Consultation "cognitive - speech development". Oral speech can be prepared or unprepared

Experienced speakers sometimes give brilliant speeches without preparation, but these are usually short speeches (welcomes, toasts, etc.). A lecture, report, political review, parliamentary speech, that is, speeches of large, serious genres, require careful preparation.

First, it is necessary to define and precisely formulate the topic; it must be relevant and interesting for the given audience. When choosing a topic, you should also think about the title of the lecture (report, message); it should not only reflect the content of the speech, but also attract the attention of future listeners and affect their interests. Titles must be specific. For example, from two options for titles - “The fight against corruption” and “Who takes bribes and how to fight it? " - the second one is preferable. Headlines can be appealing (“Let’s unite against the mafia!”), advertising (“How to lose weight without dieting and pills?”), but many topics receive individual names that accurately target potential listeners (“Entrance exams to the Moscow State University of Printing Arts”, “Preparation new reform of Russian spelling and punctuation"). The speaker must clearly define for himself the purpose of the upcoming speech: he not only informs the audience by talking about certain events and facts, but also tries to form in them certain ideas and beliefs that should determine their future behavior. Ivanova S.F. Specifics of public speech. - M., 1998. P. 87

Any speech must pursue educational goals, and the speaker must, unnoticed by the listeners, introduce them to his moral ideals.

Preliminary acquaintance with the composition of the audience is of great importance. When preparing for a speech, the lecturer should find out who will come to listen to him (adults or children, young or old, educated or not, the direction of their education - humanitarian or technical; predominantly female or male composition of the audience, its national and religious characteristics). This is very important for determining not only the content of the speech, but also its style, the degree of popularity of the presentation, the choice of lexical and phraseological means and oratorical techniques to influence listeners.

The main component of preparing for a performance is the search and selection of material. Even if the speaker knows the topic of the upcoming speech well, he still prepares for it: he looks through special literature and periodicals in order to connect the topic with modern times and learn fresh facts related to the content of the speech. Depending on the theoretical preparedness of the speaker, he chooses forms of studying the material (selective or in-depth reading, skimming articles, reviews). In this case, you can turn to various reference books for statistical data, textbooks, encyclopedic dictionaries, tables, maps. When studying specific material, it is necessary to take notes and compile a summary of what you read, prepare slides and photographs for display in the audience. Having studied the material well, they usually write either the full text of the speech, or its synopsis, or theses or a plan, which is best made detailed and extremely complete. Some experienced speakers refuse to take the written text of their speech with them, but hold in their hands a “cheat sheet” in which they can find the necessary reference material (numbers, quotes, examples, arguments). The audience will forgive you if you peek at such a cheat sheet, but will immediately dislike the speaker who begins to read his speech from beginning to end “from a piece of paper.”

On a piece of paper for such a “cheat sheet” you can select large fields and write down key words on them that will help you remember this or that thesis of the speech; here you can “suggest” aphorisms, paradoxes, proverbs, anecdotes that may be useful to maintain the interest of the audience if the listeners’ attention weakens.

In the process of preparing for a speech, it is recommended to rehearse it, look at yourself in the mirror, paying attention to your usual involuntary movements that accompany speech (mannerisms: brushing hair from the forehead, scratching the back of the head, swaying, moving shoulders, gesturing, etc.). Mastering the “language of movement” is an effective way to hold the audience’s attention. Complete immobility (numbness) of the speaker during a speech is unacceptable, but excessive gesticulation and grimaces have a detrimental effect on the speech, distracting the listeners.

The speaker's posture, gestures, and facial expressions should enhance the emotionality of his speech and have their own meaning. There is a whole science about the symbolic meaning of gestures, and we have practically mastered the meaning of one or another hand movement (greeting, calling for attention, agreement, denial, rejection, threat, farewell, etc.), turning the head, etc. The speaker's gestures and facial expressions must be natural and varied, and most importantly, they must be motivated by the content of the speech. At the final stage of preparing for a speech, you need to analyze it again and again, take into account the strengths and weaknesses of the speech, and already in the audience rely on the positive.

Mastery of public speaking comes with experience. And yet you need to know the main “secrets” of oratory and learn to apply them in the audience.

A communicative task arises in cases when the speaker actively focuses his statement on a specific listener and sets himself some communicative goal: to inform, report, explain, convince, reassure, find out, etc. Ladanov I.D. Speech as the main means of communication. Ability to persuade. - M., 2004. P. 25 In this case, solving only the rational-expressive problem is not sufficient: an utterance that satisfies the speaker himself and basically adequately, from his point of view, conveys the thought, must undergo additional procedures. Thus, in order to facilitate the understanding of it by a specific listener, as well as to enhance its persuasiveness (taking into account, again, the characteristics of the addressee), it happens, for example, that it is necessary to more fully reveal the main components of a thought, to identify in more detail in verbal form the connections between them, to modify the style of the statement etc. The speaker cannot make sure that the communicative task is solved adequately without feedback, that is, without relying on the reaction of the message addressee. And, of course, it is of great importance here that the speaker takes into account the age, professional, characterological, individual, personal and other characteristics of the communication partner.

The features of planning, control, and correction of the utterance by the subject of speech depend on many conditions, for example, on the size of the time gap between preparation and external speech implementation of the utterance (prepared and unprepared, spontaneous speech). In unprepared (spontaneous) speech, we speak without preliminary thinking, for the first time and new content for ourselves, continuing to develop it in the very process of speech. Nozhin E.A. Oral presentation skills. - M., 1991. P. 128

In this case, all three tasks discussed above are combined in time. In a familiar situation of everyday communication, the subject, as a rule, begins speech, anticipating its content only in general terms. More often than not, he presents only the main gist of what he is about to present. How exactly this needs to be done (where to start, what elements of content to indicate in a word and in what sequence) is usually determined during the speech itself.

