly; excellent - with the help of a union quam: Sementes quam maxĭmas facĕre - to produce as large crops as possible.
Supplemental degrees of comparison
Supplemental forms of various parts of speech are those forms that are formed from different stems (cf. in Russian: positive degree Fine, and comparative - better). In Latin, suppletive degrees of comparison form adjectives:
Ablatīvus separatiōnis
Ablatīvus separatiōnis is used with verbs or adjectives that mean removal, separation, for example:
movēre, pellĕre - remove, expel (from something)
cedĕre - to withdraw from something
arcēre, prohibēre - to abstain from something
liberāre - to free from something.
If ablatīvus separatiōnis is expressed by an animate noun, then it is used with the preposition a(ab). The inanimate noun in ablatīvus separatiōnis is used without a preposition, and sometimes with prepositions a(ab), de, e(ex) .
Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto. - I am a man, and I believe that nothing human is alien to me.
Duces copias castris edūcunt. - The commanders are withdrawing the army from the camp.
Ablatīvus loci
Ablatīvus loci (“ablative of place”) answers the question “where” and means the place of action.
Ablatīvus loci is used without a preposition if words with the meaning of place or space have an agreed definition (i.e., standing in the same case and number as the word to which it refers). In particular, this rule applies to combinations involving the words totus, a, um all, whole And locus, i, m place: totā urbĕ throughout the city; hoc loco in (at) this place.
If such words with a local-spatial meaning do not have a definition, they are used with the preposition in: in urbĕ in the city .
The following are used without a preposition:
· expression terrā marīque on land and sea;
- name of a path or road with verbs of movement: eōdem itinĕrĕ reverti - return the same way.
Designation of the place of action in Latin
When designating the place of action, answering the question “where”, they are put in the form genetivus:
· names of cities of the 1st and 2nd declension: Romae in Rome
- words
domus, i, f house : domi Houses
humus, i f earth: humi on (in) the ground, on the ground
rus, ruris n village: ruri in the village [These forms have the ending of the locative (local case) lost in the Latin language. Therefore, the form ruri has the ending -i, which is unusual for the third declension genetive.]
When indicating the direction of action, words answering the question “where?” are put in the accusativus form: Romam to Rome, domum home, rus to the village .
When indicating the place of departure (i.e. starting point), words are used in the ablatīvus form: Romā from Rome, domō from home, rurĕ from village .
Names of cities of I - II declensions, having only the plural form ( Athēnae, ērum f Ąthenes, Delphi, ōrum m Delphi), as well as the names of cities of the III declension ( Carthago, Carthagĭnis f Carthage):
· To indicate the place of action and the place of departure, they are put in the ablative: Athenis in Athens(or from Athens), Delphis in Delphi ( or from Delphi), Carthaginĕ in Carthage ( or from Carthage);
- to indicate the direction of action - in the accusative: Athēnas in Athens etc.
Russian nouns denoting segments of space (and time) are usually expressed in Latin by adjectives, which in this case are placed before the nouns (on this basis, phrases of this type should be distinguished from ordinary combinations of a noun with an adjective - an agreed definition: media via middle of the road (cf. via media middle road) and so on.
Genetīvus genĕris
Genetīvus genĕris (“genitive kind” or “genitive species”) is used:
· with neuter singular nouns denoting measure, number or quantity;
- with quantitative adjectives and pronouns of the neuter singular. Genetivus generis denotes objects or substance that is subject to measurement or counting: numĕrus milĭtum number of warriors; nihil novi nothing new; aliquid tempŏris for a while(lit. some time).
Genetīvus partitīvus
Genetīvus partitīvus is used to designate a whole, from which only a part is isolated.
