At the end of the XIV-XVI centuries. New genres appear in Korean poetry and prose, and the nature and function of forms inherited from previous eras changes.
Historical works are losing the functions of literary works, giving this role to artistic prose, in which plot genres are distinguished, developing mainly as part of collections of paesol. In literature, a fictional hero is established, and interest in everyday situations appears.
In poetry, the only form of literature in the native language during this period, new genres took shape - sijo tercets and kasa poems, the development of which was facilitated by the creation of national writing in 1444.
The 15th century in Korean history was a turbulent time politically and culturally. Change of dynasties at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. brought awareness of the need to take stock of the five hundred years of rule of the Goryeo dynasty.
The History of Koryo is created (1454); in 1478, the grandiose “Oriental Anthology” compiled by So Gojong (1420-1488) was published, which included examples of “high” literature in Hanmun from antiquity until the end of the 14th century.
Attention to national culture was also manifested in the compilation of the “Fundamentals of Musical Science” in 1475, which also contained the texts of poetic works in the native language - Kayo, remaining from the Goryeo era.
The newly created national script was used to print books of the Confucian and Buddhist canons translated from Chinese, as well as original poetic works written by Korean authors.
One of them was “Ode to a Dragon Flying in the Sky,” created by order of King Sejong (1419–1450) by several authors. The official concern for poetry in the native language and the patriotic content of the ode indicate a revival of sentiments of national self-affirmation.
These sentiments are reflected in the sijo tercets of the warrior poets Kim Jonso (1390–1453) and Nam Yi (1441–1468). The most important place in sijo, perhaps, was occupied by the theme of fidelity to convictions. It was associated with traditional Confucian ideals, which played a large role in Korean culture.
Refusal to serve a usurper or refusal to obey a sovereign who had violated his duty was considered a manifestation of fidelity to convictions. This topic, relevant in poetry in connection with such events as the overthrow of King Tanjong in 1456 and the accession of Sejo, was covered in the poems of poets of the 15th century. — Won Cheongseok. Sammun's Song, Lee Ge, Yoo Eunbu.
Finding a special interest in the norms of human behavior in society, the poetry of the 15th-16th centuries. at the same time, she is rather indifferent to the individual manifestation of proper, from a Confucian point of view, human qualities.
Korean poets strive to convey the idea of fidelity to principles in a general sense, without specifying its manifestations, and resort to conventional imagery. Song Sammun, an outstanding scientist, one of the creators of Korean writing, killed by order of Sejo, wrote:
If you ask me what I will become
After death, I will answer:
Above the peak of Penglai
I will become a tall pine.
Let the whole world freeze under the snow,
I will be the only one to grow green.
(Translation by A. Akhmatova)
The image of a pine tree was associated with a person true to his principles. “When the year is cold, only then do we know that pine and thuja are the last to wither,” says Longyue.
The same quality is represented by persistent bamboo, a plum blossoming among the snow, or the images of the brothers Bo-i and Shu-chi, who became symbols of loyalty because they refused to serve the Zhou conqueror Wu-wan and preferred death in the Shouyang Mountains.
Poetry seems to strive to embody the diversity of reality in the uniformity of the formula. The generality of the image of reality is the dominant feature of poetry of that time and when its attention is transferred to a person who has left society for nature.
At the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, due to the tense situation in the state and the intensified struggle of upper-class factions, poems appeared condemning this struggle and expressing doubt about the advisability of public service, for example, by Song Sun (1493-1592) and Chong Cheol (1537-1594).
Taoist and Buddhist sentiments are intensifying. Landscape lyricism, called kanho, “poetry of rivers and lakes”, prevailed in the Korean language (Lee Hyunbo, 1467-1555; Lee Hwan, 1501-1570; Lee Yi, 1536-1584, etc.).
Many anonymous poems appear dedicated to the poet’s solitude in the lap of nature, where his only friends are a white heron, a white gull, the moon and the wind.
Korean poets turn to Tang poetry, to the works of Li Bo, Du Fu. Once again, as in the 12th-13th centuries, Tao Yuan-ming receives special attention.
Poetic imagery is creatively assimilated, associated with the affirmation of that special aesthetic idea of the world, which gave rise to an idealized and generalized image, as, for example, in the sijo of the 16th century poet. Hong Chungyeon:
I raise the pearl curtain to half.
I look down at the blue sea.
The sparkle of waves a thousand miles
One color with the endless sky.
White seagulls in pairs above the water
They fly away and then they arrive.
Here the images are traditionally conventional; such an aesthetic approach to nature, in its extreme manifestation, gave rise to poems describing famous landscapes, which the author himself had never seen with his own eyes, perhaps.
At the same time, growing attention to people outside the “official” sphere contributes to the development of love lyrics in poetry in the Korean language.
The theme of love at this time was popular in the works of kisen (heter), among whom there were many educated and talented poetesses. Legends were formed around the most famous of them, and their names were familiar to every Korean.
The most famous was Hwang Jini (1506-1544). The popularity of her poems and legends about her can only be compared with the popularity at a later time of “The Tale of Chunghyang.” Here is one of her poems:
O blue stream flowing in the green mountains!
Don't be proud that you flow easily!
Once I got into the sea,
It's difficult to get back.
The clear moon floods the desert mountains with its light.
Shouldn't you have some fun?
It is based on a play on words. “Clear Moon” is the literary name of the poetess. “Blue Brook” is the literary name of a man who gave up his misogyny for Hwang Jini. The appeal to the personal in a person, the elegant humor of Hwang Jini’s poems make the poetess’s work an extraordinary phenomenon.
The most significant poet of the 16th century. there was Chon Chol (Songan), who left seven volumes of works in hanmun (prose and poetry), about eighty shijo and five large poems - kasa, which brought him fame. An active, enthusiastic and straightforward man, Jong Chol, despite his kinship with the royal family, learned the bitterness of disgrace and exile.
In terms of character and talent, he was close to Li Bo. Their work is similar in scope, similar attitude to nature and independent life position. The first kasa of Songan, Gwandong pyolgok (1580), describes the eight famous beauties of the Diamond Mountains.
Having received an appointment as governor of the province, the poet travels there from Seoul, and the description of the journey forms the content of the poem, permeated with a feeling of closeness to nature. The poet turns to the work of Li Bo and introduces his image into the poem. Paraphrasing “Poems on the Shortness of Life” by Li Bo, the poet ends the poem with an invitation to drink a glass:
You tilt the Heavenly bucket
And the blue waters of the sea.
Drink it yourself, give me a drink...
And take all this wine
And clothed the whole world,
So that everyone living on earth
Get drunk.
Two famous kasa of Songan - “I’m Thinking of the Darling” and “I Continue to Think of the Darling” - were written, apparently, under the influence of folk songs about an abandoned lover, which were interpreted by the Confucian tradition as an appeal of the disgraced poet to the sovereign. They were created by Songan during the years of his exile in the South of the country in 1585-1587. and, obviously, not without the influence of the “female kasa” (kyuban kasa) widespread there.
A collection of her works in Hanmun was published in China, which at that time was highly recognized; later (in 1711) her poems were published in Japan.
Poetry in Hanmun at the end of the 14th and 15th-16th centuries. still occupies a place of honor in Korean literature. Many educated people write such poems, and recognized masters in this field were Kim Sisyp (1435-1493), Lim Jae (1549-1587) and Ho Nansorkhon.