Under normal conditions of situational speech, the speaker uses paralinguistic means of communication (intonation, gesture, facial expressions) as significant elements of the message being constructed. When a speaker develops new content, he has almost no ready-made “blocks” that are an important support in stereotypical speech.

Therefore, here the rational-expressive task, combined with the mental one, acquires special importance and distracts the main efforts of the speaker. In such situations, the structure of the utterance is often distorted, and the communicative characteristics of speech deteriorate. Occasionally, in those particularly acute communication situations when the influence on the interlocutor or the success of joint activity depends on the speech characteristics of communication (for example, on the understandability of arguments), the solution of rational-expressive and communicative problems becomes the focus of the speaker’s consciousness.

Features of oral speech for the addressee

Oral speech is spoken speech. Each person has his own, unique features of the speech apparatus.

Oral speech is spoken speech

Depending on one's temperament, a person speaks quickly, slowly or at an average pace.

• Speech rate can change and depend on the emotional state of the speaker.

Psychologists say that slow speech is especially difficult to perceive, although sometimes only such speech can contribute to the fulfillment of the task for both the listener and the speaker. At the same time, there are communication situations when a fast pace of speech is necessary, for example in the work of announcers.

• Timbre of speech(the difference in sound vibrations that helps distinguish one sound from another) also characterizes oral speech .

Different timbres of speech may be perceived differently by listeners. Thus, a very high-pitched, shrill voice is more likely to cause an unpleasant reaction from listeners.

• Voice volume also affects the listener's perception and is regulated by various situations.

• Intonation(raising or lowering tone) is another characteristic of oral speech.

With the help of intonation, a person manages to convey the slightest shades of feelings. Unexpressive intonation can make it difficult to understand and communicate. The sound characteristics of oral speech are complemented by gestures and facial expressions, which makes oral speech more expressive.

Depending on various communication situations, oral speech can be prepared or unprepared. Unlike a friendly conversation, a report, speech, or response in class requires serious, thoughtful preparation from the author.

Oral speech - prepared and unprepared

• For unprepared oral speech is characteristic: repetition of thoughts, words, intermittency, speech errors, inconsistency of presentation, etc.

• Prepared oral speech more harmonious and logical in composition, the possibility of stylistic and speech errors appearing in it is much less.

For auditory perception, as already mentioned, tempo, timbre, volume, intonation are important, and for visual perception - facial expressions, gestures, appearance, clothing, hairstyle - all of these together make up features of oral speech for the addressee .

• age,
• social affiliation,
• level of education,
• mood of the audience, etc.

If an oral presentation has been prepared, then the author, of course, has thought through its composition and course, selected the necessary examples, and found means of verbal imagery.

• rearrange your performance, if necessary,
• omit any parts
• return to what was said earlier,
• to focus on an important thought, in his opinion,

although during an oral presentation the author does not always have the opportunity to correct what has already been said. The immediate emotional response of the audience indicates an immediate reaction to the words of the author. Mutual understanding between the speaker and the listener brings great pleasure to the speaker.

This is evidenced, in particular, by the hero of Chekhov’s story “A Boring Story.” The hero of the story, an old professor, calls the student audience a hundred-headed hydra that must be tamed. An experienced lecturer, he notices the fatigue of the audience in time:

“This means attention is tired. Taking this opportunity, I make some pun. All one and a half hundred faces are smiling broadly, their eyes are sparkling cheerfully, the sound of the sea can be heard for a short time... I laugh too. My attention is refreshed and I can continue.”

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Written and oral speech differ in the means of verbal expression

Speech is mostly monologue, because involves the statement of one author about the topic chosen by him.

Oral speech is dialogical and involves the participation of interlocutors (at least two) in revealing the topic. Sometimes the author chooses the form of dialogue in writing, but this happens much less often.

Participial and adverbial phrases and phrases with verbal nouns are widely used in written speech.

In oral speech they are replaced by sentences With various types of subordinate clauses, verbal constructions.

The volume of sentences in oral and written speech is also different. In oral speech, incomplete and unextended sentences are widely used, and in volume they are, as a rule, much smaller than in written speech.

Materials are published with the personal permission of the author - Ph.D. O.A. Maznevoy

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when the speech being produced was practiced in one way or another, especially long before its utterance or for a long time. Depending on the quality of such training, the degree of preparation, the nature, characteristics of the supporting speech material, the degree of its use and combination with one’s own productive beginning, prepared and partially prepared speech are distinguished.

Examples of this include retelling what was read (for example, a story), listened to (for example, a report, radio broadcast), speaking from notes (partially prepared speech), from short notes thought out in advance, orally reproducing something memorized (poems, prayers, etc.) or well thoughtful and mentally spoken. This also includes, with some reservations, oral simultaneous translation of speech in another language. Wed. also the student’s answer in the exam: he prepared for the exam at home, studying the entire volume of educational material for the course, and if he answers immediately by pulling out a ticket, then this will be a partially prepared speech; if, in addition, he specifically thinks through the specific questions of the ticket, sitting at the table for half an hour before answering, this will be an actual prepared speech. Of course, the artist’s speech on stage is prepared. The speech of a teacher giving a lecture without looking at the notes can be called prepared and unprepared. If he has given a lecture on a given topic dozens of times already, within 20 years he has learned it almost by heart (this is nothing more than preparedness). But at the same time, he adds a lot of new information to this memorized basis each time - fresh facts, clarifying reasoning, details, etc. (and this means that elements of unpreparedness and impromptu are added to the speech).

When speaking in a prepared manner, there is no sufficient degree of independence or, in another case, spontaneity. It is based on key words, remembered thoughts-statements, text structures and their parts, captured style, etc. - in someone else’s speech work or in one’s own, previously compiled.