Genetivus partitivus used :
· in the presence of a definition expressed by an adjective in the comparative or superlative degree: Gallōrum omnium fortissĭmi sunt Belgae (Caes.) - The bravest of all the Gauls are the Belgae;
- for interrogative and indefinite pronouns (see lecture): Quis nostrum? which one of us? nemo nostrum none of us;
- for adjectives with the meaning of quantity, in the plural form (multi many, pauci few, etc.): multi nostrum many of us;
- for numerals: unus nostrum one of us.
In Russian, the combination genetīvus genĕris with these words is translated in the genitive case with the prepositions “from”, “between”, “among”.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
In Latin, as in Russian, adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative.
A sign of a positive degree are suffixes ior(for masculine and feminine) and ius(for the neuter gender), which are added in the nominative case to the stem of the positive degree. The basis + ior ( m, n), ius(n).
Positive degree
Albus, a, um – white, aya, oh.
comparative
Albior (m,n) – whiter, more white, aya.
Albius (n) – whiter, more white.
Superlative
Albissimus,a,um - the whitest one
The dictionary form of adjectives in the comparative degree looks like this: albior, ius.
The comparative degree of adjectives is declined according to the 3rd declension and has in Gen. Sing. Ending – is
N. S. albior albius
G. S. albioris
The stem of comparative adjectives is the same as the N.S. form. masculine and feminine.
Comparative adjectives, as well as positive adjectives, agree in gender, number and case.
Posterior artery
Anterior, ius – rear, arteria, ae f – artery, arteria anterior.
Hind leg
Anterior, ius – rear crus, cruris n – leg, crus anterius.
Superlative adjectives
The superlative degree of adjectives is formed by adding the positive degree of the suffix to the base. issium.
The basis + issium +
Positive degree Superlative degree
Albus, a, um – white, aya, oh. Albissimus, a, um
White, oh, oh, whitest, oh, oh
Adjectives ending in er , form superlatives by adding and them. pad. m.r. rim + us, a, um
niger, gra, grum – black
niger + rim + us – the blackest
niger + rim + a – the blackest
niger + rim + um – the blackest
Adjectives in the superlative degree are declined in the 1st and 2nd declensions.
Superlative adjectives agree with nouns. in gender, number and case
longissimus muscle
longissimus a, um - long
musculus, i, m - muscle
musculus longissimus.
In anatomical-histological (and botanical) terminology, the following adjectives are used in a comparative degree with a positive meaning.
anterior, ius - front
pasterior, ius – rear
superior, ius - upper
inferior, ius - lower
major, jus - big
minor, minus – small
Some superlative adjectives have a different stem than their corresponding positive adjectives.
gradus positivus gradus comporativus gradus superlahivus
bonus, a, um melior, melius optimus, a, um
malus, a, um pejor, pejus pessimus, a, um
magnus, a, um major, jus maxima, a, um
parvus, a, um minor, minus minima, a, um
Exercises
Translate into Russian:
1. Concha nasalis inferior. 2.Incisura ischiadica minor. 3.Fovea articularia inferior. 4.Tuberculum anterius. 5. Processus articularis superior. 6.Facies invertebralis inferior. 7.Linea temporalis inferior. 8.Cornu minor. 9. Vena cava superior. 10.Musculus latissimus dorsi. 11.Vena cordi parva. 12. Membrum superius. 13.Foramen palatinum majus (minus). 14.Musculus longi fudinalis inferior. 15.Foramen ichiadicum majus et minus. 16.Eucalyptus altissima. 17.Herba viridior. 18. Semen flavissimum. 19. Rhizoma maximum. 20.Semen amarissimum.21.Cortex nigerrima. 22. Rhizoma maximum. 23.Plantayo major. Vinca minor.
2. Translate into Latin:
1. Long muscles. 2. Longissimus muscles (neck). 3. Pectoralis major muscle. 4. Inferior articular fossa. 5. Lower limb. 6. Teres major (minor) muscle. 7. Front seasoned substance.8. Superior frontal sulcus.9. Drier on the right, 10. better nut, 11. the sweetest berry, 12. the bitterest pepper, 13. biggest pumpkin
Adjective in botanical nomenclature
Each plant in botanical nomenclature is assigned a name consisting of 2 words - the name of the genus to which they belong and the species name.