In continuity with the poetry of the 12th-14th centuries. (peasant labor, conventionally beautiful nature) in the landscape lyrics there is a noticeable desire for hyperbolism in the descriptions - in this Hanmun poetry echoes the landscape lyrics of Songan. For example, Hwang Jini’s description of the waterfall as a “white rainbow” is reminiscent of images from Songan’s poem “Gwandong Pyeolgok.”
Korean poets are looking for peace in nature, deliverance from the vanity of human society. Their constant friend is wine. This motif is found, for example, in Kwon Phil (1569-1612):
Last night
drank wine in my garden.
Returned to the house
and fell asleep in the arms of the moon.
In poems about peasant labor, public disasters are perceived as the result of unworthy rule. Such, for example, are the allegorical poems of Lim Jae and Kim Sisypa.
The latter, considering the reign of the usurper Sejo as the cause of the disaster, also turns to traditional images of cruel rulers from Chinese history, and speaks of the suffering of the people using the opposition of wealth and poverty in the spirit of Du Fu.
Poems about love and separation, about personal grief occupy a significant place in Korean hanmun poetry; such, for example, are the poems of Hwang Jini “Seeing off So Yangok”, where the theme is presented traditionally. Ho Nansorkhon’s poem “I Mourn My Son” sounds differently.
Its style is reminiscent of ancient Chinese poems from the Han era. However, the traditional motive of separation is given in a personal interpretation: the pain of loss is perceived as an “individual” grief, as a personal tragedy of the mother.
In Hanmun poems there are attempts to refresh the literary image, but traditional imagery remains in force even in cases where everyday situations are depicted.
For example, in Lim Jae’s poem “On the Swing,” the appearance of a bashful girl and the landscape are indicated by traditional images: “hair-clouds” and “golden hairpins-phoenixes” are attributes of a beauty; “canopy of green willows” is a symbol of spring nature.
Hanmun poetry did not abandon this imagery and the generalized vision of the world behind it until the end of the 19th century.
History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.
In Korean literature until the end of the 19th century there was, in fact, two literatures- “hieroglyphic” literature created by Korean word artists in Hanmun, i.e. in the Koreanized style of the Chinese written language Wenyan, and literature in the native language, Korean.
Poetry is the earliest and most developed kind of verbal art among the Koreans, as well as among many peoples of the East. In Korean poetry, throughout its evolution, two different branches coexisted: versification in Korean and versification in Hanmun (otherwise known as hans and, literally, “Chinese poetry”). The continuous development of Korean poetry in Hanmun begins in the 9th century and ends at the end of the 19th. Such genres of Chinese poetry as statutory verses (geliushi), 5- and 7-syllable “broken lines” (jueju), and 7-syllable pailiu became especially widespread in Korea. , small yuefu, etc. In certain genres, Korean poets (Choi Chiwon, Lee Gyubo) surpassed their Chinese teachers, and their fame thundered throughout the Far East. In medieval Korea, any educated person, not to mention court poets - be it a scientist, a commander, a yangban (nobleman), a Buddhist monk - tried to show his education and erudition in hanmun poems. Even the exams for obtaining rank included composing a poem on a given topic and in a given size. In the 16th and 17th centuries, a kind of poetry competition was held, nayonkkwisi (Chinese lianguishi; couplets built on parallelism), which two persons had to compose impromptu (one line each). In the numerous collections of works and individual collections that have survived to this day, we usually find dithyrambic poetry (dedications, odes, doxologies, epitaphs) and, less frequently, landscape lyrics. Poems were composed in Hanmun with strict adherence to the rules of Chinese versification. But the question of their chanting is not yet clear: either they were read in Chinese and thus had a purely salon execution, or the characters that made them up were pronounced in the Korean sound (without or with the addition of agglutinative affixes of the Korean language), then Whether they were immediately translated into Korean, which would significantly expand the boundaries of their functioning. It is also possible that Korean “hieroglyphic” poems, like Chinese ones, were designed primarily for visual perception. These and other questions regarding Korean Hanmun poetry are almost not considered in modern literary works, since Hansi is currently considered an anachronism and a foreign body for Korean poetry.
Traditions of Korean poetics
Korean poetry in its native language has a long tradition. Its first recordings using combined phonetic-semantic methods based on Chinese hieroglyphics, called idu, date back to the 7th century (the recordings were found in written monuments of the 11th-13th centuries). The creation of the Korean phonetic alphabet in 1444 was a turning point for poetry in the native language: it ceased to be predominantly oral. Being deeply connected with folk song poetry, it itself was song and lyrical in nature. Works of almost all genres of this poetry, in contrast to poems in Hanmun, were sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument (such as puk, pipha, gayageum. Korean poets often acted both as improvisational singers and as authors of melodies. Another specific feature of Korean poetry in their native language What distinguishes it from Hanmun poetry is the almost complete absence of individual collections, its anthological nature.The visual means of Korean poetry included elements both from Minyo folk songs (hyperboles, metaphorical images, compositional technique of lyrical appeal, various types of repetitions, rhythmic particles, etc. .), and from Chinese poetics (quotations from poems by Chinese poets as “decorating” and permanent epithets).
When creating poems in Hanmun, Korean poets strictly adhered to the rules of the Chinese version, which was based on the law of alternation of smooth and uneven (“broken”) four tones of the Chinese language. The only deviation from the norms of Chinese verse in Korean poetry in Hanmun was the writing in two lines of two hemistiches standing next to each other, which formed a rhythmic-melodic phrase, or a metrical member - ku (Chinese ju). Korean versification in the native language differs from versification in Hanmun, but its character and nature even in the “regular” or “standard” verses (jeonghyeonsi), which include hyangga, gyeongichchega, shijo and ka asa, have not yet been sufficiently studied. There are different opinions: some consider the Korean metric to be syllabic, built on the alternation of various groups of syllables; others see in it a kind of syllabic-tonic system, in which, in addition to the number of syllables, stress is taken into account; others attribute the Korean versification system to the syllabic-quantitative type, with the distribution of syllables by length and brevity, similar to the Roman one; finally, the fourth, challenging the last point of view, prove that the rhythm of Korean verse is formed by the duration of a certain number of syllables (27), united by the rhythm of phonation groups, and call the Korean metric system “quantitative by the number of syllables.” With all the diversity of views on the nature of Korean versification, what they have in common is the emphasis on the external features of the verse - a more or less constant number of syllables in a line. Meanwhile, isosyllabism as an indispensable factor in various systems of versification in itself is not yet decisive for the nature of Korean versification in general. The nature of the stress plays a significant role. In the Korean language, the stress is mixed - musical and quantitative.