Prepared speech is most often associated with the monologue form. But a dialogical speech can also be prepared in advance - both from the side of only one interlocutor, and from both sides. For example, if a business person very carefully prepares for important negotiations and works out in detail in advance all possible turns of the planned communication, formulating optimal remarks for any version of the partner’s speech. A correspondent going to conduct an interview determines in advance a system of questions for the interviewee; The latter is not so rarely given these questions in advance so that he can think about them and answer better. The same applies to the investigator interrogating the accused (although during the interrogation there may be moments of unprepared speech). In such cases, the culture of speech is manifested precisely in the fact of preliminary work on the future communicative act; if such preparation is not carried out, then this leads to a violation of the rules of the corresponding speech genre, a deviation from the required degree of culture of speech communication.

It should be borne in mind that prepared speaking (prepared speech) should not always be treated with more or less disdain. There are also types of it that can show the high speech culture of the subject. Speaking on the basis of oral information or obtained from reading can be, for example, an indicator of the level of development of the subject, since the retelling can be primitive, inadequate, incomplete (low level of speaking), and, conversely, accurate, meaningful, analytical, etc. (high level speaking).

Prepared oral speech (report, lecture) is characterized by thoughtfulness, a clear structure, and a certain selection of linguistic means. But at the same time, the speaker still strives to ensure that the speech is relaxed, “not in a written way,” and resembles direct communication.

Most often, oral speech is unprepared. Unprepared oral speech is characterized by spontaneity. An unprepared oral statement is formed gradually, as one realizes what should be said next, what needs to be repeated or clarified. Therefore, in spontaneous speech, longer stops and pauses are observed (between words, combinations of words, sentences, parts of statements), repetitions of individual words and even sounds (“uh”), and disruptions of begun constructions. Oral speech is characterized by less lexical accuracy, even the presence of speech errors; short sentences, often incomplete in meaning and structure; participial and participial phrases are often replaced by complex sentences.

Oral speech, like written speech, is standardized and regulated, but the norms of oral speech are different. Oral speech researchers formulate some general patterns oral form of literary language.

Oral speech

1. Features of word arrangement, word order. The main exponent of communicative articulation is intonation.
2. The tendency to dismember the statement, which is expressed in the widespread use of connecting and plug-in constructions, introductory words, etc.
3. Repeating a preposition before a postpositive (standing after the word being defined) definition.
4. The non-literal nature of the reproduction of direct speech, in which only the use of facial forms is preserved.

The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the literary language, but is most characteristic of the colloquial style.

The following are distinguished: functional varieties of oral speech:

• oral scientific speech;
• oral journalistic speech;
• types of oral speech in the field of official business communication;
• artistic speech;
• colloquial speech.

Written speech- this is speech without a direct interlocutor; its motive and intention are completely determined by the writer. As noted above, letter arose historically later than oral speech. It is an auxiliary sign system created by people, used to record audio speech. The material expression of written speech are letters - signs with which the sounds of speech are indicated. On the other hand, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of recording oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions.

Written speech expands the scope of the individual’s immediate environment, makes it possible to get acquainted with the knowledge accumulated by humanity and assimilate it. Main function written speech - recording oral speech with the goal of preserving it in space and time. Writing is used as a means of communication when direct communication is impossible, when people are separated by space and time. Since ancient times, people have exchanged written messages, many of which have survived to this day. The development of technical means of communication, in particular the telephone, has reduced the role of writing. In recent years, with the advent of the fax and the Internet, the written form of speech has again intensified.

The main property of written speech is ability to store information for a long time.

Written speech unfolds not in a temporary, but in a static space, which allows the addresser to think through the speech, return to what has already been written, turn to dictionaries and reference books, replace words, etc. This determines the characteristics of written speech.

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Written speech

1. Written speech uses bookish language, the use of which is strictly standardized.
2. The sentence - the basic unit of written speech - expresses complex logical and semantic connections, therefore written speech is characterized by complex syntactic constructions.

In sentences, isolated members of the sentence (circumstances, definitions) and inserted constructions are widely represented.

1. The order of words in a sentence is fixed. Inversion (reverse word order) of written speech is not typical, and in some cases, for example, in official business style, is unacceptable.
2. Written speech is focused on perception by the visual organs, therefore it has a clear constructive organization: it has a page numbering system, division into chapters, paragraphs, font selection, etc.

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The written form is the main form of existence of speech in scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic styles.

3. Genres of speech The genres of speech are monologue, dialogue and polylogue. Monologue- a genre formed as a result of the active speech activity of the speaker and not designed for an active simultaneous reaction of the listener. Typical for a monologue are large sections of text, consisting of structurally and meaningfully interconnected statements. A monologue is typical for scientific and official communication, and is possible in fiction and journalistic speech. In colloquial speech, a monologue is rare, usually in the communication of educated people. A monologue speech consists of three parts: introduction, main part and conclusion. Dialogue- a genre of speech consisting of a regular exchange of utterances-replicas, the linguistic composition of which is influenced by the direct perception of the speaker’s speech activity by the interlocutor. For dialogue, what is important is sufficient information content of the remarks (both insufficiency and redundancy of what is communicated make communication unsuccessful), the need for communication, the participants in the dialogue’s observance of cause-and-effect relationships in speech actions, in choosing a topic, the presence of common memory and general language knowledge. The main types of dialogue are everyday conversation, business conversation, and negotiations.

· Everyday dialogue is characterized by:

· unplanned;

· a wide variety of topics discussed (personal, social, political, etc.) and linguistic means;

· frequent deviations from the topic, jumping from one topic to another;

· absence, as a rule, of goals and the need to make decisions;

· self-presentation of personality;

· conversational style of speech.

