Example from written text: “Distracting slightly from domestic issues, I would like to note that, as the modern experience of the Scandinavian region and a number of other countries has shown, the point is not at all in the monarchy, not in the form of political organization, but in the division of political power between the state and society.”(“Star”. 1997, No. 6). When this fragment is reproduced orally, for example in a lecture, it will, of course, be changed and may have approximately the following form: “ If we abstract from domestic issues, we will see that the issue is not at all about the monarchy, it is not about the form of political organization. The whole point is how to divide power between the state and society. And this is confirmed today by the experience of the Scandinavian countries».

Oral speech, like written speech, is standardized and regulated, but the norms of oral speech are completely different: “Many so-called flaws in oral speech are the functioning of unfinished statements, poor structure, the introduction of interruptions, auto-commentators, contactors, reprises, elements of hesitation, etc. . - is a necessary condition for the success and effectiveness of oral communication" ( Bubnova G. I. Garbovsky N. K. Written and oral communications: Syntax and prosody M., 1991. P. 8). The listener cannot retain in memory all the grammatical and semantic connections of the text. And the speaker must take this into account, then his speech will be understood and meaningful. Unlike written speech, which is constructed in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative additions.

Written speech is different in that the very form of speech activity definitely reflects the conditions and purpose of communication, for example, a work of art or a description of a scientific experiment, a vacation application or an information message in a newspaper. Hence, written speech has a style-forming function, which is reflected in the choice of linguistic means that are used to create a particular text that reflects the typical features of a certain functional style. The written form is the main form of existence of speech in scientific, journalistic, official business and artistic styles.

So, the differences between oral and written speech most often come down to the means of expression. Oral speech is associated with intonation and melody, non-verbalism, it uses a certain amount of “its own” linguistic means, it is tied more to the conversational style. Writing uses alphabetic and graphic symbols, often bookish language with all its styles and features, normalization and formal organization.

Experienced speakers sometimes give brilliant speeches without preparation, but these are usually short speeches (welcomes, toasts, etc.). A lecture, report, political review, parliamentary speech, that is, speeches of large, serious genres, require careful preparation.

First, it is necessary to define and precisely formulate the topic; it must be relevant and interesting for the given audience. When choosing a topic, you should also think about the title of the lecture (report, message); it should not only reflect the content of the speech, but also attract the attention of future listeners and affect their interests. Titles must be specific. For example, from two options for titles - “The fight against corruption” and “Who takes bribes and how to fight it? " - the second one is preferable. Headlines can be appealing (“Let’s unite against the mafia!”), advertising (“How to lose weight without dieting and pills?”), but many topics receive individual names that accurately target potential listeners (“Entrance exams to the Moscow State University of Printing Arts”, “Preparation new reform of Russian spelling and punctuation"). The speaker must clearly define for himself the purpose of the upcoming speech: he not only informs the audience by talking about certain events and facts, but also tries to form in them certain ideas and beliefs that should determine their future behavior. Ivanova S.F. Specifics of public speech. - M., 1998. P. 87

Any speech must pursue educational goals, and the speaker must, unnoticed by the listeners, introduce them to his moral ideals.

Preliminary acquaintance with the composition of the audience is of great importance. When preparing for a speech, the lecturer should find out who will come to listen to him (adults or children, young or old, educated or not, the direction of their education - humanitarian or technical; predominantly female or male composition of the audience, its national and religious characteristics). This is very important for determining not only the content of the speech, but also its style, the degree of popularity of the presentation, the choice of lexical and phraseological means and oratorical techniques to influence listeners.

The main component of preparing for a performance is the search and selection of material. Even if the speaker knows the topic of the upcoming speech well, he still prepares for it: he looks through special literature and periodicals in order to connect the topic with modern times and learn fresh facts related to the content of the speech. Depending on the theoretical preparedness of the speaker, he chooses forms of studying the material (selective or in-depth reading, skimming articles, reviews). In this case, you can turn to various reference books for statistical data, textbooks, encyclopedic dictionaries, tables, maps. When studying specific material, it is necessary to take notes and compile a summary of what you read, prepare slides and photographs for display in the audience. Having studied the material well, they usually write either the full text of the speech, or its synopsis, or theses or a plan, which is best made detailed and extremely complete. Some experienced speakers refuse to take the written text of their speech with them, but hold in their hands a “cheat sheet” in which they can find the necessary reference material (numbers, quotes, examples, arguments). The audience will forgive you if you peek at such a cheat sheet, but will immediately dislike the speaker who begins to read his speech from beginning to end “from a piece of paper.”

