Albert Einstein is a legendary physicist, a leading light of science of the 20th century. He owns the creation
general theory of relativity and special relativity, as well as powerful contributions to
development of other areas of physics. It was GTR that formed the basis of modern physics, combining
space over time and describing almost all visible cosmological phenomena, including
and allowing for the possibility of the existence of wormholes, black holes, the fabric of space-time, and
as well as other gravitational-scale phenomena.

Any theory, no matter how clear and generally accepted it may be, always requires verification. Even if its author was widely known. According to the editors of the journal Nature, an international group of scientists recently tested the great scientist’s statement about quantum entanglement of particles. Moreover, thanks to a specially created computer game, Einstein’s statement was called into question.

Albert Einstein - a brilliant theoretical physicist, one of the most famous founders of modern theoretical physics, a public figure and humanist, a Nobel Prize laureate, an honorary doctor of twenty universities, an honorary member of many Academies of Sciences.

Biography

Childhood

Einstein was born into a Jewish family that was not rich. His father, Herman, worked at a featherbed and mattress stuffing company. Mother, Paulina (nee Koch) was the daughter of a corn merchant. Albert had a younger sister, Maria. The future scientist did not live even a year in his hometown - the family went to live in Munich in 1880. His mother taught little Albert to play the violin, and he did not give up his musical studies until the end of his days.

Education

Albert Einstein studied at a local Catholic school, but he was bored by the education system, and he did not shine at all with his successes. In 1895, he entered the Aarau school in Switzerland and successfully completed it. In Zurich in 1896, Einstein entered the Higher Technical School. After graduating in 1900, the future scientist received a diploma as a teacher of physics and mathematics.

Career

After graduating from the Polytechnic, Einstein, in need of money, began looking for work in Zurich, but could not even get a job as an ordinary school teacher. This literally hungry period in the life of the great scientist affected his health: hunger became the cause of serious liver disease. His former classmate, Marcel Grossman, helped Albert find a job. According to his recommendations, in 1902 Albert got a job as a third-class expert at the Berne Federal Office for Patenting Inventions. The scientist assessed applications for inventions until 1909.

In 1902, Einstein lost his father.

Since 1905, all physicists in the world have recognized Einstein's name. The journal "Annals of Physics" published three of his articles at once, which marked the beginning of the scientific revolution. They were devoted to the theory of relativity, quantum theory, and statistical physics.

In 1906, Einstein received his Doctor of Science degree. By this time, he was already gaining worldwide fame: physicists from all over the world wrote letters to him and came to meet him. Einstein meets Planck, with whom they had a long and strong friendship.

In 1909, he was offered a position at the University of Zurich as an extraordinary professor. However, due to his small salary, Einstein soon agrees to a more lucrative offer. He was invited to head the department of physics at the German University of Prague.

He participates in all scientific congresses and conferences in physics, and gives lectures at various universities. He was a professor at his native Polytechnic of Zurich, headed a new physics research institute in Berlin, and was a professor at the University of Berlin.

During the First World War, the scientist openly expresses his pacifist views and continues his scientific discoveries. After 1917, liver disease worsened, stomach ulcers appeared and jaundice began. Without even getting out of bed, Einstein continued his scientific research.

In 1920, Einstein's mother died after a serious illness.

In the 1920s, the scientist traveled with lectures throughout Europe and the USA, and visited India and Japan.

In 1921, Einstein finally became a Nobel laureate.

With Hitler coming to power, the scientist, who condemned any wars, terrorism and violence, was forced to leave his native and beloved Germany. The Nazis declared all his works and discoveries a distortion of true science and even promised a reward for his murder.

Having settled in the USA, Einstein became a respected and honorary citizen there, met with Roosevelt, and took the position of professor at the Institute for Advanced Study (New Jersey).

Personal life

While studying at the Polytechnic of Zurich, Einstein met there a Serbian student, Mileva Maric, who was studying at the Faculty of Medicine. They married in 1903 and had three children. However, in 1914, the family breaks up: Einstein leaves for Berlin, leaving his wife and children in Zurich. In 1919, an official divorce took place.

In 1919, having received a divorce, Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (nee Einstein), his cousin on his mother's side. He adopts her two children. In 1936, Elsa died of heart disease.

Some people talk about Einstein's mutual infatuation with Marilyn Monroe.

Death

Albert Einstein died on the night of April 18, 1955 in Princeton. The cause of death was a ruptured aortic aneurysm. According to his personal will, the funeral took place without wide publicity; only 12 people close and dear to him were present. The body was burned at the Ewing Cemetery Crematorium and the ashes were scattered to the wind.

Einstein's Major Achievements

• Einstein is the author of 300 scientific theoretical works on physics, 150 books in the field of philosophy of science, history and journalism.
• Einstein discovered such important theories for physics as:
  • theory of relativity;
  • theory of light scattering;
  • quantum theory of heat capacity;
  • the law of the relationship between mass and energy;
  • theory of stimulated emission;
  • quantum theory of the photoelectric effect;
  • statistical theory of Brownian motion;
  • quantum statistics.

Important dates in Einstein's biography

• 1879 - birth
• 1880 - move to Munich
• 1893 - went to live in Switzerland
• 1895–1896 - studying at the Aarau school
• 1896–1900 - studies at the Polytechnic of Zurich
• 1902–1909 - work at the Federal Bureau of Patenting of Inventions
• 1902 - father's death
• 1903 - marriage to Mileva Maric
• 1905 - first discoveries
• 1906 - Doctor of Science degree in physics
• 1909 - professor at the University of Zurich
• 1911 - Heads the Department of Physics at the German University of Prague
• 1914 - return to Germany
• 1919 - marriage to Else Löwenthal
• 1920 - death of mother
• 1921 - Nobel Prize
• 1926 - honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences
• 1933 - went to live in the USA
• 1936 - death of wife Elsa
• 1955 - death

• Einstein loved growing roses.
• Among the closest friends of the great scientist was Charlie Chaplin.
• Hans Albert, Einstein's eldest son, became a great expert in hydraulics and a professor at the University of California.
• Edward, the youngest son of the great scientist, was ill with a severe form of schizophrenia and died in a psychiatric hospital in Zurich.
• One of Einstein's cousins ​​died in Auschwitz, another died in the Theresienstadt concentration camp.
• The famous photograph of Einstein sticking out his tongue was taken for annoying journalists who asked the great scientist to just smile for the camera.
• During World War II, Einstein was a technical consultant to the US Navy. It is known for certain that Russian intelligence more than once sent its agents to him for secret information.

Every person in the world knows the brilliant scientist Albert Einstein, as well as his famous equation E=mc 2. But how many people know what this formula means? It is surprising that, being a scientist whose fame has eclipsed even such geniuses as Newton and Pasteur, he remains a mysterious figure for many. Biography of Albert Einstein is the topic of the article.