· Business conversation has the following characteristic features:

· a differentiated approach to the subject of discussion, taking into account the communicative purpose and partners and in the interests of a clear and convincing presentation of opinions;

· speed of response to partners’ statements;

· critical assessment of partners’ opinions, proposals and objections;

· analytical approach to taking into account and assessing all factors of the problem;

· a sense of self-worth and increased competence of partners as a result of analyzing other points of view on this issue;

· a sense of ownership and responsibility in solving the problem raised in the conversation.

Negotiations are similar to business conversations in many ways. Additional signs of negotiations are differences in initial knowledge and attitudes when it is necessary to make a joint decision and equality of the parties. Polylogue- a genre of speech that arises during direct communication between several persons. Situational connectedness, spontaneity, and nonlinearity are maximally reflected in the content-semantic structure of the polylogue. The semantic and formal connection of polylogue remarks has a greater amplitude of fluctuations than in dialogue.

4. Text as a unit of speech Text- a sequence of statements united by a semantic connection, the main properties of which are independence, purposefulness, coherence and integrity. The independence of the text is associated with its limitation in space and time and its belonging to one (including a collective) author. The independence of the text is not absolute, since the text really functions only in interaction with the addressee. A part of a text (especially a large one) can acquire independence and, under certain conditions, become a separate text, for example, a chapter or paragraph of a monograph published as an article. In this case, the source text of the chapter (paragraph) may acquire some changes in structure. The purposefulness of the text lies in the fact that any text is intended for a specific communicative purpose; without such a purpose, the text is not created. The coherence of the text consists of the semantic and logical consistency of statements and parts of the text. The integrity of the text presupposes its internal organization and formalization of the content, as well as the design of the beginning and end of the work, proportionality of division into parts, designation of connections and transitions between parts, stylistic integrity, and the use of certain principles for the selection of linguistic units.

· There are 3 types of texts:

· description;

· narration;

· reasoning.

Description- this is a statement of speech, as a rule, giving a static picture, a concept about the composition and properties of an object by listing its characteristics. In the description, the object or phenomenon is not developed. An example is the description of a crime scene in judicial speech. Narration is a story about events, developing actions or states. Narration depicts dynamic situations. Reasoning- this is a type of text in which objects or phenomena are examined, their internal characteristics are revealed, and certain provisions are proven.

· Genres of texts are:

· motivation text;

· text-retrospection;

· evaluation text;

· contact text.

The indicated genres of texts are found in different functional styles of speech. In colloquial speech, motivating texts are request, advice, recommendation, wish; in business speech - order, decree, decision, instruction, instruction; in journalistic speech - appeal, advice, recommendation. A retrospective text can be a story about an incident, an incident within the framework of everyday dialogue, a scientific or journalistic article, a newspaper or official report. Evaluative texts are analytical articles, reviews, annotations, reviews. Contact-building texts are invitations, congratulations, advertising messages, personal resumes, information letters, letters of cooperation proposals.

5. Figures of speech and tropes Speech (rhetorical, stylistic) figures are any linguistic means that give imagery and expressiveness to speech. Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures of speech are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger sections of text that have special semantic significance.

· These include:

· comparison- a stylistic figure based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically formalized comparison: The faded joy of crazy years is heavy on me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin); Below him is a stream of lighter azure (M.Yu. Lermontov);

· ascending gradation- a figure of speech consisting of two or more units placed in increasing intensity of meaning: I ask you, I really ask you, I beg you;

· descending gradation- a figure that creates a comic effect by violating the principle of growth: The Lady who is not afraid of the devil himself and even the mouse (M. Twain);

· zeugma- a figure of speech that creates a humorous effect due to grammatical or semantic heterogeneity and incompatibility of words and combinations: He drank tea with his wife, with lemon and with pleasure; It was raining and three students, the first was in a coat, the second was going to university, the third was in a bad mood;

· pun- a figure representing a play on words, a deliberate combination in one context of two meanings of the same word or the use of similarities in the sound of different words to create a comic effect: There are no colors in her creations, but there are too many of them on her face (P.A. Vyazemsky );

· antithesis- a stylistic figure based on the opposition of compared concepts. The lexical basis of this figure is antonymy, the syntactic basis is parallelism of constructions. Example: It's easy to make friends, hard to separate; The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;

· oxymoron- a figure of speech consisting of attributing to a concept a sign that is incompatible with this concept, in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning: a living corpse; young old men; hurry up slowly.

Syntactic figures of speech are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. In syntactic figures of speech, the main role is played by the syntactic form, although the nature of the stylistic effect largely depends on the semantic content. According to the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, figures of subtraction and figures of addition are distinguished.

Decrease figures include:

· ellipsis- a stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that one of the components of the statement is not mentioned, is omitted in order to give the text more expressiveness and dynamism: The foxes decided to bake a rabbit, and the rabbit from the oven - jumped onto the stove, then onto the bench and into the window from the bench (Kozlovsky );

· aposiopesis- deliberately incomplete statement: He will return and then...;

· prosyopesis- omission of the initial part of the statement, for example, the use of a patronymic instead of a given name and patronymic;

· rest in peace- a combination of two sentences characteristic of colloquial speech into one statement containing a common member: There is a man sitting there waiting for you.

· Addition figures include:

· repeat- a figure consisting of the repetition of a word or sentence with the purpose of emphasizing, strengthening a thought;

· anadiplosis (snatch)- a figure of speech constructed in such a way that a word or group of words is repeated at the beginning of the next segment: It will come, big as a sip, - a sip of water during the summer heat (Rozhdestvensky);

· prolepsa- simultaneous use of a noun and a pronoun replacing it: Coffee, it’s hot.