The name of the genus is written with a capital letter, located in front of the specific epithet and expressed as a noun.
The specific epithet follows the generic name and is written with a small letter, most often expressed as an adjective.
Species epithets of plants can be expressed by a noun or prepositional name, agreed in gender, number, case.
Mentha piperita – peppermint
Hyoscyamus niger – black henbane
Amygdalus amara – bitter almond
Sambucus nigra – black elderberry
N.B.: all trees –us, with exception, belong to the f.r.
Table of characteristic features reflected in specific epithets
|
Characteristic sign |
Examples |
|
Geographical 2.Ecological (conditional growth) 3.Morphological (structural features, appearance) 4. Similarity with other plants |
Atropa caucasica – Caucasian belladonna Artemisia taurica - Tauride wormwood Laminaria Janonica – Japanese kelp Arnica Montana – mountain arnica Helichrysum arenarium – sandy immortelle Gnaphaliumuliginosum- swampy maiden Scillamaritime– sea onion Magnoliagrandiflora– magnolia grandiflora Hypericumperforatum– St. John's wort Vincarecta– straight periwinkle Polygonumbistorta– snake mountaineer Urticadioica– nettle dicotyledonous Violaodorata– fragrant violet Tiliacordata– heart-shaped linden Ephedra equisetina– horsetail ephedra |
Exercises
1. Translate into Russian:
1.Passiflora coerulea .2.Viola tricolor .3.Asarum europaeum .4.Prunus domestica .5.Aronia melanocarpa.6.Cerasus vulgaris .7.Acacia latifolia .8.Ceranium palustre.9.Linum utilissimum .10.Citrus chinensis . 11 Malva silvestris .12.Circea cordata.13.Chamomilla officinalis.14.Rhimex martimus .15.Lauris nobilis .16.Ledum palustre .17.Crataegus sanguinea (daurica).18.Bidens tripartite .19.Aleana orientalis.
2. Translate into Latin:
2.1. Black poplar, 2. tansy, 3. sophora thick-fruited, 4. dandelion, 5. common willow, 6. spring adonis, 7. western sycamore, 8. black pepper, 9. dog rose, 10. swamp violet ,
1. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, are divided into qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote a feature of an object directly, that is, without relation to other objects: true rib - costa vera, long bone - os longum, yellow ligament - ligamentum flavum, transverse process - processus transversus, large hole - foramen magnum, trapezoid bone - os trapezoideum, sphenoid bone – os sphenoidale, etc.
Relative adjectives indicate the attribute of an object not directly, but through its relationship to another object: spinal column (column of vertebrae) - columna vertebralis, frontal bone - os frontale, sphenoid sinus (cavity in the body of the sphenoid bone) - sinus sphenoidalis, sphenoid crest (section anterior surface of the body of the sphenoid bone) – crista sphenoidalis.
The predominant mass of adjectives in anatomical nomenclature are relative adjectives, indicating that a given anatomical formation belongs to a whole organ or to another anatomical formation, such as the frontal process (extending from the zygomatic bone upward, where it connects with the zygomatic process of the frontal bone) - processus frontalis.
2. The categorical meaning of an adjective is expressed in the categories of gender, number and case. The category of gender is an inflectional category. As in Russian, adjectives change according to gender: they can be in the masculine, feminine or neuter form. The gender of an adjective depends on the gender of the noun with which it is agreed. For example, the Latin adjective meaning “yellow” (-aya, -oe) has three gender forms – flavus (m. p.), flava (f. p.), flavum (w. p.).
3. Inflection of adjectives also occurs according to cases and numbers, i.e. adjectives, like nouns, are declined.
1. Declension of adjectives. Dictionary form
Adjectives, unlike nouns, are declined only in the I, II or III declension.