The hero of today's story is one of the greatest people in the entire history of mankind. His biography is bright and rich. Many books have been written about Albert Einstein. It is impossible to present his entire life in one article. Albert Einstein, whose brief biography is presented below in dates, showed himself to be an extraordinary personality even in childhood. Here are some interesting facts from the early period of his life.

Manufacturer's Son

The biography of Albert Einstein began in 1879. The future scientist was born in the German town of Ulm. Nothing else connected him with this place. A year after the birth of their son, Hermann and Paulina Einstein moved to Munich. Here Albert's father had an electrochemical plant. The future of Herman's young son was predetermined. He was supposed to become an engineer and inherit the family business.

Albert Einstein, whose biography did not live up to the hopes of his father-manufacturer, began to speak very late. For his age, he was even somewhat retarded in development.

Albert Einstein, whose brief biography is presented in physics textbooks, was a real genius. But in the eyes of his teachers, he was a mediocre child. The story of a future scientist who did not show any abilities at school is known, perhaps, to everyone. Indeed, according to researchers, the biography of Albert Einstein includes similar facts.

First discovery

When did Albert Einstein make his first discovery? The biography in the official version says that this happened in 1905. The hero of this article believed that this event dates back to a much earlier period.

In 1885, when the boy was only six years old, he contracted an illness that confined him to bed for several months. It was during this period that an event occurred that influenced his entire future life.

Hermann Einstein was quite upset by his son's illness. To entertain the boy, he gave him a compass. Albert was fascinated by this device, and especially by the fact that the long arrow invariably pointed in one direction. Regardless of which way the compass was turned.

Later, Albert Einstein, a world-famous physicist, would say that this moment was unforgettable. After all, it was then, at the age of six, that he realized that there was something in the environment that attracted bodies and made them rotate. The joy of the first discovery remained throughout his life, which Einstein spent in search of the secret laws underlying the universe.

Weird teenager

How did Albert Einstein spend his childhood and adolescence? This person has an interesting biography. She can serve as an example to those who strive for their goals. Albert was by no means a child prodigy. Moreover, teachers doubted his mental abilities. However, he made his discoveries not thanks to determination. But because I couldn’t imagine life without physics.

Albert loved science since childhood. He spent all his free time reading encyclopedias and physics textbooks. Einstein was a rather unusual teenager. He studied at a Munich school where there was strict military discipline. At that time, this was the norm for all educational institutions in Germany. However, Albert did not like this state of affairs at all. He excelled most in mathematics and physics and sometimes asked questions that went beyond the scope of the school curriculum.

What is remarkable about the early years of such a significant figure in world science as Albert Einstein? A short biography and interesting facts say that he had extraordinary knowledge of the exact sciences already in childhood. He was especially interested in the topic of electromagnetism.

As for other subjects, such as French language and literature, here he showed no ability. Once, during a Greek lesson, the teacher could not stand it and said to the future scientist: “Einstein, you will never achieve anything!” This was the end of Albert's patience. He left school and went to his parents, who by that time had moved to Milan. The biography of Albert Einstein contains many difficult periods. After all, geniuses are often underestimated by their contemporaries.

Discoveries of the late 19th century

In order to understand Einstein's role in science, it is worth saying a few words about the time in which he began his journey. At the end of the 19th century, discoveries in the field of light physics contradicted the theories of scientists. Disagreements arose at the intersection of two different disciplines. One of them was studying the substance. The other is radiation emitted by heated bodies.

When a metal rod heats up, what happens is that it emits energy and light that is not yet visible to the naked eye. This is the so-called infrared light. As the temperature of the metal gets higher, a red light can be seen. At first it is burgundy, and then it becomes brighter and brighter. Then it changes color to yellow and so on, going beyond the spectrum recorded by the naked eye.

At that time, physicists could not yet create an equation that would describe such a simple phenomenon as a change in the color of light emitted by bodies heated to high temperatures. It was believed that it was impossible to find a mathematical formula that would explain this phenomenon. And that’s why physicists called it the “black body mystery.” Who was able to solve this riddle?

In Milan

At that time, Albert Einstein (the photo above was taken during his stay in Zurich) was not concerned about such issues. He spent time in the Italian villages, enjoying the fruits of his newfound freedom. Reunited with his family, Einstein announced his firm intention to become a professor and finally give up his studies in Germany.

The parents were stunned. But the bad news didn't end there. The plant, owned by Hermann Einstein, was close to bankruptcy. The father hoped that his son would someday continue his work. Hermann and Pauline Einstein were dismayed when they learned that Albert was planning to give up his German citizenship in order to avoid military service. The future scientist was now worried about completely different problems. He completely immersed himself in the mysterious world of physics. And nothing could lead him astray from this path anymore.

Einstein's uncle was a scientist and helped him study physics. When Albert was only sixteen years old, he wrote a letter to a relative in which he asked a question about the spread of light. Einstein asked the following: “What would happen if I could ride a light beam? Could an observer traveling at the speed of light see light from his position?”

Study in Zurich

Einstein never finished school. He was obviously not adapted to the standard German educational system. But this did not mean that he gave up his dream of becoming a scientist. Albert applied for admission to the Polytechnic in Zurich. This did not require a high school diploma.

The original application was not accepted because Einstein was still very young. But the selection committee decided that the boy was quite gifted. And therefore they recommended that he try again in a year. Einstein followed the advice. For a year he prepared to enter the polytechnic. The second attempt was successful for him.

Meet Mileva

Albert Einstein entered the polytechnic. Ninety-six students attended this institution. Of these, only five people dreamed of real science. One of them was Albert Einstein. The photo below belongs to Mileva Maric, the only student on the course. She was extremely educated, but had serious health problems. A romantic relationship arose between Einstein and Maric. The parents of the future scientist did not approve of them.

First of all, they considered the girl too smart. Einstein's parents envisioned a flexible woman who could become a good housewife as their son's wife. What suited Albert about Mileva was that he could talk to her about topics related to science. In addition, they wrote passionate letters to each other, serving as proof that the young people were in love.

Start of research activities

At the polytechnic, Einstein's intellectual development was in full force. He read the works of great physicists with great zeal and was familiar with the reports of all the experiments performed. Einstein's true interests lay in the field of research. He wanted to advance human knowledge to a new level. Albert felt that existing theories did not answer the important questions he was asking. This encouraged him to work independently in the study of electromagnetism, the branch of physics that he adored most.

At some point, Einstein began to skip classes at the polytechnic. He wanted to find evidence of the existence of the ether, in the space of which the earth could supposedly move. At that time, many attempts had already been made to resolve this issue. But none of the experiments looked convincing enough. Albert also wanted to take part in the research. And, using instruments from a local laboratory, he undertook several experiments.

