Psychology itself came out of philosophy - the science of the soul. But this is far from the only connection that has survived at the present time. It is worth remembering the subject of psychology (human) and imagine how many other sciences have a similar subject: sociology, pedagogy, medicine, biology, history and other humanities, natural and even exact sciences. For example, mathematics - what is psychology without statistics and calculation of experimental results.
Modern psychology is still based on philosophical principles, methods and theories. Too often the problems of the essence of human existence and the causes of internal disharmony are touched upon. The theories of such famous psychologists as Freud, Jung, Fromm are called philosophical.
But despite the separation of psychology, philosophy cannot exist in isolation. This is how these sciences intertwine, exploring the problem of social and biological factors in man, the peculiarities of cognition of the surrounding world, phenomena such as faith and death, and the assimilation of values.
Psychology and history
History is interconnected with psychology no less than philosophy. Values, stereotypes, behavior patterns, requirements, and norms of society change from century to century, from year to year. But the influence of history as human living conditions is one side. The other side is taking into account historical experience and historical heredity, which influences from birth (which has long been confirmed in psychology).
In addition, something else is interesting:
- on the one hand, historical events and vicissitudes influence the human psyche;
- but on the other hand, the person himself influences history (one cannot say that absolutely all people make it - they do this (both positive and negative), but there are many of them).
What can I say, any psychological phenomenon cannot be comprehensively studied without delving into history. And our most important element (psyche) is proof of this. How did it become known that a person develops, that our psyche is so similar to the psyche of animals, but still different? From the history. How can you determine the beginning of a phenomenon? Analyzing history. And the conditions for the development of something, favorable and unfavorable factors, will be suggested by history.
A person cannot live without society, and history allows us to trace the development of social consciousness. There is even a special scientific direction - historical psychology, which studies the peculiarities of the development of the psyche and the assimilation of social experience in different eras. Psychology and history also exchanged some research methods. For example, the method of periodization, typology, comparison.
Psychology and Sociology
Another close connection. There is no need to elaborate here; it is enough to say the basic statement of psychology: man is a socio-biological being.
- There is still no end to the debate about what is primary in a person: the influence of genes or the influence of society.
- But all researchers have long agreed that both factors have a very strong influence. No matter what nature has instilled in us, without society we will not learn to live in this particular society.
And again, there is a special direction in psychology - social psychology, which studies the functioning of society as a single organism and the characteristics of human behavior within certain groups. And just as with history, psychology and sociology exchanged research methods. For example, surveys and questionnaires come from sociology. Social learning theory itself comes from sociology. But groups came to sociology from psychology.
Psychology and pedagogy
Everything that concerns the development of children, training and education, re-education (not only children) is closely related to pedagogy. Raising children is unthinkable without knowledge of psychological characteristics and age characteristics. The training program itself must be selected taking into account the individual and personal characteristics of a person, taking into account his capabilities (development zone).
And, of course, there is a special direction - educational psychology.
- How to help a child?
- How to create conditions that correspond to its characteristics?
- How to correlate sensitive periods of development and the training program?
- How to instill the values and norms of society?
Educational psychology will answer everything.
Psychology and biology
Biology reveals our second side - innate characteristics. In addition, at the intersection of biology and psychology, zoopsychology and neuropsychology, psychogenetics arose. Biology allows you to find out organic disorders, and psychology will tell you how they affect the psyche and behavior of a person, his socialization.
Biology will also tell you what external natural factors influence the personality in each specific case, why children are sometimes born with pathologies and how this is related to the psyche. The very structure of the psyche and the structure of the brain, the functioning of the central nervous system will be deciphered by neuropsychology.
Psychology and medicine
At the junction of these sciences, medical psychology, or clinical psychology, was formed. It allows us to consider diseases and their causes, including psychological ones, in unity. On the other hand, it reveals a person’s perception of his own.
If psychology is the science of the soul, which, if necessary, corrects and rehabilitates, then clinical psychology is the science of the relationship between diseases and mental changes, and deals with treatment.
Psychology and jurisprudence, law
Is it worth talking about close cooperation between investigators and psychologists? In my opinion, it is obvious that it is impossible to “split” a person or predict the actions of a criminal if you do not know his psychological profile, do not master the methods of influence and do not know how to resist.
Psychologists are invited to complement or study. Many problems, for example, deviations, antisocial lifestyle, maladjustment, force law enforcement officers and psychologists to work together. Preventing, rehabilitating, correcting, informing is the task of legal psychology.
Psychology and Management
Can the service industry exist without knowledge of human psychology? No, absolutely not. How to interest a client, how to please him, how to decide - management psychology will answer everything.
Afterword
Thus, we can say that psychology occupies a central place in the system of all scientific knowledge. It connects all spheres of human life. Psychology is increasingly being included in various educational programs as a special or applied discipline.
In addition to the sciences described in the article, psychology is also connected with political science, economics, and construction. In general, everything that concerns human life. Plato also called psychology the queen of all sciences. Although it began to be recognized as a separate science later (mid-19th century - early 20th century). A. Kedrov’s classification remains relevant to this day, in which he placed psychology at the center, and made philosophical, technical and social sciences adjacent to it.