Based on the location of the components of a syntactic structure, a figure of speech such as inversion is distinguished. Inversion- this is a rearrangement of the syntactic components of a sentence, violating their usual order: He dug up worms, brought fishing rods; Your fences have a cast iron pattern (A.S. Pushkin). Expanding the function of a syntactic construction lies at the heart of the rhetorical question. A rhetorical question- the sentence is interrogative in structure, but narrative in purpose of the statement. Rhetorical questions are widespread in both oratory and colloquial speech: Don’t I know him, this lie with which he is soaked? (L.N. Tolstoy).

· The following speech figures are based on the interaction (similarity or dissimilarity) of the structures of syntactic constructions occurring together in the text:

· parallelism- identical structure of two or more text segments: In what year - calculate, in what land - guess... (N.A. Nekrasov);

· chiasmus- “crossing”, variable position of repeating components of two adjacent text segments: The Mouse is afraid of the Bear - The Bear is afraid of the Mouse; Poetry grammar and grammar of poetry - the title of the article by R. Jacobson;

· anaphora- repetition of the initial parts of a sentence or other segments of speech: He fell down... And he was in power! He fell... not a minute for us either... (N.A. Nekrasov);

· epiphora- repetition of the final parts of speech segments: We will be gone! And at least that would mean something to the world. The trail will disappear! And at least something for the world (Omar Khayyam).

speech qualities and ways to achieve them

Qualities of speech and ways to achieve them. Speech qualities are properties of speech that ensure the effectiveness of communication and characterize the level of speech culture of the speaker. Professor B.N. Golovin considered the main qualities of speech to be “correctness, accuracy, purity, clarity, logic, richness, expressiveness and appropriateness of speech.” (page 43; 5) Correctness of speech is the quality of speech, consisting in the correspondence of its sound (spelling), lexical and grammatical structure and literary norms accepted in the language. Correctness is the basic quality of speech, which provides speech with other, more complex qualities, such as expressiveness, richness, and logic.

Correct speech is achieved through knowledge of the norms of the literary language and their careful application when constructing speech. The accuracy of speech is the communicative quality of speech, consisting in the correspondence of its semantic side to the reflected reality and the communicative intent of the speaker. The accuracy of speech depends on the correct use of words, the ability to choose the necessary synonym, taking into account polysemy and homonymy, and the correct combination of words. Reasons for impaired speech accuracy: syntactic homonymy unnoticed by the speaker, the use of long, similar grammatical constructions, violation of the word order in a sentence, cluttering the sentence with isolated phrases and inserted constructions, speech redundancy and insufficiency. Accuracy of speech is achieved on the basis of clear ideas about the meanings of words, the ability to accurately use synonyms, and distinguish between contexts of use of polysemantic words.

Relevance of speech is strict compliance of the structure and stylistic features of speech with the conditions and objectives of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, and the individual characteristics of the author and addressee.

The appropriateness of speech presupposes the ability to use the stylistic resources of the language in accordance with the communication situation.

There are stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological relevance. The appropriateness of speech is ensured by a correct understanding of the situation and knowledge of the stylistic features of words and stable figures of speech. (p65; 6) The richness of speech is a set of linguistic means (lexical, grammatical, stylistic) that an individual person owns and skillfully uses in accordance with the situation. The richness of speech is determined by a person’s ability to express the same thought, the same grammatical meaning in different ways.

The richness of speech is associated with the variety of means used by speakers to express thoughts, synonyms, ways of constructing a statement, and organizing the text. To achieve this quality, you need to replenish your vocabulary by reading literature, periodicals, pay attention to the grammatical and stylistic features of the texts you read, think about the nuances of the meanings of words, notice cliches and hackneyed phrases.

Expressiveness of speech is the quality of speech, consisting in the choice of such linguistic means that make it possible to enhance the impression of the statement, arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, and influence his mind and feelings. The conditions for expressive speech are the speaker’s independence of thinking and his inner conviction in the significance of the statement, as well as the ability to choose original ways of conveying the content of his thoughts.

Expressiveness of speech is achieved by using artistic techniques, figures of speech and tropes, proverbs, phraseological units, and catchphrases. Purity of speech is the absence of unnecessary words, weed words, non-literary words (slang, dialect, obscene). Purity of speech is achieved on the basis of a person’s knowledge of the stylistic characteristics of the words used, thoughtfulness of speech and the ability to avoid verbosity, repetition and weed words (that means, so to speak, so, strictly speaking, sort of). The logic of speech is the logical relationship of statements with each other.

Clarity of speech is the quality of speech, which consists in the fact that speech requires the least effort in perception and understanding despite the complexity of its content. Clarity of speech is achieved by its correctness and accuracy in conjunction with the speaker's attention to the awareness and speech skills of the interlocutor. Clarity of speech is associated with the speaker’s desire to make his speech easy to understand for his communication partner. Clarity is very important for the effectiveness of speech. 6. The ability to listen In everyday life, each person in the process of communication affirms his own “I”, his assessment of certain phenomena, his attitude towards them. Thanks to experience, knowledge, and abilities, people develop personal principles and rules of varying depth and degree of development, which allow them to consider something proven and something doubtful.

But this happens until the dispute encounters an opponent who masters the theory and practice of argumentation, its entire arsenal, or when one’s own argumentation becomes the object of criticism, refutation, or simply serious consideration. The practice of argumentation, of course, is richer and more diverse than any theory, but the theory must provide an element of systematicity and predictability of results. “One of the laws of communication says: all other things being equal, the point of view of the person who is personally prettier, more pleasant, and gives the impression of being “one of our own” is most readily accepted. (p21;7) What is needed for this? A lot, but, above all, be able to identify the interlocutor by psychotype, adapt to him, use his lexical turns, manners.