It is assumed that it was like this in the past, only with clearer tonal and quantitative differences. Perhaps, until the 17th century, Korean stress was more tonic than longitudinal (this is evidenced by the special designations of four tones in words borrowed from Chinese and three tones in native Korean vocabulary), a slow pace of speech prevailed, with smooth melodic transitions. Then came a period of relative equilibrium. In modern language, and especially in northern dialects, differences in sound length and pitch are erased and become irregular. The general development of Korean versification in the native language proceeded in a similar way - from melodious musical verse through recitative to modern declamatory free verse. The musical-quantitative nature of the Korean accent formed the basis for the creation of metric units both in the Minyo folk song and in the “standard” verse. An elementary unit, which we will conventionally call a “foot”, is formed by a group of syllables (2 - 7 - in increasing order from early to modern genres), different in length and tone (the nature of their alternation is not always clear), but connected by semantic, syntactic and melodic unity. It seems that in Korean versification there are hardly any feet consisting of more than three syllables; 4- and 7-syllable “quasi-stops” seem to be divided by a very short, barely noticeable pause, formed by either raising or lowering the tone into two or three parts (in syllabic expression: 4 = 2 + 2, 5 = 2 + 3 or 3+2 ,6 = 3 + 3, 7 = 2 + 2 + 3, 3 + 2 + 2 and 2 +3 + 2). But since this internal pause in a “quasi-stop” is weaker than between two ordinary feet, and much weaker than between hemistiches, then, according to tradition and for the sake of simplicity, we will use the term “foot” in relation to the “quasi-stop”. For old Korean poetry, 3rd 4-syllable feet are typical, the alternation of which created the rhythm; for modern - feet, including 17 syllables.
The basic metric unit in different genres of Korean poetry was not the same: in some it was a poetic line, in others it was a metrical term (ku), which in most cases is equal to a hemistich. A poetic line is characterized by semantic unity, grammatical and intonation completeness, being a sentence or part of a period. It is usually divided by a caesura into two or, less commonly, three metric members. Each such member, usually coinciding with the boundaries of the syntagma, includes two or three feet, not necessarily equal. One of the feet in it is highlighted by phrasal stress, which is variable in the Korean language and forms the core of the metric term. The law of distribution of words (or syllables) highlighted by phrasal stress was the formative beginning of the rhythmic and melodic organization of Korean verse. Chinese quotations introduced into Korean poetry were also subject to the laws of Korean metrication.
The strophic division of Korean verse followed the general compositional principle of distribution of verbal material (kisungcheonkyol), which has long been used in China and Korea in relation to works of art both in poetic form and in prose. According to this principle, the material of the work is divided into four parts: in the first (ki) a question is posed or a theme is outlined, in the second (son) the content of the said theme is developed, in the third (jeon) the development of an action or image moves to the final stage, and in the fourth part ( kel) sums up what has been said. In poetry, the second and third parts usually merged into one. Stanzas in various genres of Korean poetry did not match in number of lines (from two or more).
Minyo folk songs, which belong to the song-lyrical genre of Korean folklore, have their roots in the prehistoric era. They constitute the spring that fed all national forms of Korean poetry. In oral transmission, in recordings in the Korean alphabet and with the help of Chinese writing, numerous folk songs have been preserved, varied in content and form: labor, ritual, everyday phunyo (songs thematically related to the customs of the Koreans), chhamyo (songs, often with acute political and social content expressed in the form of a prediction or allegory), etc. The size of a line in a folk song is usually short - two 4 or 3-syllable feet, depending on the melody, which is formed by a combination of two modes of the third or fourth degree of the Korean musical scale (there are also variety: 3 - 3 - 4 frets). The dominant stanza form was 4-line. Often a one-line refrain was added to the stanza. Korean folk songs are characterized by the frequent use of repetitions and onomatopoeic words, the coincidence of the middle rhythmic pause with the syntactic pause, and a relatively simple melody.
Early examples of Korean poetics
The earliest written example of poetry in the Korean language are hyanga. Initially, this type of poetry was called senennore or sanwega, which means “songs of the East” (i.e. Korea). Later, to distinguish it from Chinese poetry, the term “hyanga” (“songs of native places”) began to be applied to it. These songs were distributed at the end of the 7th - beginning of the 10th century in the vicinity of the capital of the United State of Silla (near the present city of Gyeongju). In total, 25 works of hyang have survived to this day; 11 of them belong to Künö (mid-10th century) and were recorded in the 11th century, and 14, considered more ancient, were recorded in the 13th century. They were recorded by one of the ways of writing Idu - hyangchal, in which the meaning and sound of actual Korean words and grammatical endings were conveyed in specially selected and often abbreviated Chinese characters. Therefore, deciphering Hyang texts is a very labor-intensive and not indisputable task. In terms of content, some hyangas resemble Buddhist prayers, others resemble folk (shamanic) spells, others resemble panegyrics, and others resemble everyday sketches. The works of hyang, inheriting the traditions of ancient folk songs, were a transitional stage from oral creativity to written literature in the native language (the beginning of individual authorship). If the most ancient hyanga were characterized by a short stanza, which usually included four lines and was divided into two parts according to content, and the number of 3 or 2-syllable feet in a line was not standardized, then in the later hyanga a standard verse form of 10 lines gradually crystallized. It contains from 79 to 93 written characters. The lines are not yet equivalent, and therefore unequally complex: odd lines are in most cases shorter than even ones, the first line is relatively short (36 characters). No rhyme appears to have been used. The main size is 3-compound foot. In accordance with the mentioned principle of kisynchonkyol, the poem was divided into three parts (stanzas): the first four lines made up the first part, the second four - the second, then before the third part, between the eighth and ninth lines, an intermediate line of two or three characters was introduced, conveying interjections and exclamation particles (this line does not count). The first and second parts were sung solo, and the final, most significant part, in which a sophistic figure summed up what was said, was probably performed by a choir.
As a continuation of hyang in the 12th-14th centuries, a new type of Korean poetry developed, now known under various names - Koryo kayo, changga, yoyo, which can be translated by the phrase “songs of Koryo” (the name of the dynasty that ruled at that time). From this era, 20 large poems, mainly ritual, dithyrambic and love content, have been preserved in later records of Idu. They received recognition at the royal court. The organic connection of Goryeo songs with folk minyo is evidenced by the melodies that accompanied them, the language and the metrical organization of the verse. Goryeo songs are a long form of Korean poetry (jangga, lit., "long song", as opposed to tang, "short song"). Short stanzas (of two or four lines) were united by a specific theme into a cycle and ended with a repeating refrain. The number of stanzas was not constant. The line contained three, usually 3-syllable, feet. Traces of the influence of poetry of this period are found in later Korean genres - kasa and others.
The original genre of poetry in Korean was hallim byeolgokjega(abbr. pyolgok) - “songs in the style of academic tunes”, also known as gyongichhega - “songs similar to those sung in the vicinity of the capital.” This genre arose in the first half of the 13th century on Ganghwa Island, where the capital of Koryo was moved due to the Mongol invasion, but quickly became obsolete. A total of 14 works by gyeongichhaeg have survived. Their authors were scientists from the Hallim court academy, who glorified mainly the beauty of nature and luxurious life in the palace. It is believed that this was the refined, formalistic poetry of medieval aesthetes. Meanwhile, it was this genre that played an important role in the ordering of Korean verse. Although the genre of gyeongichaeg and everyday life is associated with poetry in Hanmun (an abundance of Chinese phrases, a way of writing in Hanmun with elements of idu), it inherited a lot from folk songs and especially hyang. In syntactic terms, the poetic line of the gyongichcheg was like two compressed lines of the later hyang. The principle of three-member distribution of material can also be traced. A feature of the new genre was the standardization (with certain deviations) of the number of feet, lines and stanzas. The stanza is divided into two parts and consists of six lines of three 3-4-syllable feet in each. The works of gyongichcheg were a transitional stage from the form of short verse to long verse. They usually included 58 stanzas.