Modern psychology has many branches and their names speak for themselves (regarding the connection between psychology and other sciences):
- general psychology;
- social Psychology;
- age-related psychology;
- clinical psychology;
- pedagogical psychology;
- engineering psychology;
- differential psychology;
- gender psychology;
- comparative psychology;
- zoopsychology;
- aviation psychology;
- space psychology;
- psychophysiology;
- psychology of advertising;
- military psychology;
- parapsychology;
- psychology of management;
- environmental psychology;
- legal psychology.
The field of psychology is expanding as quickly as new professions are emerging, for example, ergonomist psychologist. His responsibilities include informing technology designers about how best to design machines, robots, and automatic machines for the human psyche (level of light, sound, location of levers, display); how and under what conditions and circumstances certain standards must be observed.
Academician B. M. Kedrov placed psychology at the center of the “triangle of sciences.” The top of this triangle is made up of the natural sciences, the lower left corner is the social sciences, and the lower right corner is the philosophical sciences (logic and epistemology). Between the natural sciences (natural and philosophical sciences) mathematics is located, between the natural and social sciences there are technical sciences. Psychology occupies a central place, uniting all three groups of sciences. It acts both as a product of all other sciences, and as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.
Psychology is closely related to the social sciences, which study human behavior. Social sciences include psychology, social psychology, sociology, political science, economics, as well as anthropology and ethnography. They are adjacent to a group of other related disciplines: philosophy, history, cultural studies, art history, literary criticism, pedagogy, aesthetics. They are classified as the humanities. Among the humanities, pedagogy has the deepest connections with psychology. Psychology is also closely connected with the natural sciences, primarily with physiology, biology, physics, biochemistry, medicine, and mathematics. At their junction, related fields arise: psychophysiology, psychophysics, bionics, medical psychology, neuropsychology, pathopsychology, etc.
Thus, psychology is a science in which social, humanitarian and natural scientific knowledge are correlated, which determines its role as a foundation in the system of sciences. Psychology integrates data from these branches of scientific knowledge and, in turn, influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. The historical mission of psychology in modern times is to be an integrator of all spheres of human knowledge and the main means of constructing its general theory. Psychology fulfills the mission of combining the natural and social sciences in the study of man into a single concept.
Recently, the connections between psychology and technical sciences have been strengthening, and related disciplines are emerging: engineering psychology, ergonomics, space and aviation psychology, etc.
The field of psychological science is a highly branched system of theoretical and applied disciplines, developing on the borders with the sciences of nature, society and man. The reasons for this development may be different. On the one hand, the demands of the practical activities of people and society encourage the formation and development of new psychological disciplines, such as engineering psychology, space psychology, educational psychology, etc. These are practical (empirical) reasons for the development of science. On the other hand, psychology includes new methods of research and knowledge. In particular, the use of physical methods in psychology gave rise to experimental psychology and psychophysics. In turn, the application of physiological methods in psychology shaped psychophysiology; the introduction of mathematical methods led to the formation of mathematical psychology, engineering psychology, and bionics. These are cognitive (epistemological) reasons for the branching of psychological sciences. Today, according to various sources, there are at least one hundred branches of psychology.
The core of modern psychology is general psychology, which studies the most general laws, regularities and mechanisms of the psyche, including theoretical concepts and experimental research. Traditionally, the branches of psychology include social, developmental, engineering, occupational psychology, clinical psychology and psychophysiology, and differential psychology. Zoopsychology studies the characteristics of the animal psyche. The human psyche is the subject of the following branches of psychology:
- * genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype;
- * differential psychology studies individual differences in the psyche of people, the prerequisites for their occurrence and the process of formation;
- * developmental psychology studies the patterns of development of the psyche of a normal healthy person; psychological characteristics and patterns inherent in each age period, from infancy to old age, and in connection with this is divided into child psychology, psychology of youth and adulthood, psychology of old age (gerontopsychology);
- * child psychology studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activity, the entire personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development;
- * educational psychology studies the patterns of personality development in the process of learning and upbringing;
- * social psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person’s personality, his relationships with people, with a group; psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people).
We can distinguish a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity:
- * labor psychology examines the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, patterns of development of labor skills;
- * engineering psychology studies the patterns of processes of interaction between humans and modern technology with the aim of using them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems and new types of technology;
- * aviation, space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activities of a pilot and cosmonaut;
- * medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor’s activities and the patient’s behavior, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy;
- * clinical psychology studies the manifestations and causes of various disorders in the psyche and behavior of a person, as well as the mental changes that occur during various illnesses. The framework of clinical psychology includes pathopsychology as a separate section, which studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the breakdown of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology;
- * legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in criminal proceedings (psychology of testimony, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the personality of the criminal;
- * military psychology studies human behavior in combat conditions.
A controversial area is parapsychology, which studies the manifestations and mechanisms of unusual “paranormal” human abilities, such as telepathy, clairvoyance, telekinesis, etc.