The success of communication depends not only on the ability to speak, but also no less on the ability to listen. Scientists have discovered a significant gap between the amount of information expressed during a business conversation and the amount of information perceived by the listener. It has been experimentally established that when perceiving speech by ear, a person on average reaches only a 25% level of efficiency in 10 minutes.

Even in informal conversations, the listener absorbs on average no more than 60-70% of what the interlocutor says. Thus, listening skills are an important factor influencing the course and outcome of a business conversation or negotiation. 7. Psychological mechanisms of human social adaptation Before talking about the psychological mechanisms of the process of social adaptation, it is necessary to clarify the content of the concept of “adaptation” in the context of this chapter.

In the literature devoted to this problem, it has already become common place to mention that the term “adaptation” arose within the framework of physiological science and related to the process of adapting the auditory or visual analyzer to the action of a stimulus. (p43;8) Later it spread to a wider a range of phenomena characterizing the adaptation of the structure and functions of the body to environmental conditions. Several decades ago, this term was borrowed by sociology and psychology to describe phenomena relating to human development of various spheres of the natural and social environment.

The transfer of the concept that characterizes the universal property of living matter to adapt to constantly changing external conditions into the humanitarian field entailed a number of theoretical and methodological disputes. Basically, these disputes concerned the legitimacy of the interpretation of adaptation as an adaptation to environmental conditions for humans.

In humans, the development of the psyche, including its highest form - consciousness - has reached such a level that behavior and activity have become the determining factor in its adaptation. A person, in the process of his life, transforms the external environment, adapting it to his needs. The fact that he carries out a significant part of the transformations consciously distinguishes him from other representatives of the animal world. According to V.P. Kaznacheeva: “Adaptation in a broad sense is the process of human adaptation to the conditions of the living environment, which he himself increasingly creates as a result of the transformation of nature, aimed at preserving, developing man and achieving the main goal: human progress.” (p50;9) Unlike animals, thanks to his social nature, man is able to create an artificial environment - an environment of culture and civilization, as a result of which the range of his adaptive activity expands.

It would seem that these definitions indicate that even the physiological direction of research into adaptation processes recognizes a fundamental difference in the understanding of the term “adaptation” in relation to humans.

However, many physiologists see the purpose of adaptation in ensuring a state of homeostasis, and the ability to adapt is assessed as a process of “adjustment”, optimization of responses without a radical restructuring of the activity of the entire organism. Such a combination of understanding the essence of human adaptation and determining its goals and mechanisms raises a number of natural questions. The first relates to what the authors see as the main source of human progress - in improving the operational characteristics of his behavior and activities? The second concerns understanding the role of homeostasis, that is, can the state of internal constancy of the body be attributed to the only criterion of human adaptability? With this formulation of the problem, the internal, subjective aspect of the development of a person’s adaptive activity, improvement of the mechanisms of mental, personal regulation of behavior and activity completely disappears.

Such a natural-scientific approach to the phenomenon of adaptation could not but manifest itself in the peculiarities of research devoted to the problem of human social adaptation.

The most complete definition of the concept of “social adaptation” for its time was proposed in the dissertation work of I.A. Miloslavova, carried out in 1974: “Social adaptation is one of the mechanisms of socialization that allows an individual (group) to actively participate in various structural elements of the social environment by standardizing recurring situations, which allows the individual (group) to function successfully in a dynamic social environment.” (p19;10) In modern conditions, characterized by high dynamism, standardization of behavior cannot ensure the effectiveness of social adaptation.

As the following decades showed, the study of adaptation and its mechanisms developed precisely along this path. The evolution of theories of stress and general human health, the development of psychosomatic medicine and environmental physiology, the introduction into practice of the achievements of humanistic psychology and psychotherapy have significantly transformed views on the phenomenon of adaptation and the regulatory mechanisms that underlie it.

The systematic approach made it possible to overcome the artificial separation of types and levels of adaptation characteristic of previous times and make assumptions about the mechanisms of their interaction, propose complex criteria for adaptation, and clarify the concept of adaptation.

Summarizing the main points expressed in the works of V.S. Arshavsky and V.V. Rotenberg, V.I. Medvedev and G.M. Zarakovsky, L.A. Kitaeva-Smyk, F.B. Berezina, V.N. Krutko, E.Yu. Korzhova, we can conclude that: * adaptation is a holistic, systemic process that characterizes human interaction with the natural and social environment. The identification of different types and levels of adaptation is quite artificial and serves the purposes of scientific analysis and description of this phenomenon; * the mechanism that determines the level of development of the adaptation process is the dialectical contradiction between the interests of various levels of the hierarchy: the individual and the species, the individual and the population, the individual and society, the ethnic group and humanity, the biological and social needs of the individual; * the system-forming factor regulating and organizing the adaptation process is the goal associated with the leading need; * features of the adaptation process are determined by the psychological properties of a person, including the level of his personal development, characterized by the perfection of the mechanisms of personal regulation of behavior and activity; * the criteria for adaptation can be considered not only a person’s survival and finding a place in the socio-professional structure, but also the general level of health, the ability to develop in accordance with one’s life potential, a subjective sense of self-esteem; * the process of human adaptation to new conditions of existence has temporal dynamics, the stages of which are associated with certain psychological changes that manifest themselves both at the level of the state and at the level of personal properties. (p.27;11) The most modern definition of the concept of mental adaptation seems to us to be the following: “Mental adaptation can be defined as the process of establishing an optimal match between the individual and the environment during the implementation of human activities, which allows the individual to satisfy current needs and realize the significant goals associated with them ( while maintaining physical and mental health), ensuring at the same time compliance of a person’s mental activity and behavior with the requirements of the environment.” The author of this definition is F.B. Berezin - identified three aspects of mental adaptation: the actual mental, socio-psychological and psychophysiological. The socio-psychological aspect of adaptation ensures the adequate construction of microsocial interaction, including professional interaction, and the achievement of socially significant goals.