The pinnacle of medieval Korean vernacular poetry there was a sijo genre, most popular in the 15th to 18th centuries. The name of this genre first appears in anthologies of the 18th century. Its exact meaning is unclear. Some researchers translate sijo as “songs of the seasons,” others as “modern tunes.” Many sijos were composed impromptu for any reason, so their topics were extensive. But mostly landscape, Taoist (in which departure from the world was praised), patriotic and love poems predominated. They were composed by representatives of various segments of the population. The Sijo absorbed the best traditions of oral poetry and previous hanmun poetry. Elements of folk songs lead to the widespread use of stylistic figures of figurative speech in composition (addresses and repetitions in the first line, exclamatory particles at the beginning of the third line, parallelism of the first two lines, etc.). The influence of poetry on hanmun is felt in the strict selection of plots, motifs and poetic images from Chinese classical literature. One can also find many common and distinctive features with hyangga and gyeongichhega.
Shijo is a complete form of "regular" verse. There are several varieties in the verse organization of sijo. But the main one is Pyeong Sijo (15th-18th century), i.e. a poem consisting of a 3-line stanza with an average length of 43 syllables. Its ideal formula is as follows: 4 3/3(4) 4 // 3 4/3(4) 4//3 5/4 3. In reality, fluctuations were possible in the sizes of Pyeongsijo lines, but in general Pyeongsijo strived for some the middle variant of the foot and line (1416 syllables), apparently determined by metric time and melody. Each line is divided by a clear syntactic pause (caesura), usually into two relatively independent hemistiches, which gives rise to the erroneous interpretation of sijo as a six-line line. A hemistich consists of two alternating unequal (usually 3 and 4 syllable) feet, but sometimes the number of syllables in a foot ranges from 2 to 6. The initial foot is most often 3-syllable. For the initial foot of the third line, this condition is indispensable, but the second foot in the same line contains at least five syllables. In Pyeongsijo, the compositional principle of three-part distribution of material, used in later hyangga, was fully embodied. The first two lines are thematically interconnected, as in minyo. The third line, the specific weight of which is large in sijo, stands somewhat apart, which is confirmed by the originality of its rhythmic and melodic organization, the special grammatical design and the use of addresses and interjections at its beginning. Thanks to the parallelism of images in the first and second lines, as well as as a result of repetitions at the ends of hemistiches and initial stops, consonances of endings (caesura and internal, respectively), in most cases grammatical, can arise. However, there are many pyeongsijo (17th century) in which caesura consonances are not a consequence of parallelism or repetition. It is believed that the term “embryonic rhyme” is applicable to this type of genre. Thus, Korean poetry in this genre came close to creating full-fledged rhyme, but later abandoned this achievement. This became noticeable in the later compositional varieties of shijo - ossijo (“cyclical shijo”, united thematically) and sasolsi jo (“narrative shijo”), which are sometimes called by the same term jangsijo (“long shijo”). Their form became freer: the increase in line length, caused by the arbitrary alternation of 2- and 3-foot hemistiches, led to a breakdown of the 3-member structure. Changsijo could contain several three-line stanzas. However, the swing in jangsijo feet is basically the same as in pyeongsijo. In this variety of the genre, the appearance of free feet, typical of modern verse, is expected. The introduction of folk colloquial speech in the late sijo, the replacement of traditional imagery with concrete, real, reflected the tendency towards democratization of this genre. No wonder jangsijo were popular among urban people. Finally, it should be noted that in sijo (especially Pyeongsijo) words were fused with music. They were not read, but performed accompanied by a musical instrument, therefore all traditional classifications of shijo are based either on the manner of performance (four types), or on the melody (three types), or on the tempo of the music (15 varieties). In general, it can be said that the melody in shijo was more complex than in minyo. The standard melody of a line is considered to be 3 - 4 - 3 - 4 frets. Studying the musical side of the sijo may also shed light on the nature of their metric.
Another equally widespread genre of medieval Korean poetry was kasa- “song stanzas”. As a new form of "long verse", they developed from the gyonggicheg, passing through the intermediate stage of akchan - "panegyric songs", which were performed during ceremonies in the royal palace. The development of the kasa genre is associated with the invention of Korean phonetic writing. Kasa had a lot in common with sijo, especially with jangsijo: a musical-speech basis, a line of two hemistiches with two 4-syllable (less often 3-syllable) feet in each, the specific nature of the final line. But the kasa were free from the formal limitations of the sijo: they could connect up to several hundred lines without any strophic division. Kas resemble rhythmically organized prose; lyrical elements in them often alternate with detailed epic descriptions (landscape, geographical description, list of names of fish, insects, etc.). The influence of kas on the development of the genre of the story in Korean is undeniable. Kasa was no longer sung, but recited in a chant. It is no coincidence that their size and manner of performance have been preserved in Korean folk drama. Among the kasa there were original and anonymous works. The latter are typical of the later forms of this genre - kyuban kasa (“women’s kasa”), which were circulated among women in the Gyeongsang province (South Korea), and kihen kasa (“kasa - travel records”), telling about the nature and life of Korea and neighboring countries. There are also historical kasa, which tell about historical and cultural events of the past.
At the end of the 13th century, among the lower urban population, one of the types of folk songs, chapka (“complex song”), similar in form to kasa, began to develop. It is a kind of medley of folk songs performed by professional gisaeng dancers. Without observing a certain line size and number of lines, the individual parts of the chapok were united by a specific melody. At the same time, Talgori (“songs of the seasons”) also spread. These are original poems in the form of a kasa, with divisions for 12 months according to the lunar calendar. Talgori was performed at folk festivals to mark the beginning or end of field work. The transitional form from medieval Korean poetry to modern free verse was chhanga, which arose during the cultural and educational movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Topical in content, these short poems updated their rhythmic and melodic structure in accordance with the laws of modern Korean language and new (primarily Western and Japanese) poetry. The chang metric, which allowed for the alternation of polysyllabic feet (of 75, 85, 65 syllables), developed in the direction of free verse. The movement for the “new” (sinsi), which unfolded in the 1910-20s, marked the beginning of the development of modern free verse (chayusi).
Korean poetry during Japanese rule
The period of Japanese rule (1910-1945) was very significant for the development of Korean literature in the twentieth century, since its formation was determined not only by the peculiarities of the development of the literary process in this country, but also by the peculiarities of the socio-political situation that prevailed on the Korean Peninsula at the turn of the century. XIX-XX centuries.
The purpose of writing this article was to form ideas about the creative activity of modern Korean poets during the period of Japanese presence. To achieve this goal, it is advisable to recall the difficult political situation that developed on the Korean Peninsula at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries.
In 1876, having abandoned the policy of self-isolation under pressure from Japan, France, England, the USA and Russia, the Korean state found itself in the sphere of influence of European civilization; Western ideals and Japan’s experience in assimilating them were chosen as a guideline in determining the direction of further cultural development in Korea.
After annexation in 1910, Korea came under Japanese control. As a result of the changes in the socio-political and cultural situations that followed this event, a new impetus was given to the accelerated development of both literature and other areas of activity. Korean society was influenced by the processes of Westernization and modernization, which affected almost all areas of life of the Korean people. European culture and literature began to penetrate into Korea through Japan in a huge stream, and the country began to become acquainted with the literary works of the most prominent poets and writers of the West.