Thus, modern psychology is characterized by a process of differentiation, which gives rise to its significant branching into separate branches, which often diverge very far and differ significantly from each other, although they retain a common subject of study - facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche. The differentiation of psychology is complemented by a counter process of integration, resulting in the joining of psychology with all sciences (through engineering psychology - with technical sciences, through educational psychology - with pedagogy, through social psychology - with social and social sciences, etc.) .
In practical psychology, there is such an important area as psychological counseling on a variety of problems (unsettled personal life and troubles in the family, problems of relationships between spouses, parents and children, deviations in the development of children, difficulties in studying at school or at university, difficulties at work, choice of profession, conflicts with colleagues and management, etc.). Another area of practical psychology is psychological correction and psychotherapy, aimed at providing psychological assistance to the client to neutralize and eliminate the causes of his deviations, disturbances in behavior, communication, interpretation of events and information.
Canadian scientist J. Godefroy identifies the following specialties of practicing psychologists: clinical psychologist, school psychologist, industrial psychologist, educational psychologist, ergonomist psychologist, consulting psychologist.
It was founded in antiquity. The idea of people that the human body necessarily has a soul was one of the main thoughts of ancient mythology. And the first doctrine about the soul is animism, which assumed the existence of invisible ghosts behind living people.
Such scientists as Heraclitus, Hippocrates and Democritus made their contribution to the doctrine of the soul, with the help of whom the concepts of temperament and its types were introduced into psychology. The ideas of causality and regularity put forward by ancient Greek thinkers formed the basis of the entire future Formula of Heraclitus: “Know yourself” meant the beginning of human activity in cultivating a rational being who knows how to manage his feelings, needs and desires.
The history of the development of psychology as a science in the Middle Ages is associated with the fight against paganism and the reign of Christianity and other world religious teachings on the globe. Ibn Sina, Thomas Aquinas, Leonardo da Vinci, linking the internal characteristics of a person with natural ones, developed concepts of what can be improved through targeted educational processes. introduces truly scientific concepts into psychology. Among them are the definition of reflex, thinking, will, and intelligence. And finally, in the 19th century, when perfect anatomical studies of man were carried out and it became clear that the soul does not exist in visible substance, the formation of psychology as a special science began.
A lot of time has passed since then. Psychology has become a separate branch, without which a full study of human essence is impossible. And it did not develop separately from other sciences. It was the relationship between psychology and other sciences that made it possible to make those scientific discoveries that are today considered fundamental in the field of studying human mental properties.
The connection between psychology and other sciences is determined by the contiguity of tasks. Let's start with biology. Man is a biosocial being. And the first part of this term indicates that before you begin to delve into the psychological details of a person’s existence, you need to familiarize yourself in detail with his biological data, especially with the characteristics of the central nervous system. And the second part of the term we are considering directly indicates another very close relationship between psychology and other sciences, among which social sciences occupy one of the first places. Psychology cannot develop without history, since it was the achievements of historical civilizations that made possible the formation of the highest human beings. Without tools and sign systems, mathematical or alphabetic, it is impossible to imagine what would happen to a person.
Further, the connection between psychology and other sciences clearly appears in the emergence of such a science as Man outside society is impossible. He immediately turns into an animal. His psyche can be formed and developed only in society. Therefore, sociology is another basis for the success of psychological research.
Man from birth is no different from his smaller brothers. His consciousness and thinking develop over time, under the influence of educational and educational processes. Therefore, another connection between psychology and other sciences is determined through its relationship with pedagogy, which is a science that is directly related to the formation of individual personality traits.
And finally, the direct connection of psychology with other sciences is noted through its philosophical foundations, which were mentioned earlier. The nature of human existence and individual inner qualities are closely related. Therefore, the philosophical view is also used in psychological science.
The concept of psychology is of Greek origin (soul, teaching). This is the science of the soul, knowledge of the soul in the literal sense of the word.
Psychology is the science of consciousness, the psyche and the laws of its manifestation and development.
Everyday knowledge is called knowledge that is not exactly verified, but is obtained through the everyday experience of each individual person. This knowledge is not reliable and reliable enough. This knowledge is obtained from observations, from comparisons, from the state of one’s own soul, and therefore there is a lot of subjectivity here.
Scientific knowledge is such knowledge about the psychology of people that is considered sufficiently correct and accurate, and its correctness can be proven using scientific mathematical calculations.
There is a two-way relationship between psychology and other sciences: in some cases, psychology uses the achievements of other sciences to solve its problems, and in others, sciences use psychological knowledge to explain or solve certain issues. Interdisciplinary connections between psychology and other sciences contribute to their mutual development and application in practice.
In developing questions, psychology relies on data from biology, in particular anatomy and physiology, and on the doctrine of higher nervous activity. In turn, psychology data are widely used in medicine, in particular psychiatry. Pedagogy widely uses psychological laws of teaching and upbringing. At the same time, psychology is based on pedagogical data in the study of the psychology of personality formation. Psychology is closely connected with literature, linguistics, history, art, cybernetics, etc.
Physiology, sociology, and philosophy form the basis of psychology. Physiology, by studying the mechanisms of functioning of the body, allows psychologists to understand the most complex forms of mental activity and to establish the relationship between physical health and mental health. The most important psychological category - self-regulation - is developed on the basis of the physiology of higher nervous activity, which ensures the “balancing” of the organism with the environment and understanding of oneself in it.