The specific type of declension by which a particular adjective is modified is determined by the standard dictionary form in which it is written in the dictionary and in which it should be remembered.
In the dictionary form of the vast majority of adjectives, the endings characteristic of one type or another are indicated. p.un. h.
Moreover, some adjectives have endings in them. items for each gender are completely different, for example: rectus, recta, rectum - straight, straight, direct; other adjectives for the masculine and feminine gender have one common ending, and for the neuter gender - another, for example: brevis - short and short, breve - short.
Adjectives are also given in dictionary form in different ways. For example: rectus, -a, -um; brevis, -e.
Ending -us m.r. replaced in w. R. to -a (recta), and in cf. R. – on -um (rectum).
Two groups of adjectivesDepending on the type of declension in which adjectives are declined, they are divided into 2 groups. Group membership is recognized by standard dictionary forms.
The 1st group includes adjectives that are declined according to the 1st and 2nd declension. They are easily recognized by their endings. n. -us (or -er), -a, -um in dictionary form.
The 2nd group includes all adjectives that have a different dictionary form. Their inflection occurs according to the third declension.
Memorizing the dictionary form is necessary in order to correctly determine the type of declension and use the appropriate endings in oblique cases.
Adjectives of the 1st groupIf there is a dictionary form with endings in them. p.un. Part -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -um adjectives in the form w. R. Declined according to the first declension, in the form of m.r. and Wed R. - according to II declination.
For example: longus, -a, -um – long; liber, -era, -erum – free. In the family etc., they have, respectively, the endings:
Some adjectives that have a m.r. ending -er, the letter “e” appears in the m.r., starting with gender. p.un. h., and in w. R. and on Wed. R. - in all cases without exception. This does not happen with other adjectives. For example, the dictionary forms ruber, -bra, -brum, liber, -era, -erum.
Adjectives of the 2nd group
Adjectives of the 2nd group are declined according to the 3rd declension. Their dictionary form differs from adjectives of the 1st group.
According to the number of gender endings in the dictionary form, adjectives of the 2nd group are divided into:
1) adjectives with two endings;
2) adjectives of the same ending;
3) adjectives with three endings.
1. Adjectives with two endings are most common in anatomical-histological and in medical terminology in general. They have it in them. p., units only two generic endings – -is, -е; -is – common for m.r. and f. r., e – only for Wed. R. For example: brevis – short, short; breve – short.
Examples of adjectives with two endings in dictionary form:
brevis, e – short, -aya, -oe;
frontalis, e – frontal, -aya, -oe.
The predominant number of adjectives with two endings found in the nomenclature is characterized by the following word-formation model.
For example: stem-al-is, e – sternal, cost-al-is e – costal, clavicul-ar-is – clavicular, dors-al-is – dorsal, dorsal.
All adjectives formed in this suffixal way acquired the general meaning “relating to what is called the base” (sternum, rib, collarbone, back, rear).
2. Adjectives of the same ending have one common ending in them for all genders. p.un. h. Such an ending can be, in particular, -х, or -s, etc. For example: simplex - simple, -th, -oe; teres – round, -aya, -oe; biceps – two-headed, -aya, -oe.
Unlike all other types of adjectives, they have the following feature: the stem is in gender. n. and im. n. - different. This is reflected in dictionary form. For example:
simplex, icis – teres, etis – biceps, ipitis;
base: simplic– – teret– – bicipit-.
3. Adjectives of three endings have the endings: m.r. – -er, f. p. – -is, cf. R. – -e. For example: celer, -eris, -ere – fast, -aya, -oe; celeber, -bris, -bre – healing, -aya, -oe.
All adjectives of the 2nd group, regardless of the dictionary form, are declined according to the 3rd declension and have a single stem in oblique cases.