N.I. Conrad notes that European literature often penetrated into the countries of the East in its own guise, that is, in the original, and the penetration in this case occurred through individual writers. Many young Koreans, in particular such famous Korean poets and writers as Yu Gilchun (1856-1914), Kim Ok (born 1896), Lee Gwangsu (born 1892), Kim Donin (1900-1951), Yeom Sansop (1897-1963), Na Dohyang (1902-1927), Kim Sowol (1902-1934), Han Yongun (1879-1944), as well as many others went to study at Japanese universities (Waseda, Keio, etc. .) to the literary and philosophical faculties, where they had the opportunity to get acquainted with Western European, American and Russian literature. Most of the Korean youth who studied at Japanese universities belonged to the aristocracy; they were the first to get acquainted with the vibrant cultural life in Japan, which, of course, fascinated and delighted. Thus, the Korean people began to become acquainted with the world's cultural heritage.
Western literature had a huge influence on the development of modern Korean poetry. Movements such as romanticism, symbolism, naturalism, realism and modernism were transferred to Korean soil, which allowed many young writers to find new means of depiction, with the help of which they could quite adequately convey the worldview of a person in the 20th century.
As stated by A.I. Herzen “For a people deprived of public freedom, literature is the only platform from the height of which they make them hear the cry of their indignation and their conscience.” Thanks to the poetic works of poets from the period of Japan's presence on the Korean Peninsula, one can trace the difficult path of development of Korean literature, in particular poetry, in the first half of the 20th century.
Korean patriots, who did not want to put up with the current situation, tried to find refuge in Manchuria and China, where they published articles condemning Japanese rule. Many articles and literary works written during this period were published in periodicals of other countries (Manchuria and China), since only in them Korean poets and writers could honestly convey their attitude towards the protectorate of Japan, its comprehensive power and control.
But on the Korean Peninsula things were completely different. The Japanese government did not allow any kind of national liberation activities. Newspapers and magazines were under the strict supervision of censors, all manuscripts were subject to inspection. Many of them were confiscated, and their authors were “subpoenaed” and imprisoned. Thus, Korean poets under Japanese rule had to find a workaround to express their opposition. They expressed their love for the nation and country by praising the landscapes and historical figures of their homeland, and in order to show their attitude towards the Japanese state and convey the longing for independence, the masters of the poetic word used the symbolism of poetry.
One of the poets who stood out for his anti-Japanese sentiments was Han Yongun (1879-1944). When he began his creative career, he was already over forty years old, he was a Buddhist, participated in the Korean liberation movement, and was one of the thirty-three signers of the March First “Declaration of Independence” (“Tongnip sonon”, 1919), as well as the author of one of the its parts.
Han Yongun's collection of poetry, The Silence of Love (Nime Chhimmuk), was published in May 1926. Until then, his identity as a poet was unknown, so this collection came as a surprise to most people for two reasons. Firstly, because this collection “came from the pen” of Han Yongun, and secondly, because the poems included in this collection “struck by the multiplicity and complexity of metaphors, so uncharacteristic of traditional Korean poetry.”
The poetic works of the first part of the collection show the insight and intuition of the poet as a Buddhist monk. At the age of twenty-six, he became a monk and took the name Manhae; at one time in Japan, at Komayawa College, he studied Buddhism and Western philosophy.
The collection contains poems dedicated to the gisaeng (in old Korea: a woman who served men at feasts and entertained them with singing and dancing) during the reign of the Lee dynasty (1392-1910), who sacrificed their lives for the sake of the country and people and killed enemy commanders during the period Japanese invasion in the middle of the Li dynasty.
The fact that Han Yongun chose these kisaengs in choosing a poetic theme particularly clearly shows his national spirit and the manifestation of a position of rejection of the dominant position of Japan in the Land of Morning Freshness. There are other poetic works in which his national consciousness is revealed, although it is skillfully veiled through allegorical form. The word "Silence" depicts the life of the Korean people during the period of Korean literary resistance to the pervasive influence of Japan.
The collection of poems by Pyon Yongno (1897-1961) “The Mind of Korea” is close in theme and mood to the poetry collection of Han Yongun, although, unlike the latter, it was written by a well-known poet by that time. Even before the appearance of this collection, Pyon Yongno’s poetic works had already been published in many magazines and newspapers. The title of the collection itself is also significant. The collection begins like this:
Where can I find the mind of Korea?
Maybe in a cave or at the bottom of the sea?
Maybe rummage through the thick willow branches?
Or peer into the distant vault of heaven?
ABOUT! Where can I find the mind of Korea?
Like Han Yongun, the poet Pyeon Yongno wrote poems dedicated to patriotic kisaengs.
Holy Fury
Much more full of faith
And ardent passion
More powerful than love.
On a ledge of rock trembling in the heights,
Her lips are the color of garnet
Kissed death.
ABOUT! on a wave that is as azure as the bean blossoms
The heart floats like an alley of poppies.
Swiftly running river
Will always be heavenly
So is it really your blooming soul?
Won't it be scarlet forever?
ABOUT! on a wave that is as azure as the bean blossoms
The heart floats like an avenue of poppies.
The poet Lee Sang-hwa (1901-1943), who showed a tendency in his poetic work to resist Japanese colonialism and created several lyrical works, appeared on the literary arena at the same time as Byeon Yongno.
Lee Sang-hwa was born in Daegu, North Gyeongsang Province (Republic of Korea). After finishing school in Seoul, he went to Tokyo in 1923 and began studying French at a foreign language school. That year, he experienced an earthquake that occurred in the Land of the Rising Sun and the beating of Korean students and immigrants by the natives of Japan. Lee Sang-hwa then miraculously escaped the fight. It can be said that these events became a kind of turning point that greatly changed the direction of his literary works: the previously existing sentimental and decadent tendencies in his work no longer existed. In all the works of the later period, the national spirit became dominant, breaking through. “Will spring come to the taken fields?” (“Paatkin tiredo pomyn onynga?”, 1926) is one of the best anti-Japanese poems of the poet Lee Sang-hwa of the colonial period. Will spring come to the stolen fields of now foreign lands?
Basking in the sun's rays,
I walk along the parting as if in a dream
Where green fields and blue skies merge.
Hey, sky and fields that remain silent,
You beckoned me or someone called me, answer!
I feel like I didn’t end up here by accident.
The wind whispers something in my ear,
The fluttering of the clothes does not tell you to slow down.
And in the clouds it’s joyful, like a girl from behind a fence,
The lark laughs.
Fertile fields of barley
With a light rain that fell after midnight,
The shocks of hair were washed, and my head became clearer.
I walk for fun!
A kind ravine goes around, embraces dry fields,
Humming a lullaby, he runs away, shaking his shoulders.
Butterflies and swallows, don't laugh,
Say hello to the flowers in the field.
It's nice to look at the fields, that women are lubricated
Oil, pour.
Give me the hoe!
The earth is soft, like a full chest,
I want to trample until I sweat and my ankles ache.
Like a child on the river bank
Without sleep, without rest, a restless soul,
What are searching for? What are you striving for? Answer!
Feeling the smell of fresh greenery with your whole body,
There, where green sadness and blue laughter merge,
I've been wandering all day, full of anticipation for spring.
But perhaps spring was stolen along with the fields.