Many phenomena of mental activity cannot be fully understood and explained by a physiological approach. It is necessary to understand the influence of society on the individual: the psychology of interpersonal relationships, the psychology of groups, families, collectives, and the psychology of society emphasize the importance of the influence of society on consciousness, which is the connection between psychology and sociology. The connection between psychology and philosophy is the most direct. Since the time of Plato, the connection between the soul (irrational) and spirit (rational) has been considered. Limiting the subject of modern psychology to the study of the soul is unjustified, and its expansion includes the concept of spirit as a force of self-determination, as an active determination that realizes rational needs. In relationships with people, the spirit manifests itself as spirituality, as a sense of duty, conscience, desire to do good; in relations with nature - as a desire to create beauty, to create, to prevent destruction in the spiritual and material, to strive for harmony.
TICKET 1 The subject of psychology, its tasks. Branches of psychology. The connection between psychology and other sciences.
At first, the subject of its study was the soul, then consciousness, then human behavior and his unconscious, etc., depending on the general approaches that psychologists adhered to at certain stages of the development of science.
Currently, there are two views on the subject of psychology. According to the first of them, the subject of studying psychology are mental processes, mental states and mental properties of the individual . According to the second, the subject of this science is facts of mental life, psychological laws and mechanisms of mental activity .
Tasks of psychology:
· study of mental mechanisms phenomena and processes V ;
· analysis of patterns of development of mental phenomena and processes in the process of ontogenesis, social interaction of people and labor activity;
· all possible introduction of knowledge of psychological science into the practice of people's lives and activities.
Branches of psychology:
1. General psychology - studies the individual, highlighting his cognitive processes and personality. With their help, a person receives and processes information about the world
General psychology
Psychology of cognitive processes Personality psychology
(sensations, perception, attention) (Emotions, will, abilities)
2. Genetic – hereditary mechanisms of psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype
3. Social – human relationships, phenomena that arise in the process of communication and interaction of people with each other in different types of groups, in particular in the family and school
4. Pedagogical – combines information about training and education
The connection between psychology and other sciences.
The teachings of Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle became the starting point and basis for the development of psychological ideas. In the 3rd century BC. Alexandrian doctors Geophilus and Erasiast studied the dependence of mental functions on brain stimulation. It turned out that not the body as a whole, but certain of its organs are inextricably linked with the psyche. In the 2nd century BC. The Roman physician Galen, summarizing the achievements of physiology and medicine, enriched the understanding of the physiological basis of the psyche. So psychology is related to biology
The influence of mathematics, in particular the discovery of integral and differential calculus, affected the doctrine of the unconscious psyche. The picture of mental life now appeared in the form of an integral. Psychology is related to mathematics.
Psychology and philosophy. Philosophy and psychology are united by historical roots and modern problems. In ancient times, psychology, like many other sciences, was part of philosophy. Gradually, the exact, natural, social, and human sciences emerged from philosophy. In the present, philosophy no longer acts as the “queen of sciences,” but as one of many equal disciplines.
TICKET 2 Methods of psychological cognition. Classification of methods according to B.G. Ananyev.
They distinguish the following four groups of methods:
Organizational methods
comparative method (comparison of different groups by age, activity, etc.);
longitudinal method (multiple examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time);
complex method (representatives of various sciences participate in the study, and, as a rule, one object is studied by different means. Research of this kind makes it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of different types, for example, between the physiological, psychological and social development of the individual).
Empirical methods
observation and self-observation;
experimental methods (laboratory, natural, formative);
psychodiagnostic methods (tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometry, interviews, conversation);
analysis of activity products; biographical methods.
Data processing methods
quantitative (statistical);
qualitative (differentiation of material into groups, analysis) methods.
Interpretive methods
genetic analysis of the material in terms of development (dynamics), highlighting individual phases, stages, critical moments, transitions from one level of development to another, etc.);
structural (establishes structural connections between all personality characteristics) methods.
TICKET 3 General patterns of mental development. The essence of mental development in ontogenesis.
L.S. Vygotsky identified the following laws of mental development:
1. Child development has a logical organization in time: its own rhythm, which changes from year to year;
2. law of metamorphosis in child development: development is a chain of qualitative changes (a child, unlike adults, not only knows and can do less, he has a qualitatively different psyche);
3. law of unevenness child development: each aspect of the psyche has its own optimal period of development;
4. law of development of higher mental functions: HMFs arise initially as a form of collective behavior, then become internal, individual functions of the child himself. Their signs: indirectness, awareness, arbitrariness, systematicity. They are formed as a result of mastering special tools developed during the historical development of society.
The process of mental development follows its own special patterns:
1. Socialization. A human child develops in a fundamentally different way than an animal cub, which has rigid species-specific behavioral programs - instincts.
2. Interiorization– the assimilation of external social norms, during which the child learns the means of activity and communication, on the basis of which his consciousness and personality are formed.