For example:
2. Coordination. Adjective - agreed definition
Another type of subordinating connection, when the function of definition in a noun phrase is performed by a non-noun in gender. p., and the adjective is called agreement, and the definition is agreed upon.
When agreed, a grammatically dependent definition is likened in gender, number and case to the main word. As the grammatical forms of the main word change, the forms of the dependent word also change. In other words, as in Russian, adjectives agree with the noun in gender, number and case.
For example, when agreeing the adjectives transversus, -a, -um and vertebralis, -e with the nouns processus, -us (m); linea, -ae (f); ligamentum, -i (n); canalls, -is (m); incisura, -ae, (f); foramen, -inis (n) the following phrases are obtained:
3. Comparative degree (Gradus comparativus); education and declination
As in Russian, Latin qualitative adjectives have three degrees of comparison: positive (gradus positivus), comparative (gradus comparativus) and superlative (gradus superlativus).
The comparative degree is formed from the stem of the positive degree by adding to it the suffix -ior for m.r. and f. r., suffix -ius – for cf. R. For example:
1. The main grammatical features of adjectives in the comparative degree are: for m.r. and f. R. – suffix -ior, for cf. R. – suffix -ius.
For example: brevior, -ius; latior, -ius.
2. For all comparative adjectives, the base coincides with the m.r. form. and f. R. in them p.un. h.:
3. Adjectives are declined in the comparative degree according to the III declension. Genus form p.un. h. is the same for all three genders: it is formed by adding the ending -is to the stem.
4. Adjectives agree comparatively with nouns in gender, number and case, that is, they are agreed upon definitions: sutura latior; sulcus latior; foramen latius.
4. Nominative plural (Nominativus pluralis) of nouns of the I, II, III, IV, V declension and adjectives
1. Any case endings, including endings named after. p.m. h., are always attached to the base.
2. For the formation of word forms named after. p.m. including different declinations, the following provisions must be adhered to.
If the noun refers to Wed. r., then it declines in accordance with the rule cf. r., which reads: all words cf. R. (both nouns and adjectives of all degrees of comparison), regardless of which declension they belong to, end in them. p.m. h. on -a. This applies only to the words cf. p., for example: ligamenta lata - broad ligaments, crura ossea - bone legs, ossa temporalia - temporal bones, cornua majora - large horns.
Word endings in m.r. and f. R. in them p.m. h. it is easier to remember taking into account each individual declination. In this case, it is necessary to remember the following correspondences: nouns of I, II, IV declensions have in them. p.m. h. exactly the same ending as in gen. p.m. h. The same correspondence is observed with adjectives of the 1st group, because they are declined like nouns of the 1st and 2nd declensions, for example:
Nouns of the III and V declensions, as well as adjectives of the III declension and adjectives in the comparative degree (they are also declined in the III declension) have in them. p.m. including the same ending -es.
Generalization of data on the endings of nouns and adjectives in them. p.m. h.