It is a link between the adaptation of the individual and the population, and is capable of acting as a level of regulation of adaptive tension.

Important in the context of this study is the concept of life potential, used in the works of V.I. Medvedev.

The author considers it as “an integral property to maintain one’s biological and spiritual-psychological vitality and carry out transformative activities aimed at moving towards a common goal.” (p12;12) Modern scientific ideas about the phenomenon of adaptation served as the basis for the formulation of the working concept of “socio-psychological adaptation”. Socio-psychological adaptation is considered as a process of organizing social interaction that promotes the fullest realization of personal potential.

Personal potential is a combination of personal resources and the level of development of self-knowledge, ensuring the process of self-regulation and self-realization in changed conditions of existence.

It should be noted that attempts to study the relationship between personality development and the adaptation process were carried out repeatedly, for example, in 1991, a publication by P.V. Kuznetsov with a promising title: “Adaptation as a function of personality development.” The content of the work was disappointing, since, following the author’s logic, a person with “a high degree of ideologization, a true recognition of social values, and suffering from a constant lack of time to implement all his plans” could be classified as a high level of adaptation. Taking this statement to the grotesque, one can imagine a conformist with a neurosis of temporary organization, unable to voluntarily concentrate and choose the main directions in life - those qualities that, as modern practice has shown, are endowed with people who have difficulty adapting to changing conditions.

The only objective explanation for this position of the author can be the assumption that in different conditions of the social environment, the personal qualities that ensure the effectiveness of adaptation differ: in a stable, ideologically normalized world - some, in a situation of uncertainty - others. Of greater interest are studies that in one form or another use the concept of a personal resource - a stock of various structural and functional characteristics of a person that provide general types of life activity and specific forms of adaptation.

This reserve is characterized by different terms, depending on the psychological school or concept of the authors, but, apparently, they imply the same processes, manifesting themselves differently at different levels.

For example, L.I. Antsyferova talks about “experimenting with life roles”: by taking on a role, a person chooses a way of existing and behaves in accordance with the requirements of the role. When a person defines himself, the experienced forms do not disappear, but exist in the form of “sketches”. (p2;14) In weakly structured situations, these “sketches” can contribute to survival.

L.V. Korel introduces the term “adaptive potential”, meaning by it a set of properties that exist in a latent form and are “involved” during adaptation. (p.31;15) F.B. Berezin suggests that the insufficiency of the arsenal of adaptive reactions and the set of stereotypes of past experience can cause the development of tension or stress reactions - the main adaptation mechanisms. (pp15; 16) Based on these opinions, it can be assumed that adaptation in a situation of uncertainty depends on the number of things recorded in the individual’s memory systemic forms reflecting the life experience of the individual.

The more diverse their repertoire, the higher the personality resource, the higher the effectiveness of adaptation, the more likely it is that the state of distress will not replace the normal reaction of adaptive stress.

The concept of personal resource also includes a number of more “hard” structural characteristics, which are individual psychological qualities, ranging from temperamental properties to emotional, intellectual and communicative characteristics.

They largely determine the phenomenon of “stress resistance” and the features of the development of adaptive reactions.

Another important component of personal potential is the level of personal development. There are different points of view regarding the content of this concept. The main “stumbling block” lies in the area of ​​definition of the personal and spiritual formation of a person.

In this regard, we support the point of view of A.P. Kornilov, who proposes to take the level of development of self-knowledge and self-regulation, personal values ​​and competence in individual problem solving as guidelines for psychological understanding of the criteria for personal development. (pp. 13; 17) We tend to attribute values ​​rather to the area of ​​personal resource, although this can be the subject of discussion. In general, for us, such an understanding means the ability of a person to self-aware of his personal resource and build on this basis a scenario adequate to the resource of adaptive behavior.

From my point of view, the understanding of the specifics of socio-psychological adaptation proposed in this work has not only theoretical significance. This formulation of the problem makes it possible to more effectively solve the problem of practical assistance from a psychologist, since it puts at the forefront not so much the teaching of “modes of behavior cultivated by the majority,” but rather the search for ways of adaptation that correspond to the personal potential of each individual person.

SPEECH QUALITY- properties of speech that ensure the effectiveness of communication and characterize the level of speech culture of the speaker. Professor B.N. Golovin considered the main qualities of speech to be correctness, accuracy, purity, clarity, logic, richness, expressiveness and appropriateness of speech.

Correct speech- the quality of speech, consisting in compliance of its sound (spelling), lexical and grammatical structure with the literary norms accepted in the language. Correctness is the basic quality of speech, which provides speech with other, more complex qualities, such as expressiveness, richness, and logic.

Correct speech is achieved through knowledge of the norms of the literary language and their careful application when constructing speech.

Speech Accuracy- the communicative quality of speech, consisting in its correspondence with the semantic side of the reflected reality and the communicative intent of the speaker. The accuracy of speech depends on the correct use of words, the ability to choose the necessary synonym, taking into account polysemy and homonymy, and the correct combination of words.

Reasons for impaired speech accuracy: syntactic homonymy unnoticed by the speaker, the use of long, similar grammatical constructions, violation of the word order in a sentence, cluttering the sentence with isolated phrases and inserted constructions, speech redundancy and insufficiency.

Accuracy of speech is achieved on the basis of clear ideas about the meanings of words, the ability to accurately use synonyms, and distinguish between contexts of use of polysemantic words.