3. Communication- the leading activity of ontogenesis, a specific type of human activity, during which information is transmitted in a concentrated and adapted form, which is therefore easily absorbed and processed
4. Needs and leading activities– a source of mental development.
5. Continuity- this is the use in mental development of the achievements of previous stages
TICKET 4 L.S. Vygotsky. Cultural-historical theory of the development of higher mental functions.
A person has 2 lines of development:
1) natural;
2) cultural (historical).
The natural developmental line is the physical, natural development of a child from the moment of birth.
With the emergence of communication with the outside world, a cultural line of development arises.
1. NPF - natural: sensations, perception, children's thinking, involuntary memory.
2. VPF - cultural, social; - the result of historical development: abstract thinking, speech, voluntary memory, voluntary attention, imagination.
HMF are complex mental processes that develop during life, social in origin. The distinctive features of HMF are their indirect nature and arbitrariness.
HPFs arose with the help of a sign. A sign is an instrument of mental activity. This is an artificially created stimulus, a means for controlling YOUR behavior and the behavior of others.
A sign, as a purely cultural means, arose and is used in culture.
The history of the development of mankind is the history of the development of a sign. The more powerful the development of signs in generations, the more developed the HMF.
Painting has a sign system (example: rock painting, pictographic writing - a conventional image of the named word).
A sign can be called gestures, speech, notes, painting. The word, like oral and written speech, is also a sign.
HMF are possible initially as a form of cooperation with other people, and subsequently become individual (example: speech is a means of communication between people, but in the course of development it becomes internal and begins to perform an intellectual function)
Speaking about the existence of natural and higher mental functions, Vygotsky comes to the conclusion that the main difference between them is the level of voluntariness. Natural processes cannot be controlled, but higher mental functions can.
The main way of emergence of higher mental functions is interiorization(transfer to the internal plane, “growing”) of social forms of behavior into a system of individual forms. This process is not mechanical.
Higher mental functions arise in the process of cooperation and social communication - and they also develop from primitive roots on the basis of lower ones.
Vygotsky argued that mental development does not follow maturation, but is determined by the active interaction of the individual with the environment in the zone of his immediate mental development.
The driving force of mental development is learning. Development and learning are different processes. Development is the process of formation of a person or personality, accomplished through the emergence of new qualities at each stage. Education is an internally necessary moment in the process of developing in a child the historical characteristics of humanity.
TICKET 5 Man as a subject, personality and individuality
Man is the most general concept that indicates belonging to the human race (homo sapiens) and serves to characterize the universal properties and qualities inherent in all people; a natural phenomenon that has, on the one hand, a biological principle, and on the other hand, a spiritual one - the ability for deep abstract thinking, articulate speech (which distinguishes us from animals), high learning ability, assimilation of cultural achievements, a high level of social (public) organization. Psychology connects the dignity of a person as an individual with his inherent psychological properties and qualities.
Personality is a social individual, a subject of social relations, activity and communication. The very concept of personality characterizes the outcome of an individual’s development and is an expression of his social essence. The peculiarity here is that if they are born as human individuals, they become individuals. Personality is developed through a long process. Personality in psychology is a systemic social quality of a person, the main integral characteristic of his inner world, a measure of his development as a bearer of consciousness, intelligence, culture, morality, defender and creator of human values.
The subject of activity is a person in the totality of such properties that affect, first of all, his educational, work, and play activities. This is transformative activity, the creation of one’s own life path, selectivity in the perception of information, motives for displaying behavior, and independence.
A subject is a person at the highest level of his activity, integrity, and autonomy. Each person must respect the other - his independence, his own opinion, the original performance of activities (rhythm, tempo, volume). The student's subjectivity is manifested in selectivity to knowledge and the world, the stability of this selectivity, ways of studying educational material, and an emotional and personal attitude towards the objects of knowledge.
An indispensable and important feature of personality is individuality, which is understood as the unity of the unique personal properties of a particular person. This is also the uniqueness of his psychophysical structure (temperament, physical data, mental characteristics), intelligence, worldview, life experience, social characteristics, the ability to be responsible for his personal appearance, to have value and significance in the eyes of society.
In a person, his properties as a person and a subject of activity are united and interconnected, in the structure of which the natural properties of a person as an individual function. Therefore, individuality consists of all the characteristics of a person. All his qualities, innate and acquired, are united in his personality. In its holistic structure, one can only conditionally speak about the neutrality of biological properties in the acquisition of social qualities.
Ticket 6 Age periodization: concept, essence, approaches. Social situation of mental development. Neoplasms of age. Sensitive periods.
Age periodization is the division of a person’s life cycle into separate periods and determination of the age boundaries of these periods.
Social development situation was defined by L.S. Vygotsky as a special combination of internal development processes and external conditions that are typical for each age stage and determine the dynamics of mental development during the corresponding age period and new qualitatively unique psychological formations that arise towards its end.
Social development situation- this is the established system of relationships between the child and the environment (with adults). It is within the framework of the social situation of development that the child arises and develops. leading type (type) of activity.
Leading activity is the activity of the child, which he carries out within the social situation of development.
Age, L.S. Vygotsky defined as an objective category to designate three points:
Visually - effective.