Negative characteristic

It is worth saying that already during this period Einstein knew much more in the field of physics than his teachers. Subsequently, one of the professors, whose pride was hurt, wrote a very negative description.

After four years of study at the polytechnic, Einstein received his degree. Mileva failed her exams. Albert Einstein tried in vain to get a position at the university. Due to poor performance this was almost impossible. As well as continuing research activities without holding a university position.

1901 turned out to be the most unfortunate year in Einstein's life. All attempts to find a job were unsuccessful. He had to leave Mileva in Zurich and go to his family in Milan. Albert was going to announce to his parents about the upcoming wedding. As expected, Paulina and Herman were against it. They believed that Mileva was not suitable for the role of Einstein's wife. Moreover, she was not Jewish. Einstein had to give up thoughts of marriage.

First article

Despite all the failures, Einstein still hoped to begin research activities. He wrote his first article, “Consequences from the phenomena of capillarity.” It was published in the journal “Annals of Physics” - the most popular publication of that time.

Position in the patent office

Even after the publication of the article, its author remained unemployed. The situation changed only a few months later. In 1902, Albert Einstein was appointed to the position of third-class examiner at the patent office in Bern. This work left a lot of time for scientific work.

Contrary to his mother's wishes, in early 1903 Einstein nevertheless married Mileva. The wedding took place in a modest atmosphere. Only witnesses were present.

Einstein rented an apartment. At this time, he communicated a lot with his colleagues, among whom was the mathematician Marcel Grossman. And most importantly, Einstein read the works of great scientists, hoping that this would help him find answers to all his questions. Among the authors of scientific books, he singled out Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist and philosopher.

Einstein's genius

Einstein had extraordinary mental abilities that endowed him with amazing abstract thinking skills. When he developed a theory, he carried out something like a thought experiment. His discoveries were ahead of the technical capabilities of the time in which he lived.

Theory of relativity

In 1905, in letters addressed to friends, Einstein several times mentioned certain revolutionary discoveries that would soon become known in the scientific world. Indeed, soon the article “Special Theory of Relativity” was published, within the framework of which the formula E=mc 2 was compiled.

Contribution to science

Einstein owns over three hundred scientific papers. Among them are “Quantum theory of the photoelectric effect” and “Quantum theory of heat capacity”. This scientist predicted "Quantum teleportation" and gravitational waves. In the post-war period, a movement was created in the United States, whose participants opposed nuclear weapons. One of the organizers of this movement is Albert Einstein.

Brief biography and discoveries (table)

Event	Year
Moving to Italy	1894
Admission to the polytechnic	1895
Obtaining Swiss citizenship	1901
Publication of the article “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies” and work devoted to Brownian motion.	1905
Quantum theory of heat capacity	1907
Admission to the University of Berlin	1913
General theory of relativity	1915
Receiving the Nobel Prize	1922
Emigration	1933
Meeting with Roosevelt	1934
Death of second wife Elsa	1936
Proposal for the reorganization of the UN State Assembly	1947
Drafting an appeal against nuclear war (left unfinished)	1955
Death	1955

“I have completed my task on Earth” - words from the last letter that Albert Einstein addressed to his friends. The biography, a summary of which is presented in this article, belongs to a scientist and an unusually wise and kind person. He did not accept any form of personality cult, and therefore forbade lavish funerals. The great physicist passed away in 1955 in Princeton. Only close friends accompanied him on his last journey.

Scientist Albert Einstein became famous for his scientific work, which allowed him to become one of the founders of theoretical physics. One of his most famous works is the general and special theories of relativity. This scientist and thinker has more than 600 works on a variety of topics.

Nobel Prize

In 1921, Albert Einstein won the Nobel Prize in Physics. He received the prize for discovery of the photoelectric effect.

At the presentation, other works of the physicist were also discussed. In particular, the theory of relativity and gravity was supposed to be evaluated after their confirmation in the future.

Einstein's theory of relativity

It is curious that Einstein himself explained his theory of relativity with humor:

If you hold your hand over the fire for one minute, it will seem like an hour, but an hour spent with your beloved girl will seem like one minute.

That is, time flows differently in different circumstances. The physicist also spoke in a unique way about other scientific discoveries. For example, everyone can be sure that it is impossible to do something definite until there is an "ignoramus" who will do it only because he does not know about the opinion of the majority.

Albert Einstein said that he discovered his theory of relativity completely by accident. One day he noticed that a car moving relative to another car at the same speed and in the same direction remains motionless.

These 2 cars, moving relative to the Earth and other objects on it, are at rest relative to each other.

The famous formula E=mc 2

Einstein argued that if a body generates energy in video radiation, then the decrease in its mass is proportional to the amount of energy released by it.

This is how the well-known formula was born: the amount of energy is equal to the product of the mass of the body and the square of the speed of light (E=mc 2). The speed of light is 300 thousand kilometers per second.

Even an insignificantly small mass accelerated to the speed of light will emit enormous amounts of energy. The invention of the atomic bomb confirmed the correctness of this theory.

short biography

Albert Einstein was born March 14, 1879 in the small German town of Ulm. He spent his childhood in Munich. Albert's father was an entrepreneur, his mother a housewife.

The future scientist was born weak, with a large head. His parents were afraid that he would not survive. However, he survived and grew, showing increased curiosity about everything. At the same time, he was very persistent.

Study period

Einstein was bored studying at the gymnasium. In his free time, he read popular science books. Astronomy aroused his greatest interest at that time.

After graduating from high school, Einstein went to Zurich and entered the polytechnic school. Upon completion, he receives a diploma physics and mathematics teachers. Alas, 2 whole years of searching for a job did not yield any results.

During this period, Albert had a hard time, and due to constant hunger, he developed liver disease, which tormented him for the rest of his life. But even these difficulties did not discourage him from studying physics.

Career and first successes

IN 1902 year, Albert gets a job at the Berne Patent Office as a technical expert with a small salary.

By 1905, Einstein already had 5 scientific papers. In 1909 he became professor of theoretical physics at the University of Zurich. In 1911 he became a professor at the German University in Prague, from 1914 to 1933 he was a professor at the University of Berlin and director of the Institute of Physics in Berlin.

He worked on his theory of relativity for 10 years and only completed it in 1916. In 1919 there was a solar eclipse. It was observed by scientists from the Royal Society of London. They also confirmed the probable correctness of Einstein's theory of relativity.

Emigration to the USA

IN 1933 The Nazis came to power in Germany. All scientific works and other works were burned. The Einstein family immigrated to the USA. Albert became a professor of physics at the Institute for Basic Research in Princeton. IN 1940 year he renounces German citizenship and officially becomes an American citizen.

In recent years, the scientist lived in Princeton, worked on a unified field theory, played the violin in moments of relaxation, and rode a boat on the lake.