During his lifetime, not a single collection of this author was published, but in his hometown a monument was erected dedicated to his poetic skill, thanks to which many wonderful poems were born that reflected the thoughts, feelings, and experiences of not only one poet, but an entire people. His name will live in the hearts and minds of the Korean people for more than one generation.
When remembering poets who expressed anti-Japanese sentiments, one cannot miss the figure of the poet Sim Hong (1901-1936). He created not only poetic works, but also wrote novels, dramas, film scripts, was a director, wrote film reviews, and even acted in films himself. In addition to scripts, he wrote several novels, which were appreciated in the modern literary world of Korea. The most representative work in his literary activity is considered to be “The Evergreen” (“Sannoksu”, 1935), where the main theme is the popular movement that encouraged the intelligentsia to return to their homeland, suffering from poverty, exploitation, and live together with the enlightened peasants in order to increase national strength .
From time to time, Sim Hong wrote poetic works that were not similar to his prose works, where national consciousness was expressed in an indirect, evasive form, while the poems quite openly conveyed his desire for national independence:
When that day comes
Mount Samgak will rise and begin to dance
And the flow of the Han River will rise.
If that day comes before I die
I will soar at night like a crow
And beat the bell with your head.
Skull bones will scatter everywhere,
But I will die in complete joy.
When the day finally comes
I'll ride my Bolivar and scream
And if joy still continues to press on your chest?
I'll take a knife and rip off the skin
And I will make a magic drum
And I will go forward with him in the vanguard.
What a procession!
Let me hear this thunderous cry at least once,
And I will close my eyes forever.
"Samgak" and "Han" are the real names of the mountain and the river in Seoul, so when the poet says that the mountain and the river will "rise and dance", he is referring to the day when the Korean people, freed from Japanese rule, will rejoice. In his work, Sim Hong expresses the idea that he will willingly die when that day comes. The Jongno Bell is a traditional symbol for the Korean people, used in national festivals. With the phrase “I will ring the bell with my head,” he absolutely clearly shows how strong his desire is to defend the national independence of his country.
It is not surprising that his poetry collections could not be published during this period. Sim once submitted his manuscripts to the Japanese government for review with the intention of publishing them, but they were immediately confiscated and surveillance of him became more stringent. His works, imbued with the ideas of national independence, appeared after the liberation of Korea, which occurred in 1945, and after the death of the poet.
During the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), at the height of Japanese aggression, the Japanese increased pressure on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to the Korean language, they abolished the study of Korean history and even geography in all schools. They then imposed a ban on the publication of private magazines and newspapers published in Korean, and even articles concerning Korean history, culture, and art written in Japanese were not approved by the censor and were not published. Several thousand copies of textbooks, history books, etc., which indicated that Korea had been independent and resisted Japanese invasion in the past, were destroyed. All instruction in schools was to be conducted in Japanese, which soon after annexation became the official state language in Korea, and teachers of educational institutions were required to wear Japanese uniforms. Thus, we can say that such a difficult situation in the country affected not only the life of Korean society as a whole, but also the development of literature. However, even during this dark period, there were poets who praised Korea in their songs and called for promoting the Korean independence movement. One of them was Lee Yuk Sa (1904-1944).
Lee Yuk Sa was born in Andong, North Gyeongsang Province. He studied sociology at Peking University, so with his profession he could easily find a well-paid government job, but he still chose to be persecuted and imprisoned for his literary work aimed at defending the independence of the Korean Peninsula:
It's snowy white here
And the scent of plum blossoms is not close.
I sow the seeds of songs,
Those that even after thousands of years,
A superman on a white horse will sing at the top of his voice in this desert.
In this poem, this snowy season undoubtedly refers to a long and dark period in the life of Korea. Plum blossoms are usually used as a symbol of a righteous spirit, so it can be assumed that these poetic lines are a kind of song of the founders of the independent Korean movement.
No matter how difficult the life of the Korean people was during the period of Japanese rule in Korea, it should be noted that it was Japanese literary translations that introduced many young talented Korean poets, who were in search of a new way of expressing feelings, to the work of modern Western authors. Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Verlaine, Baudelaire and other French symbolists are those Western poets whose works were willingly translated both from the originals and from English-language adaptations.
After the defeat of the independence movement on March 1, 1919, a state of extreme hopelessness gripped many people in Korea. In the 20s Several literary magazines imbued with decadent moods appeared: “Ruins” (“Paeho”), “White Tide” (“Baekcho”), “Creation of the World” (“Kaebyok”) and others. At that time, young poets and writers, imitating European decadence, wrote with a touch of nihilism about tears, sighs, grief, sadness, illness, regret and death. The only justification for such works was the fact that they absolutely corresponded to the acute experiences of the entire Korean people.
All countries have gone through periods of change at one time or another, so Korea was no exception. The country, which was completely isolated from the outside world and the fruits of its civilization, was faced with the influence of new trends introduced from both Japan and the West. Korean society had the opportunity to perceive the realities of other cultures, get acquainted with the literary heritage of other countries, and borrow best practices from Western countries, which, of course, did not always evoke enthusiastic responses from a fairly large part of the population.
The hyperdynamic process of Westernization and modernization has awakened the need to turn to works of Western literature, which have had a significant influence on the development of modern Korean literature, in particular poetry. The poetic creativity of Korean poets, who managed to combine the West and the East in their works, where Japan and its almost half-century influence on the development of the Korean state, takes on a particularly significant character. Having experienced the strong influence of Western European literature, Korean authors were able to create their own extraordinary creative concept, which gave uniqueness to their works.
korean poet japanese symbolism
ANTHOLOGY OF KOREAN CLASSICAL POETRY TRANSLATED BY A.A. AKHMATOVA
G.A. Pak Barnaul
In 1956, for the first time in Russian, an anthology of Korean classical poetry of the 11th - 18th centuries was published. . Interlinear translations were prepared by the staff of the Department of Philology of Leningrad University, Prof. A.A. Kholodovich, M.I. Nikitina and student Peter Pak.
About the existence of oral poetry in Korea at the beginning of our era. Chinese historical chronicles report. From the 6th century Koreans used Chinese characters to write their native language, and from that time on, Korean poetry ceased to be only oral creativity. The first collection of poetry was compiled in 886. 25 poetic works written in the genre, which is now called hyanga, have reached us. The motives of many of them are inspired by Buddhism: this is natural, since they were collected by monks. But some, for example, “Tong-dong”, “Chhoyonga” and others are deeply folk in nature. Following the invention of metal type in 1403 and the creation of phonographic writing in 1403, Korean poetry became predominantly written.
The collection “Korean Classical Poetry” reflects four stages of the development of poetry and the main poetic forms: hyangga (until the 15th century), kasa (until the 16th century), sizjo (XV-XVIII centuries) and changga (XVII-III centuries). .
In the fall of 1954, long before the “thaw,” the author of these lines had the opportunity to attend a working meeting of A.A. Kholodovich with A.A. Akhmatova. There were also assistants M.I. Nikitina, A.F. Trotskevich and D.D. Eliseev (now Doctor of Philology) - students of the special course A.A. Kholodovich on the analysis of the text of “Ode to a Flying Dragon” - the first literary monument recorded using phonographic writing. In the somewhat reserved and modestly dressed woman it was difficult to recognize the brilliant beauty that
A.A. Akhmatova was in famous photographs.