In the course of historical development, people solved the problems that confronted them, first in practice and then in theory. Visually - effective thinking is thinking in which the dominant activity is practical activity
Visually - figurative.
In its simplest form it occurs mainly in preschool children. During the analysis and synthesis of a cognizable object, the child does not always have to feel the object that interests him. Preschoolers think only in visual images and do not yet master concepts
Abstract.
It arises on the basis of practical and visual-sensual experience. Thinking arises in the form of abstract concepts and judgments.
Thinking operations:
Comparison – comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences
Analysis (dividing an object into its constituent parts ) and synthesis (connection of individual parts of objects) - inextricably linked. In unity they give complete and comprehensive knowledge of reality
Abstraction – mental selection of essential properties and features of objects while abstracting from non-essential properties
Generalization (associated with abstraction - objects and phenomena are connected together) and specification (mental representation of something individual that corresponds to the general position)
Forms of thinking:
Judgment- saying something about something, affirming or denying any relationship between objects or phenomena. A judgment can be true (there is knowledge about this subject) or false (the judgment expresses ignorance). Therefore, there is a need for mental and practical verification of judgment. Any hypothesis is a clear example of the need to verify the expressed judgment.
Conjectural propositions - which may or may not be true ("Perhaps it will rain tomorrow")
Inference- a form of thinking that allows a person to draw a new conclusion from a series of judgments
There are inductive (from particular to general) and deductive (from general to particular) inferences
Concept– is a reflection in the human mind of the distinctive features of objects and phenomena
A thought acquires in a word the necessary material shell, in which it becomes an immediate reality for its subject, other people and ourselves. Human thinking is impossible without language. Every thought arises and develops in inextricable connection with speech. The deeper and more thoroughly a thought is thought out, the more clearly and clearly it is expressed in words. And vice versa, the more the verbal formulation of a thought is improved and honed, the clearer and more understandable this thought itself becomes.
Ticket 24 Language and speech. Functions of speech. Types of speech, their characteristics.
Speech is a historically developed form of people; through language, verbal communication is carried out according to the rules of a specific language. In turn, this language is a system of phonetic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic means and rules of communication. Speech and language are a complex dialectical unity. Because speech under the influence of a number of factors (example: the development of science, etc.) changes and improves. Speech itself in phonetics is the generation of various acoustic phenomena (sounds) based on the work of the articulatory apparatus. Speech is a complex phenomenon.
The language should be the same for all people of a given ethnic group. Language allows for individual originality; the speech of each person expresses his own personality, his psychological essence. Language reflects the psychology of the people who created it and is associated with the cultural and environmental aspect. Language develops independently of a specific person, although an individual can come up with a word and a combination of words, which will later become part of the language (Mayakovsky invented words).
Types of speech:
1. External and internal speech. External – loud, oral speech. The internal one is formed from the external one. Inner speech has the function of planning and regulation. It is predicative: it outlines, draws up a diagram, a plan. Collapsed, flows in short bursts.
2. Dialogue and monologue speech. Dialogical - alternately with someone else. Earlier and simpler. Monologue – speech of one person addressed to others. More complex. The content and internal resources must be very large, because no one will advise or help.
3. Oral and written speech. Oral – earlier, simpler, situational. A person usually learns it himself. Written – later, complex, contextual speech. It is learned from other people.
4. Descriptive speech – associated with perception and representation, the most complex type of speech.
Speech functions:
1. Communicative – a means of communication or message.
2. Expressive - expression of an emotional state, this appears in rhythm, pauses, intonations, modulations, stylistic features.
3. Regulatory - a person, with the help of speech, regulates his own and others’ actions and mental processes and states.
4. Intellectual - subtypes: indicative (indication), nominative (naming), significative (designation), programming - construction of semantic schemes of speech utterances.
Ticket 25 The concept of imagination. Functions. Types of imagination and ways of creating images of imagination.
Imagination is a mental process consisting of the creation of new images (ideas) by processing the material of perception and ideas obtained in previous experience.
Functions:
ü goal setting and planning. The future result and the possibilities of achieving it are initially created in the imagination of the subject;
ü educational. Imagination carries out a mental retreat beyond the limits of what is directly perceived, constructs a concept about an object even before this concept itself is formed;
ü adaptive. In the child’s psyche, a conflict arises between an excess of external information and a lack of means necessary to understand and explain the environment
Involuntary or passive imagination. It is the simplest type of imagination and consists in the emergence and combination of ideas and their elements into new ideas without a specific intention on the part of a person, with a weakening of conscious control on his part over the course of his ideas.
Voluntary or active imagination. It represents the deliberate construction of images in connection with a consciously set task in one or another type of activity. Such an active imagination already develops in children's games, in which children take on certain roles (pilot, train driver, doctor, etc.).
Recreating imagination. It occurs in cases where a person, based on one description, must imagine an object that he has never perceived before.
Creative imagination. A characteristic feature of this type of imagination is the creation of new images in the process of human creative activity, whether it be art, science or technical activity.
TICKET 26 The role of training and upbringing in the mental development of a child at different
stages of ontogenesis.
The periodization of personality development in ontogenesis, based on the specified criteria, can be represented in the form of the following model.