Albert Einstein died April 18, 1955. After his death, his brain was studied for genius, but nothing exceptional was found.

Biography

Albert Einstein (German: Albert Einstein, IPA [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪ̯nʃtaɪ̯n] (i); March 14, 1879, Ulm, Württemberg, Germany - April 18, 1955, Princeton, New Jersey, USA) - theoretical physicist, one of the founders of modern theoretical physics , winner of the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, public figure and humanist. Lived in Germany (1879-1893, 1914-1933), Switzerland (1893-1914) and the USA (1933-1955). Honorary doctor of about 20 leading universities in the world, member of many Academies of Sciences, including foreign honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926).

(1905).
Within its framework is the law of the relationship between mass and energy: E=mc^2.
General theory of relativity (1907-1916).
Quantum theory of the photoelectric effect.
Quantum theory of heat capacity.
Quantum statistics of Bose - Einstein.
Statistical theory of Brownian motion, which laid the foundations of the theory of fluctuations.
Theory of stimulated emission.
Theory of light scattering by thermodynamic fluctuations in a medium.

He also predicted "quantum teleportation" and predicted and measured the Einstein-de Haas gyromagnetic effect. Since 1933, he worked on problems of cosmology and unified field theory. He actively opposed war, against the use of nuclear weapons, for humanism, respect for human rights, and mutual understanding between peoples.

Einstein played a decisive role in popularizing and introducing new physical concepts and theories into scientific circulation. First of all, this relates to a revision of the understanding of the physical essence of space and time and to the construction of a new theory of gravity to replace the Newtonian one. Einstein also, together with Planck, laid the foundations of quantum theory. These concepts, repeatedly confirmed by experiments, form the foundation of modern physics.

early years

Albert Einstein was born on March 14, 1879 in the southern German city of Ulm, into a poor Jewish family.

Father, Hermann Einstein (1847-1902), was at that time a co-owner of a small enterprise producing feather stuffing for mattresses and featherbeds. Mother, Pauline Einstein (née Koch, 1858-1920), came from the family of wealthy corn merchant Julius Derzbacher (he changed his surname to Koch in 1842) and Yetta Bernheimer. In the summer of 1880, the family moved to Munich, where Hermann Einstein, together with his brother Jacob, founded a small company selling electrical equipment. Albert's younger sister Maria (Maya, 1881-1951) was born in Munich.

Elementary education Albert Einstein received from a local Catholic school. According to his own recollections, as a child he experienced a state of deep religiosity, which ended at the age of 12. Through reading popular science books, he became convinced that much of what is stated in the Bible cannot be true, and the state is deliberately deceiving the younger generation. All this made him a freethinker and forever gave rise to a skeptical attitude towards authorities. Of his childhood experiences, Einstein later recalled as the most powerful: the compass, Euclid's Principia, and (around 1889) Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. In addition, on the initiative of his mother, he began playing the violin at the age of six. Einstein's passion for music continued throughout his life. Already in the USA in Princeton, in 1934 Albert Einstein gave a charity concert, where he performed Mozart’s works on the violin for the benefit of scientists and cultural figures who emigrated from Nazi Germany.

At the gymnasium (now the Albert Einstein Gymnasium in Munich) he was not among the first students (with the exception of mathematics and Latin). Albert Einstein disliked Albert Einstein's ingrained system of rote learning (which he later said was detrimental to the very spirit of learning and creative thinking), as well as the authoritarian attitude of teachers toward students, and he often got into arguments with his teachers.

In 1894, the Einsteins moved from Munich to the Italian city of Pavia, near Milan, where the brothers Hermann and Jacob moved their company. Albert himself remained with relatives in Munich for some more time to complete all six classes of the gymnasium. Having never received his matriculation certificate, he joined his family in Pavia in 1895.

In the fall of 1895, Albert Einstein arrived in Switzerland to take the entrance exams to the Higher Technical School (Polytechnic) in Zurich and, upon graduation, become a physics teacher. Having shown himself brilliantly in the mathematics exam, he at the same time failed the exams in botany and French, which did not allow him to enter the Zurich Polytechnic. However, the director of the school advised the young man to enter the graduating class of a school in Aarau (Switzerland) in order to receive a certificate and repeat admission.

At the cantonal school of Aarau, Albert Einstein devoted his free time to studying Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. In September 1896, he successfully passed all final exams at school, with the exception of the French language exam, and received a certificate, and in October 1896 he was admitted to the Polytechnic at the Faculty of Education. Here he became friends with a fellow student, mathematician Marcel Grossman (1878-1936), and also met a Serbian medical student, Mileva Maric (4 years older than him), who later became his wife. That same year, Einstein renounced his German citizenship. To obtain Swiss citizenship, he was required to pay 1,000 Swiss francs, but the family's poor financial situation allowed him to do this only after 5 years. This year, his father’s enterprise finally went bankrupt; Einstein’s parents moved to Milan, where Herman Einstein, already without his brother, opened a company selling electrical equipment.

The teaching style and methodology at the Polytechnic differed significantly from the ossified and authoritarian German school, so further education was easier for the young man. He had first-class teachers, including the wonderful geometer Hermann Minkowski (Einstein often missed his lectures, which he later sincerely regretted) and the analyst Adolf Hurwitz.

Beginning of scientific activity

In 1900, Einstein graduated from the Polytechnic with a diploma in teaching mathematics and physics. He passed the exams successfully, but not brilliantly. Many professors highly appreciated the abilities of the student Einstein, but no one wanted to help him continue his scientific career. Einstein himself later recalled:

I was bullied by my professors, who did not like me because of my independence and closed my path to science.

Although the following year, 1901, Einstein received Swiss citizenship, he could not find a permanent job until the spring of 1902 - even as a school teacher. Due to lack of income, he literally starved, not eating for several days in a row. This became the cause of liver disease, from which the scientist suffered for the rest of his life.

Despite the hardships that plagued him in 1900-1902, Einstein found time to further study physics. In 1901, the Berlin Annals of Physics published his first article, “Consequences of the theory of capillarity” (Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen), devoted to the analysis of the forces of attraction between atoms of liquids based on the theory of capillarity.

Former classmate Marcel Grossman helped overcome the difficulties, recommending Einstein for the position of third-class expert at the Federal Patent Office for Inventions (Bern) with a salary of 3,500 francs per year (during his student years he lived on 100 francs per month).

Einstein worked at the Patent Office from July 1902 to October 1909, primarily assessing patent applications. In 1903 he became a permanent employee of the Bureau. The nature of the work allowed Einstein to devote his free time to research in the field of theoretical physics.

In October 1902, Einstein received news from Italy of his father's illness; Hermann Einstein died a few days after his son's arrival.