Work from the section: “Foreign languages”
Degrees of comparison of adjectives In Latin, as in Russian, among the adjectives there is a group of qualitative adjectives. They name some quality of an object: beautiful, kind, etc. These qualities may manifest themselves in a particular person or object to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, from one or another qualitative adjective forms can be formed that express a greater or lesser degree of this quality: kind - kindest, etc. In Latin, there are three degrees of comparison of adjectives (this includes the original forms): . positive (gradus posit?vus), which includes adjectives already known to us. comparative (gradus comparat?vus). excellent (gradus superlat?vus). Comparative and superlative adjectives can be formed: . using suffixes; . using words indicating the degree of quality; . from bases that do not coincide with the bases of a positive degree. Formation of comparative degrees Formation with suffixes N. sing. The comparative degree of adjectives of all declensions is formed from the base of the adjective to which it is added. in the forms mascul?num and femin?num - the suffix -ior-. in the form neutrum - suffix -ius: longus, a, um long; G. sing. long-i; long-base. Comparative degree: m - long - ior, f - long - ior, n - long - ius; brevis, e short; G. sing. brev-is, base brev-. Comparative degree: m - brev - ior, f - brev - ior, n - brev - ius. The comparative degree changes according to the third consonantal declension: The comparative degree of adjectives in -d?cus, -f?cus, -v?lus is formed by adding the element -entior to the stem: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnificentior, ius more magnificent. Formation with the help of auxiliary words The comparative degree from the positive degree with the help of the adverb magis is more formed by adjectives whose stem ends in a vowel sound (i.e. adjectives ending in -eus, -ius, -uus in N. sing.): necessarius necessary, magis necessarius - more necessary. Using the comparative degree The comparative degree can be used: with a noun (pronoun) that is compared with something. The object of comparison is joined by the conjunction quam than: aer levior est, quam aqua air is lighter than water. Ablat?vus comparati?nis The conjunction quam with the object of comparison can be omitted. In this case, the word that expresses the object of comparison is put in the ablative (in Russian the genitive case is used: air is lighter than water). Such an ablativus is called ablat?vus comparati?nis (?blative comparison): a?r levior est aqu?. The combination of a noun (pronoun) with a comparative degree depending on it can be used in isolation, without an object of comparison. In this case, the comparison occurs as if with a certain norm that exists in the mind of the speaker. This use of the comparative degree is called an independent comparative degree. The independent comparative degree is translated into Russian by a positive degree (i.e. an ordinary adjective) in combination with the words quite, somewhat, very, too, excessively, etc.: senex servior - too stern old man. Formation of the superlative degree The superlative degree of adjectives can be formed in a suffixal way: . by adding the element -?ssim- to the stem, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter genders of the I - II declensions: long-us, a, um long > longiss?m-us, a, um the longest. adjective with -d?cus, -f?cus u v?lus form a comparative degree with -entiss?mus: magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnific - entissimus, a ,um the most magnificent. . adjectives starting with -er form the superlative degree by adding to the stem the element -r?m-, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter gender: liber, -?ra, -?rum free; base liber-; superlative liber-r?m-us, a, um the freest. The adjective vetus, ?ris old, ancient -> veterr?mus, a, um oldest, most ancient also forms the superlative degree. . a group of adjectives starting with -lis forms a superlative degree with the suffix -l?m-, to which the generic endings us, a, um are added: fac?lis, e easy -> facil-lim-us, a, um the lightest, etc. . diffic?lis, e heavy, difficult sim?lis, e similar dissim?lis, e dissimilar hum?lis, e low grac?lis, e graceful. Adjectives ending in -eus, -ius, -uus form a comparative degree from the positive with the help of the adverb maxime most: necessarius, a, um necessary -> maxime necessarius most necessary. Adjectives in the superlative degree change according to the 1st - 2nd declensions. Meaning of superlative adjectives Superlative adjectives can have two meanings: . the highest degree of quality (actually gradus superlat?vus); . very high degree of quality (this value is called gradus elat?vus). One or another meaning of the superlative degree is determined by the context. The elative is most often used: flumen latiss?mum the widest river (superlative), very wide river (elative). The comparative degree can be strengthened with the help of the adverb multo much, significantly; excellent - with the help of the union quam: Sementes quam max?mas fac?re - to produce as large crops as possible. Supplemental degrees of comparison Supplemental forms of various parts of speech are those forms that are formed from different stems (cf. in Russian: the positive degree is good, and the comparative degree is better). In Latin, suppletive degrees of comparison form adjectives: | Positive degree | Comparative | Superlative | | |degree |degree | |bonus, a, um (good) |melior, melius |opt?mus, a, um | |malus, a, um (bad) |peior, peius |pess?mus, a, um | |magnus, a, um (large) |maior, maius |max?mus, a, um | |parvus, a, um (small) |minor, minus |min?mus, a, um | |multi, ae, a (many) |plures, pluri |plur?mi, ae, ? | | |(G-plurium) | | Ablat?vus separati?nis Ablat?vus separati?nis is used with verbs or adjectives that mean removal, separation, for example: mov?re, pell?re - remove, expel (from something) ced?re - remove from something -or arc?re, prohib?re - to abstain from something liber?re - to free from something. If ablat?vus separati?nis is expressed by an animate noun, then it is used with the preposition a (ab). The inanimate noun in ablat?vus separati?nis is used without a preposition, and sometimes with the prepositions a(ab), de, e(ex). Homo sum, hum?ni nihil a me alienum puto. - I am a man, and I believe that nothing human is alien to me. Duces copias castris ed?cunt. - The commanders are withdrawing the army from the camp. Ablat?vus loci Ablat?vus loci (“ablative of place”) answers the question “where” and means the place of action. Ablat?vus loci is used without a preposition if words with the meaning of place or space have an agreed definition (i.e., standing in the same case and number as the word to which it refers). In particular, this rule applies to combinations involving the words totus, a, um all, whole and locus, i, m place: tot? urb? throughout the city; hoc loco in (at) this place. If such words with a local-spatial meaning do not have a definition, they are used with the preposition in: in urb? in the city. Without a preposition they are used: . expression terr? mar?que on land and sea; . name of a path or road with verbs of movement: e?dem itin?r? reverti - to return the same way. Designation of the place of action in Latin When designating the place of action, answering the question “where”, they are put in the form genetivus: . names of cities of the 1st and 2nd declension: Romae in Rome. words domus, i, f house: domi houses humus, i f land: humi on (in) the earth, on the ground rus, ruris n village: ruri in the village [These forms have the ending of the locative (local case) lost in Latin. Therefore, the form ruri has the ending -i, which is not typical for the genetive of the III declension.] When indicating the direction of action, words answering the question “where?” are put in the accusativus form: Romam to Rome, domum home, rus to the village. When indicating the place of departure (i.e. starting point), words are used in the form ablat?vus: Rom? from Rome, dom? from home, rur? from the village. Names of cities of I - II declension, having only a plural form (Ath?nae, ?rum f ?fins, Delphi, ?rum m Delphi), as well as names of cities of III declension (Carthago, Carthag?nis f Carthage): . to indicate the place of action and the place of departure are put in the ablative: Athenis in Athens (or from Athens), Delphis in Delphi (or from Delphi), Carthagin? in Carthage (or from Carthage); . to indicate the direction of action - in the accusative: Ath?nas in Athens, etc. Russian nouns denoting segments of space (and time) are usually expressed in Latin by adjectives, which in this case are placed before the nouns (on this basis, phrases of this type should be distinguished from ordinary combinations of a noun with an adjective - an agreed definition: media via the middle of the road (cf. . via media middle road), etc. Genet?vus gen?ris Genet?vus gen?ris ("genitive gender" or "genitive species") is used: ... with neuter singular nouns denoting measure, number or amount ; . with quantitative adjectives and pronouns of the neuter singular. Genetivus generis denotes objects or substance that is subject to measurement or counting: num?rus mil?tum number of warriors; nihil novi nothing new; aliquid temp?ris some time (lit. several times Genet?vus partit?vus Genet?vus partit?vus is used to designate a whole, from which only a part is isolated. Genetivus partitivus is used: . in the presence of a definition expressed by an adjective in a comparative or superlative degree: Gall?rum omnium fortiss?mi sunt Belgae (Caes.) - The bravest of all Gauls are the Belgae; . for interrogative and indefinite pronouns (see lecture): quis nostrum? which one of us? nemo nostrum none of us; . with adjectives with the meaning of quantity, in the plural form (multi many, pauci few, etc. ): multi nostrum many of us; . with numerals: unus nostrum one of us. In Russian, the combination genet?vus gen?ris with these words is translated in the genitive case with the prepositions “from”, “between”, “among”.