The first three periods form the era of childhood, which is characterized by the dominance of the adaptation process (Adapt.) (Ind.). The era of adolescence - the period of middle school age - is characterized by the dominance of the process of individualization over the process of adaptation. The era of youth - the period of high school age - is characterized by the dominance of the integration process (Int.) over the process of individualization (Int.~>Ind.).
Social development of personality in ontogenesis occurs along two related lines: socialization(mastery of social experience, its appropriation), and individualization(acquisition of independence, relative autonomy). But a child becomes a person as a result of the implementation self-government, when he begins to organize his own life and determine one way or another his own development. At first, he does this with the help of adults, and then on his own.
In activities organized by society - both objectively practical and aimed at developing relationships - conditions are created for the development of a person as an individual. At all age transitions, the starting point is a new level of social development of the child, which determines the tendency to strengthen one or the other side of the activity, the social position of the individual.
Objectives of educational work with preschool children:
Development of curiosity, which is the basis of a child’s cognitive activity;
Protection and promotion of children's health;
Formation of cultural behavior skills;
Fostering love for one’s native land;
Fostering a tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities;
Objectives of educational work with children of primary school age:
Development of an inquisitive mind, the ability to observe, reason, generalize information about objects and phenomena of the surrounding world;
Mastering knowledge about the world around us, about man;
Education of patriotic feelings;
Nurturing an emotional and value-based attitude towards the world around us;
Developing the need to care for others;
Objectives of educational work with adolescents:
Further development of cognitive interests, critical thinking of a maturing person in the process of perceiving social information;
Development of moral culture, civic responsibility, respect for social norms, fostering a tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities;
Strengthening the conviction of pupils that kindness, mercy, love for people are the highest values of human life, that no social conditions, including market economic relations, can abolish or question them;
Formation of experience in applying acquired knowledge to solve problems in the field of interpersonal relationships in the classroom, family, and in the field of civil and social activities;
Objectives of educational work with youth:
Mastering a system of knowledge about various spheres of human activity, including economic, necessary to fulfill the social role of a person and citizen;
Formation of the ability to critically comprehend and systematize social information;
Formation of skills in applying acquired knowledge to solve problems in civil and social activities, family and everyday life, in the field of social relations;
Consolidating and enriching the experience of performing socially significant actions;
Fostering a tolerant attitude towards people of other nationalities and religions;
Formation of the ability to counteract antisocial manifestations;
TICKET 27 Theoretical foundations of play as the leading activity of a preschooler.
The structure of the game, the conditions for its occurrence.
Play is a leading activity in the development of a child, not only in terms of time, but also in the strength of the influence it has on the developing personality.
D. B. Elkonin, in his fundamental study “Psychology of Game” (1972), examines this problem from a historical perspective.
He emphasizes that the psychological interpretation of the game for a long time remained at the level of phenomenological descriptions, in which the main characteristics of this activity gradually emerged. V. Preyer noticed in it a manifestation of “...a living child’s imagination, which transforms scraps of paper into cups and boats, into animals and people.”
Game theories appeared at the end of the 19th century. Philosophers (F. Schiller, G. Spencer) saw the reason for the emergence of play in the fact that after satisfying natural needs, “excess strength itself encourages activity.” In this sense, play is an aesthetic activity, since it does not serve practical purposes. This theory of excess strength is later developed by K. Groos in his works “The Game of Animals” and “The Game of Man,” emphasizing the similarities of one and the other.
A detailed development of the theory of children's play is given by L. S. Vygotsky in the lecture “Game and its role in the mental development of the child”
His main ideas boil down to the following.
The game must be understood as the imaginary realization of currently unrealizable desires. But these are already generalized desires that allow delayed implementation. The criterion of the game is the creation of an imaginary situation. In the very affective nature of play lies the moment of an imaginary situation.
Playing with an imaginary situation always includes rules. What is unnoticeable in life becomes a rule of behavior in the game. If a child plays the role of a mother, he acts according to the rules of behavior of the mother.
For play to emerge, it is necessary to create a complete environment for the development of children and enrich their experience. This can be done in several ways.
Firstly, through observing the behavior of adults and peers, discussing their actions at the table, before bed, while washing, changing clothes, while walking, commenting on what children see.
Secondly, children should be involved in all possible participation in the life of the family and preschool educational institutions. Thirdly, through reading children's books to them, jointly looking at and discussing pictures, telling children understandable and interesting episodes from the lives of adults, other children, and animals.
In the structure of the game, D. B. Elkonin identifies the following components:
1) role,
2) game actions to realize the role,
3) game substitution of objects,
4) real relationships between playing children. But these components are typical for a fairly developed role-playing game.
TICKET 28 The concept of communication, functions, structure. Typology of communications.
Communication- connections between people, during which psychological contact arises, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience, mutual understanding.
There are several classifications of communication functions. V. N. Panferov identifies six of them:
§ communicative(implementation of the relationship between people at the level of individual, group and social interaction)
§ informational(exchange of information between people)
§ cognitive(understanding meanings based on ideas of imagination and fantasy)
§ emotive(manifestation of an individual’s emotional connection with reality)
§ conative(control and correction of mutual positions)
§ creative(development of people and the formation of new relationships between them)
When characterizing the structure of communication, it is usually distinguished its three interconnected sides: communicative, interactive and perceptual.