On January 6, 1903, Einstein married twenty-seven-year-old Mileva Maric. They had three children.

Since 1904, Einstein collaborated with Germany's leading physics journal, the Annals of Physics, providing abstracts of new papers on thermodynamics for its abstract supplement. Probably, the authority this acquired in the editorial office contributed to his own publications in 1905.

1905 - “Year of Miracles”

The year 1905 went down in the history of physics as the “Year of Miracles” (Latin: Annus Mirabilis). This year, the Annals of Physics published three outstanding papers by Einstein that marked the beginning of a new scientific revolution:

“Towards the electrodynamics of moving bodies” (German: Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper). The theory of relativity begins with this article. “On a heuristic point of view concerning the origin and transformation of light” (German: Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichts betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt). One of the works that laid the foundation for quantum theory. “On the motion of particles suspended in a fluid at rest, required by the molecular kinetic theory of heat” (German: Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen) - a work devoted to Brownian motion and which significantly advanced statistical physics. Einstein was often asked the question: how did he create the theory of relativity? Half jokingly, half seriously, he answered:

Why did I create the theory of relativity? When I ask myself this question, it seems to me that the reason is as follows. A normal adult does not think about the problem of space and time at all. In his opinion, he had already thought about this problem in childhood. I developed intellectually so slowly that space and time were occupied by my thoughts when I became an adult. Naturally, I could penetrate deeper into the problem than a child with normal inclinations.

Special theory of relativity

Throughout the 19th century, a hypothetical medium, the ether, was considered the material carrier of electromagnetic phenomena. However, by the beginning of the 20th century, it became clear that the properties of this medium are difficult to reconcile with classical physics. On the one hand, the aberration of light suggested the idea that the ether is absolutely motionless, on the other hand, Fizeau’s experiment testified in favor of the hypothesis that the ether is partially carried away by moving matter. Michelson's experiments (1881), however, showed that no “ethereal wind” exists.

In 1892, Lorentz and (independently) George Francis Fitzgerald suggested that the ether is motionless, and the length of any body contracts in the direction of its movement. However, the question remained open as to why the length was reduced in exactly such proportion as to compensate for the “etheric wind” and prevent the existence of the ether from being discovered. At the same time, the question was studied under what coordinate transformations Maxwell's equations are invariant. The correct formulas were first written down by Larmore (1900) and Poincaré (1905), the latter proved their group properties and proposed calling them Lorentz transformations.

Poincaré also gave a generalized formulation of the principle of relativity, which also covered electrodynamics. Nevertheless, he continued to recognize the ether, although he was of the opinion that it would never be discovered. In a report at the physics congress (1900), Poincaré first expressed the idea that the simultaneity of events is not absolute, but represents a conditional agreement (“convention”). It was also suggested that the speed of light is limiting. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, there were two incompatible kinematics: classical, with Galilean transformations, and electromagnetic, with Lorentz transformations.

Einstein, thinking on these topics largely independently, suggested that the first is an approximate case of the second for low speeds, and that what was considered the properties of the ether is in fact a manifestation of the objective properties of space and time. Einstein came to the conclusion that it was absurd to invoke the concept of the ether only to prove the impossibility of observing it, and that the root of the problem lay not in dynamics, but deeper - in kinematics. In the above-mentioned seminal article “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” he proposed two postulates: the universal principle of relativity and the constancy of the speed of light; from them one can easily derive the Lorentz contraction, Lorentz transformation formulas, the relativity of simultaneity, the uselessness of the ether, a new formula for adding velocities, the increase of inertia with speed, etc. In another of his articles, which was published at the end of the year, the formula E=mc^ appeared 2, defining the relationship between mass and energy.

Some scientists immediately accepted this theory, which later became known as the “special theory of relativity” (STR); Planck (1906) and Einstein himself (1907) built relativistic dynamics and thermodynamics. Einstein's former teacher, Minkowski, in 1907 presented a mathematical model of the kinematics of the theory of relativity in the form of the geometry of a four-dimensional non-Euclidean world and developed the theory of invariants of this world (the first results in this direction were published by Poincaré in 1905).

However, many scientists considered the “new physics” too revolutionary. She abolished the ether, absolute space and absolute time, revised Newtonian mechanics, which served as the basis of physics for 200 years and was invariably confirmed by observations. Time in the theory of relativity flows differently in different reference systems, inertia and length depend on speed, movement faster than light is impossible, the “twin paradox” arises - all these unusual consequences were unacceptable to the conservative part of the scientific community. The matter was also complicated by the fact that STR did not initially predict any new observable effects, and the experiments of Walter Kaufmann (1905-1909) were interpreted by many as a refutation of the cornerstone of SRT - the principle of relativity (this aspect was finally clarified in favor of STR only in 1914-1916). Some physicists tried to develop alternative theories after 1905 (for example, Ritz in 1908), but later it became clear that these theories were irreparably inconsistent with experiment.

Many prominent physicists remained faithful to classical mechanics and the concept of the ether, among them Lorentz, J. J. Thomson, Lenard, Lodge, Nernst, Wien. At the same time, some of them (for example, Lorentz himself) did not reject the results of the special theory of relativity, but interpreted them in the spirit of Lorentz’s theory, preferring to look at the space-time concept of Einstein-Minkowski as a purely mathematical technique.

The decisive argument in favor of the truth of STR was the experiments to test the General Theory of Relativity (see below). Over time, experimental confirmation of the SRT itself gradually accumulated. Quantum field theory, the theory of accelerators are based on it, it is taken into account in the design and operation of satellite navigation systems (even corrections to the general theory of relativity were needed here), etc.

Quantum theory

To resolve the problem that went down in history as the “Ultraviolet catastrophe” and correspondingly reconcile theory with experiment, Max Planck suggested (1900) that the emission of light by a substance occurs discretely (indivisible portions), and the energy of the emitted portion depends on the frequency of the light. For some time, even its author himself considered this hypothesis as a conventional mathematical technique, but Einstein, in the second of the above-mentioned articles, proposed a far-reaching generalization of it and successfully applied it to explain the properties of the photoelectric effect. Einstein put forward the thesis that not only radiation, but also the propagation and absorption of light are discrete; Later these portions (quanta) were called photons. This thesis allowed him to explain two mysteries of the photoelectric effect: why the photocurrent did not arise at any frequency of light, but only starting from a certain threshold, depending only on the type of metal, and the energy and speed of the emitted electrons depended not on the intensity of the light, but only on its frequency. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect corresponded with experimental data with high accuracy, which was later confirmed by Millikan's experiments (1916).

Initially, these views were met with misunderstanding by most physicists; even Planck and Einstein had to be convinced of the reality of quanta. Gradually, however, experimental data accumulated that convinced skeptics of the discrete nature of electromagnetic energy. The final point in the debate was the Compton effect (1923).