Relevance of speech is strict compliance of the structure and stylistic features of speech with the conditions and objectives of communication, the content of the information expressed, the chosen genre and style of presentation, and the individual characteristics of the author and addressee. The appropriateness of speech presupposes the ability to use the stylistic resources of the language in accordance with the communication situation. There are stylistic, contextual, situational and personal-psychological relevance.

Appropriateness of speech is ensured by a correct understanding of the situation and knowledge of the stylistic features of words and stable figures of speech.

The richness of speech is a set of linguistic means (lexical, grammatical, stylistic) that an individual owns and skillfully uses in accordance with the situation. The richness of speech is determined by a person’s ability to express the same thought, the same grammatical meaning in different ways.

Richness of speech is associated with the variety of means used by speakers to express thoughts, synonyms, ways of constructing statements, and organizing text.

To achieve this quality, you need to replenish your vocabulary by reading literature, periodicals, pay attention to the grammatical and stylistic features of the texts you read, think about the nuances of the meanings of words, notice cliches and hackneyed phrases.

Expressiveness of speech- the quality of speech, which consists in choosing such linguistic means that make it possible to enhance the impression of the statement, arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, and influence his mind and feelings.

The conditions for expressive speech are the speaker’s independence of thinking and his inner conviction in the significance of the statement, as well as the ability to choose original ways of conveying the content of his thoughts.

Expressiveness of speech is achieved by using artistic techniques, figures of speech and tropes, proverbs, phraseological units, and catchphrases.

Purity of speech- this is the absence in it of unnecessary words, weed words, non-literary words (slang, dialect, obscene).

Purity of speech is achieved on the basis of a person’s knowledge of the stylistic characteristics of the words used, thoughtfulness of speech and the ability to avoid verbosity, repetition and weed words (that means, so to speak, so, strictly speaking, as it were, like) .

Logicality of speech- this is the logical correlation of statements with each other.

Logicity is achieved through careful attention to the whole text, coherence of thoughts and a clear compositional design of the text. Logical errors can be eliminated by reading a finished written text; in oral speech, it is necessary to remember well what has been said and consistently develop the idea.

Clarity of speech- this is the quality of speech, which consists in the fact that speech requires the least effort in perception and understanding despite the complexity of its content.

Clarity of speech is achieved by its correctness and accuracy in conjunction with the speaker's attention to the awareness and speech skills of the interlocutor. Clarity of speech is associated with the speaker’s desire to make his speech easy to understand for his communication partner. Clarity is very important for the effectiveness of speech.

Unprepared speech is a complex speech skill that manifests itself in the ability of students to solve communicative and mental problems without spending time on preparation, using acquired language material in both familiar and unfamiliar speech situations.

All stages of speech production, from internal programming to the implementation of the plan in external speech, are carried out in the case of an unprepared utterance by the speaker independently with complete synchronization of internal and external speech. In prepared speech, such synchronization is not observed, and the speaker’s mental activity is mainly aimed at adequately reproducing a pre-thought-out or memorized text.

When describing unprepared speech, the main features are: linguistic correctness of the statement, absence of specified material and specified content; expression of one's own assessment and judgment; situational-contextual nature of speech, the ability to determine the logical topic of a statement, the presence of a high level of development of speech mechanisms, natural tempo, etc.

Unprepared speech is in constant improvement, and it is hardly possible to describe it using constant features.

At the initial stage of training, it is characterized by insufficient content, lack of consistency and evidence in judgments, stylistic neutrality, and slight generality.

Students at advanced stages, especially in lyceums and gymnasiums, have greater opportunities for informative and stylistically refined speech. Their assessment of what they listened to (or read) is associated with a more complete generalization, and relatively easy orientation in contexts of different sizes and freedom in operating with material make the unprepared statements of a high school student a qualitatively new level of verbal communication.

Without taking into account parameters such as natural tempo, linguistic correctness, and a sufficient level of development of speech mechanisms, since they are equally characteristic of both prepared and unprepared speech, it is necessary to distinguish between constant and variable signs of unprepared speech.

Constant features include novelty of information, independence and creativity, lack of preliminary training and given language material.

Variable features are the prompting of the topic, conversation, speech, etc., the construction of a logical scheme of the statement, emotionality and imagery, initiative and spontaneity.

Taking into account the peculiarities of speaking as a form of oral communication, it can be stated that an unprepared dialogical utterance is formed in the following sequence.

Stage of development of prepared speech:

1) Modification of the sample text.

2) Generating an independent statement:

a) using verbal supports (keywords, outline, abstracts, headings, etc.);

b) based on sources of information (pictures, films, TV shows, etc.);

c) based on the topic studied.

Stage of development of unprepared speech:

a) based on the source of information (book, article, picture, feature or documentary film, etc.);

b) based on the life and speech experience of students (on what they once read or saw, on their own judgment, on imagination, etc.);

c) based on a problem situation, including role-playing games and discussions.

Speech exercises for teaching unprepared dialogical speech:

a) drawing up reasoned answers to questions;

b) conducting combined dialogues (with remarks and comments from other students);

c) conducting role-playing games and quizzes;

d) holding a discussion or dispute;

e) round table discussion, etc.

Speech exercises for unprepared monologue speech:

a) coming up with a title and justifying it;

b) description of a picture or cartoons not related to the topic studied;

c) drawing up a situation based on life experience or previously read;

d) justification of one’s own judgment or attitude to the facts;

e) characteristics of the characters (location, era, etc.);

f) evaluation of what was listened and read;

g) drawing up short announcements and postcard texts.

Exercises of all listed stages must, in addition, meet the following requirements: be feasible in volume, appeal to different types of memory, perception and thinking, be purposeful and motivated (which involves formulating the final or intermediate goal of performing the exercises), activate the mental activity of students, contain life and typical examples and situations.

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