Less than a year had passed since the collection was put into collection. The main text of the collection is preceded by the title “Unfading Words of the Land of Green Mountains.” The same name is given to one of the anthologies of Korean poetry (1727) and a collection of medieval poetry in the genre of sizho (tercet), published in Korean in the DPRK. In the ancient chronicles
gah of the East, Korea was also called “The Land of White Storks” and “The Land of Morning Freshness.” Nowadays, there are two self-names that reflect the division of the country: in the north - Joseon, and in the south - Hanguk. The Korean language itself is also unique, which scientists still find it difficult to correlate with any language group or family.
Literary translation is not just a translation from one language to another, but the transformation of one figurative system into another, equally complex, but presented in a different language shell. Translation
A.A. Akhmatova's Korean poetry is a classic recreation of oriental images by means of another language, so different from the original language. In this regard, the words of R. Kipling, expressed by him back in 1892, are noteworthy: “The West is the West, the East is the East, and they will not budge,” which expressed the impossibility of mutual understanding between the bearers of two different civilizations - Western and Eastern. This conclusion is, of course, erroneous, so it is unacceptable to us.
An excellent expert on Japan, international journalist
V.Ya. Tsvetov emphasizes: “Not all of the haiku by the most beloved 17th-century poet in Japan, Matsuo Basho, can be translated into a foreign language. Three verses that are designed to be understood by people with a general consciousness seem incomprehensible and even funny to those who lack such consciousness.
Oh Matsushima!
Oh Matsushima, oh!
Matsushima, oh!
Indeed, what is poetic in these lines? In our opinion, nothing. But why do the Japanese get delighted when they recite this “haiku”?
Anyone who has seen Matsushima, undoubtedly the most beautiful place in Japan, does not need to read its description. He gets excited just by the word “Matsushima,” especially since it was said to her. And those who know about Matsushima believe: if Basho, recognized for Japanese poetry, could not describe this place, then it is truly of magical beauty.” We are talking about a Japanese poet of the 17th century who developed the poetic form of “haiku” in detail. Of course, the tercet above is a kind of poetic experiment that shows how rich the intonation of the verse and its variation are in expressive, emotional and aesthetic possibilities. So it is in the Russian language: the same word, pronounced with different intonations, evokes different, sometimes opposite, emotions.
Korean poetry has a lot of images, most often idiomatic, literally untranslatable. Thus, the “azure cloud” is used to mean a career, the “snow-white cloud” is life among nature, a silk outfit means retiring, “weaving (from vines) a door” is the image of a wretched home, pearls are a symbol of a man, and “a thread on which is strung with pearls” - a woman, plum flowers - a symbol of a wise person. Poets often use these symbols to create subtext. Here is Lee Sek's tercet:
The entire valley was covered with snow
And black clouds covered her.
I went there for plum flowers,
But I don’t know where they bloom.
I stand alone in the rays of the sunset And I don’t know how to find the way
Below is a tercet by the Korean Poet Nam
I stand alone on a mountain top
With a drawn sword in his hand.
Tree leaf - My Korea!
You are caught between Yuz and Ho.
When, oh when will we completely dispel the dust in the south and north!
During the years of difficult wars, in which the country repelled invasions from the north and south, the patriotic theme came to the fore. It is also presented in the following tercet by an unknown poet:
All the swords in the whole universe
I'd like to change it to a broom,
To sweep out both southerners and northerners from here.
And make plows out of brooms and plow all the land
“The anonymity and anthology of Korean poetry are far from accidental phenomena. It must be borne in mind that the literary language is time-
I was not Korean, but Chinese. It remained a literary language even after the creation of the Korean national script. The Korean language has long been considered vulgar in the circles of the gentlemen of the class, unworthy of expressing high poetic thought. Naturally, those who resorted to this method of expressing poetic thought preferred either not to be published or to remain unknown.”
The translation of Lee Hwan's tercet by A.A. is extremely accurate. Kholodovich, ed. A.A. Akhmatova:
Let the thunder destroy the rock ridge,
Those born deaf will not hear.
Let the sun shine in the sky The one born blind will not see.
Yes, we are sighted, our hearing is sensitive,
And yet we are deafblind
Translation by A.A. Kholodovich, ed. A.A. Akhmatova’s poem by an unknown author is as close as possible to the form of the original, in particular, to the repetition of hemistiches:
And tonight the night has come,
After the night there will be morning,
There will be morning - and you will leave,
And if you leave, you won’t come back;
If you don’t come back, I’ll miss you,
But I will suffer and wither,
If I wither away, I won’t live.
If you understand that I will wither away,
Why should I not live in the world?
You will not go to your place before
How can you share a bed with me?
A famous scientist, who at one time headed three departments - Korean, Japanese and Chinese philology, an outstanding researcher of language typology, a brilliant translator from German, French, English, Korean and other languages - A.A. Kholodovich did not find it possible, when indicating the author of the translation of four tercets, to omit the words “ed. A.A. Akhmatova”, which is evidence
indicates his attitude towards A.A.’s talent. Akhmatova, who invested enormous work in the publication of Korean classical poetry.
2. Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General edition, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M.: Goslitizdat, 1956. - P. 239.
3. See: Kontsevich. L.R. Korean poetics / Dictionary of literary terms. - M.: Education, 1974. - P. 156-167, 508.
4. “The unfading words of the land of green mountains.” - Pyongyang, 1954 (In Korean).
5. Tsvetov V.Ya. The fifteenth stone of the Ryoanji Garden. - M., 1986. - P. 78.
6. See: Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General edition, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M, 1956. -
P. 37; Unfading words from the land of green mountains. - Pyongyang, 1954. - P. 3-15. Interlinear translations were made by the author of the article. Interlinear:
The entire valley was covered with snow, and black clouds covered it.
I went there for the plum flowers, which make me so happy.
It’s already sunset, and I’m standing alone, not knowing where to go now.
7. Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General editing
tion, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M, 1956. - P. 47; Unfading words from the land of green mountains. - Pyongyang, 1954. - P. 39. Interlinear:
I stand with a drawn sword on the top of Mount Paektusan.
Korea, like a tree leaf, is sandwiched between XO and SE.
When will we scatter into dust those who threaten us from the south and north!
The author of the tercet at the end of the 15th century. was Minister of War. Paektusan (lit. white-headed mountain) rises in the north of Korea. In folk tales, Paektusan is surrounded by legends; Poems and poems are dedicated to him (for example, Cho Gi Chen's poem "Pektusan") Ho - Manchu tribes that invaded the northern borders - Ny, Yue - southern Foreigners. It is obvious that the East is a relative concept. If Korea is associated with the “Land of Morning Freshness,” then among the ancient Chinese it is the “Country to the East of the Sea.” The Japanese call Japan "The Land of the Rising Sun". In the tercet of the Korean poet Nam Yi, the word “Paektusan” is not only a toponym, but also a word-image, a word-symbol. In translation it is replaced by the expression “Mountain peak”. Apparently, another edition of the translation is possible. Let's give some analogies. When translated into Russian
the language of the poem by G. Heine “Ein Fichtcnbaum sleht einsam...” the word Morgenland (a figurative name for the Middle East) F.I. Tyutchev replaces it with the expression “in the far reaches of the East,” and M.Yu. Lermontov uses variants in the translation of the bottom: the first - “far eastern land” and the second, final - “in the land where the salt rises,” which is invariant to the original.
8. Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General editing
tion, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M, 1956. - P. 175.
9. Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General editing
tion, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M, 1956. - P. 14.
10. Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General editing
tion, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M, 1956. - P. 114; Unfading words from the land of green mountains. Pyongyang, 1954. - P. 135. Interlinear:
The peals of thunder destroy the mountains, but the deaf do not hear it.
The sun shines in the vault of heaven, but the blind man does not see it.
But we see everything and hear everything, and we live like deaf blind people.
11. Korean classical poetry. Translations by Anna Akhmatova. General editing
tion, preface and notes by A.A. Kholodovich. - M, 1956. - P. 231.
Korean poetry performed or written in the Korean language or by the Korean people. Traditional Korean poetry was sung. Until the 20th century, most Korean poetry was written in Hancha (Chinese characters (Hanzi)) in classical Chinese.
Origin
Korean teachers (poets) wrote poetry in the classical Chinese style as before in the 4th century BC, based on Chinese quatrains. The known surviving example dates from 17 BC. BC, “King Yuri's Song of the Yellow Birds” (Hwangjoga, 황조가/黃鳥歌). Some Korean writers followed the lyrical style of Tang Dynasty poetry, such as the Shi form of poetry. Interestingly, Korean poetry begins to flourish under the influence of Confucian teachings during the Goryeo period (starting in 935). Poetry collections were published very rarely.
Hyanga
Songs of Goryeo
The Goryeo period was marked by an increase in the use of Chinese characters. Hyangga, as a form of Korean literature, has largely disappeared, and "Songs of Goryeo" (Goryeo gayo) have become very popular. Most of Goryeo's songs were transmitted orally and most survived into the Joseon period, when some of them were written down using Hangul. The poetic form of Goryeo songs is better known as pyeolgok. There are two different forms: tallyeongchae (단련체) and yeonjangchae (연잔체). The standard is the short form, while the latter is the longer form. Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of pure form, and their increasing length. Most are directed towards their nature, and describe general issues of life.
Sijo
Casa
Modern poetry
There have been attempts to present Imagism and modern poetry in extreme ways: in the translations of American modernists such as Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot in the early 20th century. During the early Republican period (starting in 1953 after the Korean War), patriotic works were very successful. Lyric poetry predominated from 1970 onwards. Poetry is quite popular in Korea in the 21st century, both based on the number of works published and still being written. A corpus of modern Korean poetry has been compiled. The works provide linguistic information on 10,300 original Korean poems.
see also
Sources
- (not available)
Write a review on the article "Korean Poetry"
Literature
- Contemporary Korean poetry. M., 1950.
- On Korean soil. Poems by Korean poets. M.-L.: DL, 1952
- Korean classical poetry. Per. A. Akhmatova. 2nd ed., M., 1958.
- Korean lyrics. Alma-Ata, 1958.
- Baekryong chohae (Anthology of lyrical poems by Ryong-gu with Korean translation). Ed. text, trans. and comment. D. Eliseeva. M.: IVL, 1960 (Monuments of literature of the peoples of the East. Texts. Small series. VI)
- Bamboo in the snow. Korean lyrics of the 8th-19th centuries. M.: IVL, 1978 (compiled by L. Kontsevich, scientific translations and commentary by L. Kontsevich and M. Nikitina; poetic translation by A. Zhovtis)
- Korean six verses. Alma-Ata: Kazakh state. publishing house HL, 1956. Transl. A. L. Zhovtis and P. A. Pak Ir
- Jeon Chul. Lonely crane. From Korean poetry of the 16th century. M.: KhL, 1975 (compiled and commentary by L. Kontsevich, scientific translation by N. Itskov and L. Kontsevich; poetic translation by A. Zhovtis)
- Nikitina M.I. Ancient Korean poetry in connection with ritual and myth. M., 1982.
- Galkina L.V. Modernism in Korean poetry of the 30s of the XX century // Oriental Studies. Vol. 17. Leningrad, 1991. P.50-55.
- Lee Peter. Anthology of Korean poetry. New York, 1964.
- Ko Won. Contemporary Korean poetry. Seoul, 1970.
- The Immortal Voice: An anthology of modern Korean poetry. Seoul, 1974.
| ||||||
An excerpt characterizing Korean poetry
I knew this neighbor very well. She was quite a nice woman, but what struck me most once was that she was one of those people who tried to completely “isolate” their children from me and poisoned me after the unfortunate incident with “lighting the fire”! .. (Although her eldest son, we must give him his due, never betrayed me and, despite any prohibitions, still continued to be friends with me). She, who, as it now turned out, knew better than anyone else that I was a completely normal and harmless girl! And that I, just like she once did, was simply looking for the right way out of that “incomprehensible and unknown” into which fate so unexpectedly threw me...Without a doubt, fear must be a very strong factor in our lives if a person can so easily betray and so simply turn away from someone who so badly needs help, and whom he could easily help if not for the same fear settled so deeply and reliably in him...
Of course, we can say that I don’t know what once happened to her, and what an evil and merciless fate forced her to endure... But, if I knew that someone at the very beginning of life had the same gift , who made me suffer so much, I would do everything in my power to somehow help or guide this other gifted person on the right path, so that he would not have to “wander in the dark” just as blindly and suffer greatly... And she, instead of helping, on the contrary, tried to “punish” me, as others punished me, but at least these others did not know what it was and tried to honestly protect their children from what they could not explain or understand.
And so, as if nothing had happened, she came to visit us today with her little son, who turned out to be exactly the same “gifted” as me, and whom she was wildly afraid to show to someone, so that God forbid, someone... then I didn’t see that her sweet baby was exactly the same “curse” that, according to her “ostentatious” concept, I was... Now I was sure that it didn’t give her much pleasure to come to us, but she wouldn’t refuse either she very much could, for the simple reason that her eldest son, Algis, was invited to my birthday, and on her part there was no serious reason not to let him in, and it would have been too rude and “not appropriate.” -neighborly” if she would go for it. And we invited her for the simple reason that they lived three streets away from us, and her son would have to return home in the evening alone, so, naturally realizing that the mother would worry, we decided that it would be more correct to invite her along with her for my little son to spend the evening at our festive table. And she, “poor,” as I now understood, was just suffering here, waiting for the opportunity to leave us as soon as possible, and, if possible, without any incidents, to return home as soon as possible...
-Are you okay, honey? – Mom’s affectionate voice sounded nearby.
I immediately smiled at her as confidently as possible and said that, of course, I was completely fine. And I myself, from everything that was happening, felt dizzy, and my soul was already beginning to sink into my heels, as I saw that the guys were gradually starting to turn around at me and, like it or not, I had to quickly pull myself together and “establish “Iron control” over my raging emotions... I was thoroughly “knocked out” of my usual state and, to great shame, completely forgot about Stella... But the baby immediately tried to remind herself.
“But you said that you don’t have friends, and how many of them are there?!..” Stella asked, surprised and even a little upset.
- These are not the real friends. These are just guys I live next to or study with. They are not like you. But you are real.
Stella immediately began to shine... And I, “disconnectedly” smiling at her, feverishly tried to find some way out, absolutely not knowing how to get out of this “slippery” situation, and was already starting to get nervous, because I didn’t want to to offend my best friend, but I probably knew that soon they would definitely start to notice my “strange” behavior... And again stupid questions would start pouring in, which I didn’t have the slightest desire to answer today.