In 1907, Einstein published the quantum theory of heat capacity (the old theory at low temperatures was very inconsistent with experiment). Later (1912) Debye, Born and Karman refined Einstein's theory of heat capacity, and excellent agreement with experiment was achieved.

Brownian motion

In 1827, Robert Brown observed under a microscope and subsequently described the chaotic movement of flower pollen floating in water. Einstein, based on molecular theory, developed a statistical and mathematical model of such movement. Based on his diffusion model, it was possible, among other things, to estimate with good accuracy the size of molecules and their number per unit volume. At the same time, Smoluchowski, whose article was published several months later than Einstein, came to similar conclusions. Einstein presented his work on statistical mechanics, entitled “A New Determination of the Size of Molecules,” to the Polytechnic as a dissertation and in the same 1905 received the title of Doctor of Philosophy (equivalent to a candidate of natural sciences) in physics. The following year, Einstein developed his theory in a new article, “Toward the Theory of Brownian Motion,” and subsequently returned to this topic several times.

Soon (1908), Perrin's measurements completely confirmed the adequacy of Einstein's model, which became the first experimental proof of the molecular kinetic theory, which was subject to active attacks by positivists in those years.

Max Born wrote (1949): “I think that these studies of Einstein, more than all other works, convince physicists of the reality of atoms and molecules, of the validity of the theory of heat and the fundamental role of probability in the laws of nature.” Einstein's work on statistical physics is cited even more often than his work on relativity. The formula he derived for the diffusion coefficient and its relationship with the dispersion of coordinates turned out to be applicable in the most general class of problems: Markov diffusion processes, electrodynamics, etc.

Later, in the article “Toward the Quantum Theory of Radiation” (1917), Einstein, based on statistical considerations, first suggested the existence of a new type of radiation occurring under the influence of an external electromagnetic field (“induced radiation”). In the early 1950s, a method of amplifying light and radio waves based on the use of stimulated radiation was proposed, and in subsequent years it formed the basis of the theory of lasers.

Bern - Zurich - Prague - Zurich - Berlin (1905-1914)

The work of 1905 brought Einstein, although not immediately, worldwide fame. On April 30, 1905, he sent the text of his doctoral dissertation on the topic “A New Determination of the Size of Molecules” to the University of Zurich. The reviewers were Professors Kleiner and Burkhard. On January 15, 1906, he received his doctorate in physics. He corresponds and meets with the most famous physicists in the world, and Planck in Berlin includes the theory of relativity in his curriculum. In letters he is called “Mr. Professor,” but for another four years (until October 1909) Einstein continued to serve in the Patent Office; in 1906 he was promoted (he became an expert of class II) and his salary was increased. In October 1908, Einstein was invited to read an elective course at the University of Bern, but without any payment. In 1909, he attended a congress of naturalists in Salzburg, where the elite of German physics gathered, and met Planck for the first time; Over the course of 3 years of correspondence, they quickly became close friends and maintained this friendship until the end of their lives.

After the congress, Einstein finally received a paid position as extraordinary professor at the University of Zurich (December 1909), where his old friend Marcel Grossmann taught geometry. The pay was small, especially for a family with two children, and in 1911 Einstein without hesitation accepted an invitation to head the department of physics at the German University in Prague. During this period, Einstein continued to publish a series of papers on thermodynamics, relativity and quantum theory. In Prague, he intensifies research on the theory of gravity, setting the goal of creating a relativistic theory of gravity and fulfilling the long-standing dream of physicists - to exclude Newtonian long-range action from this area.

In 1911, Einstein participated in the First Solvay Congress (Brussels), dedicated to quantum physics. There his only meeting took place with Poincaré, who continued to reject the theory of relativity, although he personally had great respect for Einstein.

A year later, Einstein returned to Zurich, where he became a professor at his native Polytechnic and lectured there on physics. In 1913, he attended the Congress of Naturalists in Vienna, visiting 75-year-old Ernst Mach there; Once upon a time, Mach's criticism of Newtonian mechanics made a huge impression on Einstein and ideologically prepared him for the innovations of the theory of relativity.

At the end of 1913, on the recommendation of Planck and Nernst, Einstein received an invitation to head the physics research institute being created in Berlin; He is also enrolled as a professor at the University of Berlin. In addition to being close to his friend Planck, this position had the advantage that it did not oblige him to be distracted by teaching. He accepted the invitation, and in the pre-war year 1914, the convinced pacifist Einstein arrived in Berlin. Mileva and her children remained in Zurich; their family broke up. In February 1919 they officially divorced.

Citizenship of Switzerland, a neutral country, helped Einstein withstand militaristic pressure after the outbreak of war. He did not sign any “patriotic” appeals; on the contrary, in collaboration with the physiologist Georg Friedrich Nicolai, he compiled the anti-war “Appeal to the Europeans” as a counterweight to the chauvinistic manifesto of the 1993s, and in a letter to Romain Rolland he wrote:

Will future generations thank our Europe, in which three centuries of the most intense cultural work only led to the fact that religious madness was replaced by nationalistic madness? Even scientists from different countries behave as if their brains were amputated.

General Relativity (1915)

Descartes also announced that all processes in the Universe are explained by the local interaction of one type of matter with another, and from the point of view of science, this thesis of short-range interaction was natural. However, Newton's theory of universal gravitation sharply contradicted the thesis of short-range action - in it the force of attraction was transmitted incomprehensibly through completely empty space, and infinitely quickly. Essentially, Newton's model was purely mathematical, without any physical content. Over the course of two centuries, attempts were made to correct the situation and get rid of the mystical long-range action, to fill the theory of gravitation with real physical content - especially since after Maxwell, gravity remained the only refuge of long-range action in physics. The situation became especially unsatisfactory after the approval of the special theory of relativity, since Newton's theory was incompatible with Lorentz transformations. However, before Einstein, no one managed to correct the situation.

Einstein's main idea was simple: the material carrier of gravity is space itself (more precisely, space-time). The fact that gravity can be considered as a manifestation of the properties of the geometry of four-dimensional non-Euclidean space, without involving additional concepts, is a consequence of the fact that all bodies in the gravitational field receive the same acceleration (“Einstein’s principle of equivalence”). With this approach, four-dimensional space-time turns out to be not a “flat and indifferent stage” for material processes; it has physical attributes, and first of all, metric and curvature, which influence these processes and themselves depend on them. If the special theory of relativity is the theory of uncurved space, then the general theory of relativity, as conceived by Einstein, was supposed to consider a more general case, space-time with a variable metric (pseudo-Riemannian manifold). The reason for the curvature of space-time is the presence of matter, and the greater its energy, the stronger the curvature. Newton’s theory of gravity is an approximation of the new theory, which is obtained if we take into account only the “curvature of time,” that is, the change in the time component of the metric (the space in this approximation is Euclidean). The propagation of gravitational disturbances, that is, changes in the metric during the movement of gravitating masses, occurs at a finite speed. From this moment on, long-range action disappears from physics.