Communication side- consists of the exchange of information between people. Understanding a person by a person is associated with the establishment and maintenance of communication.
Interactive side - consists in organizing interaction between individuals, i.e. sharing not only knowledge, but also actions.
Perceptual side- means the process of communication partners perceiving each other and establishing mutual understanding on this basis
Communications in an organization are classified into the following types:
1. According to the form of communication - verbal and non-verbal communications.
2. By subjects and means of communication - interpersonal communications and organizational (communications using technical means, information technologies).
3. Through communication channels - formal and informal.
4. By organizational basis (by spatial arrangement of channels): vertical and horizontal.
5. By direction of communication: downward and upward communications.
TICKET 29 Interpersonal relationships in a children's team. Study methods
interpersonal relationships.
As you know, a child’s need to communicate with peers arises somewhat later than his need to communicate with adults. But it is precisely during the school period that it is already expressed very clearly and, if it does not find its satisfaction, then this leads to an inevitable delay in social development. And it is the peer group that the child joins at school that creates the most favorable conditions for proper development. The age group of a primary school class is not an amorphous association of children with spontaneously developing random relationships and connections. These relationships and connections already represent a relatively stable system in which each child, for one reason or another, occupies a certain place.
Among them, an important role is played by both the child’s personal qualities, his various skills and abilities, and the level of communication, etc. In a group, a primary school student realizes the need for social conformity: the desire to meet social requirements, follow the rules of social life, be socially valuable. relationships in the group, which is largely determined by character. This encourages the child to show interest in peers and look for friends. The children's team actively forms interpersonal relationships. Communicating with peers, a junior schoolchild acquires personal experience of relationships in society, socio-psychological qualities (the ability to understand classmates, tactfulness, politeness, ability to interact). It is interpersonal relationships that provide the basis for feelings and experiences, allow for an emotional response, and help develop self-control.
Interpersonal interaction is determined by several mechanisms of mutual influence:
A) Conviction. This is the process of logical justification of any judgment or conclusion. Persuasion involves a change in the consciousness of the interlocutor or audience that creates a willingness to defend a given point of view and act in accordance with it.
B) Mental infection. It “is carried out through the perception of mental states, moods, experiences.” [N. P. Anikeeva. To the teacher about the psychological climate in the team. - M., 1983, p.6]. Children are especially susceptible to infection, since they do not yet have firm life beliefs, life experience, and have the ability to easily adapt and accept different attitudes.
B) Imitation. It is aimed at the child’s reproduction of external behavioral traits or the internal logic of the mental life of another significant person.
D) Suggestion. Occurs when there is trust in the speaker’s messages and generates a willingness to act in accordance with the assigned attitudes. Children are also especially sensitive to suggestion, since teachers and parents have authority in their eyes, so they know how to think and act.
The following methods of studying interpersonal relationships are distinguished:
Sociometric method- study of interpersonal relationships in a group. The technique was developed by the American psychologist J. Moreno and is intended for assessing interpersonal relationships of an informal type: likes and dislikes, attractiveness and preference.
Referentometric method identifying a special aspect of interpersonal relationships in a group, namely the referentiality (significance) of group members for each individual included in it. The technique allows you to quickly obtain data regarding the characteristics of interpersonal relationships in a group, gives an idea of the status structure, reciprocity of preferences, groupings based on a value factor. - Studying the motivational core of interpersonal choices – the essence is contained in the very name of this technique. The methodological procedure for identifying the motivational core of interpersonal choices involves two main experimental stages. In the first of them, using either a sociometric or referentometric procedure, the picture (reliability) of intragroup interpersonal preferences is clarified (the status of each group member is revealed). At the second experimental stage of the methodological procedure under consideration, each subject must compile list rows of his group, ordered by certain qualities.
Studying team cohesion(method of R.O. Nemov). All group members are asked to indicate ten positive and negative characteristics of a phenomenon that is significant to the group (for example, their leader, the characteristics of their team, their joint activities, the group’s prospects, etc.). Then, based on their answers, two sets of positive and negative characteristics are compiled so that they include characteristics named by at least one member of the group.
TICKET 30 Education and development. Development zones according to L.S. Vygotsky.
The zone of proximal development is a term used to define the relationship between the learning process and a child's mental development. The concept was introduced by the Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky in the early 1930s; it traditionally acts as a fundamental position in educational and developmental psychology.
Vygotsky explained that since learning processes follow first, and development processes are somewhat delayed, there are always small discrepancies between them ( zone of proximal development). This category indicates the differences between what a child can achieve independently (the level of actual development) and what he is able to do under the guidance of an adult. The level of actual development is determined by the processes emerging in the zone of proximal development - accordingly, the child first performs any action with the help of an adult, and only then is able to repeat it alone.
To support his theory, Vygotsky gave the example of two eight-year-old boys who first took an intelligence test for their age individually, and then, under the guidance of an experimenter, solved problems of a more complex level. In the second case, the results corresponded to the mind