The mathematical formulation of these ideas was quite labor-intensive and took several years (1907-1915). Einstein had to master tensor analysis and create its four-dimensional pseudo-Riemannian generalization; in this he was helped by consultations and joint work, first with Marcel Grossman, who became a co-author of Einstein’s first articles on the tensor theory of gravity, and then with the “king of mathematicians” of those years, David Hilbert. In 1915, the field equations of Einstein's general theory of relativity (GR), generalizing Newton's, were published almost simultaneously in papers by Einstein and Hilbert.

The new theory of gravity predicted two previously unknown physical effects, fully confirmed by observations, and also accurately and completely explained the secular shift of Mercury's perihelion, which had long puzzled astronomers. After this, the theory of relativity became an almost universally accepted foundation of modern physics. In addition to astrophysics, general relativity has found practical application, as mentioned above, in global positioning systems (Global Positioning Systems, GPS), where coordinate calculations are made with very significant relativistic corrections.

Berlin (1915-1921)

In 1915, in a conversation with the Dutch physicist Vander de Haas, Einstein proposed a scheme and calculation of the experiment, which, after successful implementation, was called the “Einstein-de Haas effect.” The result of the experiment inspired Niels Bohr, who two years earlier had created a planetary model of the atom, since it confirmed that circular electron currents exist inside atoms, and electrons in their orbits do not emit. It was these provisions that Bohr based his model on. In addition, it was discovered that the total magnetic moment was twice as large as expected; the reason for this became clear when spin, the electron's own angular momentum, was discovered.

After the end of the war, Einstein continued to work in the previous areas of physics, and also worked on new areas - relativistic cosmology and the “Unified Field Theory”, which, according to his plan, was supposed to combine gravity, electromagnetism and (preferably) the theory of the microworld. The first paper on cosmology, "Cosmological Considerations on the General Theory of Relativity", appeared in 1917. After this, Einstein experienced a mysterious “invasion of diseases” - in addition to serious problems with the liver, a stomach ulcer was discovered, then jaundice and general weakness. He did not get out of bed for several months, but continued to work actively. Only in 1920 did the diseases recede.

In June 1919, Einstein married his maternal cousin Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) and adopted her two children. At the end of the year, his seriously ill mother Paulina moved in with them; she died in February 1920. Judging by the letters, Einstein took her death seriously.

In the autumn of 1919, the English expedition of Arthur Eddington, at the moment of an eclipse, recorded the deflection of light predicted by Einstein in the gravitational field of the Sun. Moreover, the measured value corresponded not to Newton’s, but to Einstein’s law of gravity. The sensational news was reprinted in newspapers throughout Europe, although the essence of the new theory was most often presented in a shamelessly distorted form. Einstein's fame reached unprecedented heights.

In May 1920, Einstein, along with other members of the Berlin Academy of Sciences, was sworn in as a civil servant and legally considered a German citizen. However, he retained Swiss citizenship until the end of his life. In the 1920s, receiving invitations from everywhere, he traveled extensively throughout Europe (using a Swiss passport), giving lectures to scientists, students and the inquisitive public. He also visited the United States, where a special congratulatory resolution of Congress was adopted in honor of the eminent guest (1921). At the end of 1922, he visited India, where he had long contact with Tagore, and China. Einstein met the winter in Japan, where he was caught by the news that he had been awarded the Nobel Prize.

Nobel Prize (1922)

Einstein was repeatedly nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics. The first such nomination (for the theory of relativity) took place, on the initiative of Wilhelm Ostwald, already in 1910, but the Nobel Committee considered the experimental evidence of the theory of relativity insufficient. Einstein's nomination was repeated every year thereafter, except in 1911 and 1915. Among the recommenders over the years were such prominent physicists as Lorentz, Planck, Bohr, Wien, Chwolson, de Haas, Laue, Zeeman, Kamerlingh Onnes, Hadamard, Eddington, Sommerfeld and Arrhenius.

However, members of the Nobel Committee for a long time did not dare to award the prize to the author of such revolutionary theories. In the end, a diplomatic solution was found: the 1921 prize was awarded to Einstein (in November 1922) for the theory of the photoelectric effect, that is, for the most indisputable and experimentally tested work; however, the text of the decision contained a neutral addition: “... and for other work in the field of theoretical physics.”

As I have already informed you by telegram, the Royal Academy of Sciences, at its meeting yesterday, decided to award you the Prize in Physics for the past year, thereby recognizing your work in theoretical physics, in particular the discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, without taking into account your work on the theory of relativity and theories of gravity, which will be evaluated once they are confirmed in the future.

Since Einstein was away, the prize was accepted on his behalf on December 10, 1922 by Rudolf Nadolny, the German Ambassador to Sweden. Previously, he asked for confirmation whether Einstein was a citizen of Germany or Switzerland; The Prussian Academy of Sciences has officially certified that Einstein is a German subject, although his Swiss citizenship is also recognized as valid. Upon his return to Berlin, Einstein received the insignia accompanying the prize personally from the Swedish ambassador.

Naturally, Einstein dedicated his traditional Nobel speech (in July 1923) to the theory of relativity.

Berlin (1922-1933)

In 1923, completing his journey, Einstein spoke in Jerusalem, where it was planned to open the Hebrew University soon (1925).

In 1924, a young Indian physicist, Shatyendranath Bose, wrote to Einstein in a brief letter asking for help in publishing a paper in which he put forward the assumption that formed the basis of modern quantum statistics. Bose proposed to consider light as a gas of photons. Einstein came to the conclusion that the same statistics could be used for atoms and molecules in general. In 1925, Einstein published Bose's paper in a German translation, followed by his own paper in which he outlined a generalized Bose model applicable to systems of identical particles with integer spin called bosons. Based on this quantum statistics, now known as Bose-Einstein statistics, both physicists in the mid-1920s theoretically substantiated the existence of a fifth state of matter - the Bose-Einstein condensate.

The essence of the Bose-Einstein “condensate” is the transition of a large number of particles of an ideal Bose gas to a state with zero momentum at temperatures approaching absolute zero, when the de Broglie wavelength of the thermal motion of the particles and the average distance between these particles are reduced to the same order. Since 1995, when the first such condensate was obtained at the University of Colorado, scientists have practically proven the possibility of the existence of Bose-Einstein condensates made of hydrogen, lithium, sodium, rubidium and helium.

As a person of enormous and universal authority, Einstein was constantly involved in various kinds of political actions during these years, where he advocated social justice, internationalism and cooperation between countries (see below). In 1923, Einstein participated in the organization of the cultural relations society “Friends of the New Russia”. He repeatedly called for the disarmament and unification of Europe, and for the abolition of compulsory military service.

In 1928, Einstein saw off Lorentz, with whom he became very friendly in his last years, on his last journey. It was Lorentz who nominated Einstein for the Nobel Prize in 1920 and supported it the following year.

In 1929, the world noisily celebrated Einstein's 50th birthday. The hero of the day did not take part in the celebrations and hid in his villa near Potsdam, where he enthusiastically grew roses. Here he received friends - scientists, Tagore, Emmanuel Lasker, Charlie Chaplin and others.

In 1931, Einstein visited the USA again. In Pasadena he was very warmly received by Michelson, who had four months to live. Returning to Berlin in the summer, Einstein, in a speech to the Physical Society, paid tribute to the memory of the remarkable experimenter who laid the first stone of the foundation of the theory of relativity.

In addition to theoretical research, Einstein also owned several inventions, including:

very low voltage meter (together with Konrad Habicht);
a device that automatically determines exposure time when taking photographs;
original hearing aid;
silent refrigerator (shared with Szilard);
gyro-compass.

Until about 1926, Einstein worked in many areas of physics, from cosmological models to research into the causes of river meanders. Further, with rare exceptions, he focuses his efforts on quantum problems and the Unified Field Theory.

The establishment of Einstein's ideas (quantum theory and especially the theory of relativity) in the USSR was not easy. Some scientists, especially young scientists, perceived new ideas with interest and understanding; already in the 1920s, the first domestic works and textbooks on these topics appeared. However, there were physicists and philosophers who strongly opposed the concepts of the "new physics"; Among them, A.K. Timiryazev (son of the famous biologist K.A. Timiryazev), who criticized Einstein even before the revolution, was especially active. His articles in the magazines “Krasnaya Nov” (1921, No. 2) and “Under the Banner of Marxism” (1922, No. 4) were followed by Lenin’s critical remark:

If Timiryazev, in the first issue of the magazine, should have stipulated that the theory of Einstein, who himself, according to Timiryazev, does not lead any active campaign against the foundations of materialism, has already been seized upon by a huge mass of representatives of the bourgeois intelligentsia of all countries, then this applies not to Einstein alone, but to a number, if not most, of the great transformers of natural science since the end of the 19th century.

Also in 1922, Einstein was elected a foreign corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Nevertheless, during 1925-1926 Timiryazev published at least 10 anti-relativistic articles.

K. E. Tsiolkovsky also did not accept the theory of relativity, who rejected relativistic cosmology and the limitation on the speed of movement, which undermined Tsiolkovsky’s plans for populating space: “His second conclusion: the speed cannot exceed the speed of light... these are the same six days allegedly used to create peace." Nevertheless, towards the end of his life, Tsiolkovsky apparently softened his position, because at the turn of the 1920s and 1930s, in a number of works and interviews, he mentioned Einstein’s relativistic formula E=mc^2 without critical objections. However, Tsiolkovsky never came to terms with the impossibility of moving faster than light.

Although criticism of the theory of relativity among Soviet physicists ceased in the 1930s, the ideological struggle of a number of philosophers against the theory of relativity as “bourgeois obscurantism” continued and especially intensified after the removal of Nikolai Bukharin, whose influence had previously softened the ideological pressure on science. The next phase of the campaign began in 1950; it was probably connected with similar in spirit campaigns against genetics (Lysenkoism) and cybernetics of that time. Not long before (1948), the Gostekhizdat publishing house published a translation of the book “The Evolution of Physics” by Einstein and Infeld, equipped with an extensive preface entitled: “On ideological vices in the book of A. Einstein and L. Infeld “The Evolution of Physics”. Two years later, the magazine “Soviet Book” published devastating criticism of both the book itself (for its “idealistic bias”) and the publishing house that published it (for its ideological mistake).

This article opened a whole avalanche of publications that were formally directed against Einstein’s philosophy, but at the same time they accused a number of major Soviet physicists of ideological mistakes - Ya. I. Frenkel, S. M. Rytov, L. I. Mandelstam and others. Soon, an article by M. M. Karpov, associate professor of the Department of Philosophy at Rostov State University, “On the Philosophical Views of Einstein” (1951) appeared in the journal “Questions of Philosophy,” where the scientist was accused of subjective idealism, disbelief in the infinity of the Universe and other concessions to religion. In 1952, an article by the prominent Soviet philosopher A. A. Maksimov was published, which condemned not only philosophy, but also Einstein personally, “for whom the bourgeois press created advertising for his numerous attacks on materialism, for promoting views that undermine the scientific worldview, emasculating ideologically science." Another prominent philosopher, I.V. Kuznetsov, during the 1952 campaign declared: “The interests of physical science urgently require deep criticism and decisive exposure of Einstein’s entire system of theoretical views.” However, the critical importance of the “atomic project” in those years, the authority and decisive position of the academic leadership prevented a defeat of Soviet physics similar to the one inflicted on geneticists. After Stalin's death, the anti-Einstein campaign was quickly curtailed, although a considerable number of “Einstein subverters” can still be found today.

Other myths

In 1962, a logic puzzle known as Einstein's Riddle was first published. This name was probably given to it for advertising purposes, because there is no evidence that Einstein had anything to do with this mystery. She is also not mentioned in any biography of Einstein.
A famous biography of Einstein states that in 1915, Einstein allegedly helped design a new model of military aircraft. This activity is difficult to reconcile with his pacifist beliefs. The investigation showed, however, that Einstein was simply discussing with a small aircraft company an idea in the field of aerodynamics - a catback wing (a hump on the top of the airfoil). The idea turned out to be unsuccessful and, as Einstein later put it, frivolous; however, a developed theory of flight did not yet exist.
Einstein is often mentioned among vegetarians. Although he supported the movement for many years, he only began following a strict vegetarian diet in 1954, about a year before his death.
There is an unsubstantiated legend that before his death, Einstein burned his last scientific papers, which contained a discovery that was potentially dangerous to humanity. This topic is often associated with the Philadelphia Experiment. The legend is often mentioned in various media; the film “The Last Equation” was based on it.

Family

Family tree of the Einstein family
Herman Einstein
Paulina Einstein (Koch)
Maya Einstein
Mileva Maric
Elsa Einstein
Hans Albert Einstein
Eduard Einstein
Lieserl Einstein
Bernard Sizer Einstein
Carl Einstein

Scientific activity

List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
History of relativity
History of quantum mechanics
General theory of relativity
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox
Equivalence principle
Einstein Agreement
Einstein's relation (molecular kinetic theory)
Special theory of relativity
Bose-Einstein statistics
Einstein's theory of heat capacity
Einstein's equations
Equivalence of mass and energy