On a piece of paper for such a “cheat sheet” you can select large fields and write down key words on them that will help you remember this or that thesis of the speech; here you can “suggest” aphorisms, paradoxes, proverbs, anecdotes that may be useful to maintain the interest of the audience if the listeners’ attention weakens.

In the process of preparing for a speech, it is recommended to rehearse it, look at yourself in the mirror, paying attention to your usual involuntary movements that accompany speech (mannerisms: brushing hair from the forehead, scratching the back of the head, swaying, moving shoulders, gesturing, etc.). Mastering the “language of movement” is an effective way to hold the audience’s attention. Complete immobility (numbness) of the speaker during a speech is unacceptable, but excessive gesticulation and grimaces have a detrimental effect on the speech, distracting the listeners.

The speaker's posture, gestures, and facial expressions should enhance the emotionality of his speech and have their own meaning. There is a whole science about the symbolic meaning of gestures, and we have practically mastered the meaning of one or another hand movement (greeting, calling for attention, agreement, denial, rejection, threat, farewell, etc.), turning the head, etc. The speaker's gestures and facial expressions must be natural and varied, and most importantly, they must be motivated by the content of the speech. At the final stage of preparing for a speech, you need to analyze it again and again, take into account the strengths and weaknesses of the speech, and already in the audience rely on the positive.

Mastery of public speaking comes with experience. And yet you need to know the main “secrets” of oratory and learn to apply them in the audience.

A communicative task arises in cases when the speaker actively focuses his statement on a specific listener and sets himself some communicative goal: to inform, report, explain, convince, reassure, find out, etc. Ladanov I.D. Speech as the main means of communication. Ability to persuade. - M., 2004. P. 25 In this case, solving only the rational-expressive problem is not sufficient: an utterance that satisfies the speaker himself and basically adequately, from his point of view, conveys the thought, must undergo additional procedures. Thus, in order to facilitate the understanding of it by a specific listener, as well as to enhance its persuasiveness (taking into account, again, the characteristics of the addressee), it happens, for example, that it is necessary to more fully reveal the main components of a thought, to identify in more detail in verbal form the connections between them, to modify the style of the statement etc. The speaker cannot make sure that the communicative task is solved adequately without feedback, that is, without relying on the reaction of the message addressee. And, of course, it is of great importance here that the speaker takes into account the age, professional, characterological, individual, personal and other characteristics of the communication partner.

The features of planning, control, and correction of the utterance by the subject of speech depend on many conditions, for example, on the size of the time gap between preparation and external speech implementation of the utterance (prepared and unprepared, spontaneous speech). In unprepared (spontaneous) speech, we speak without preliminary thinking, for the first time and new content for ourselves, continuing to develop it in the very process of speech. Nozhin E.A. Oral presentation skills. - M., 1991. P. 128

In this case, all three tasks discussed above are combined in time. In a familiar situation of everyday communication, the subject, as a rule, begins speech, anticipating its content only in general terms. More often than not, he presents only the main gist of what he is about to present. How exactly this needs to be done (where to start, what elements of content to indicate in a word and in what sequence) is usually determined during the speech itself.

Under normal conditions of situational speech, the speaker uses paralinguistic means of communication (intonation, gesture, facial expressions) as significant elements of the message being constructed. When a speaker develops new content, he has almost no ready-made “blocks” that are an important support in stereotypical speech.

Therefore, here the rational-expressive task, combined with the mental one, acquires special importance and distracts the main efforts of the speaker. In such situations, the structure of the utterance is often distorted, and the communicative characteristics of speech deteriorate. Occasionally, in those particularly acute communication situations when the influence on the interlocutor or the success of joint activity depends on the speech characteristics of communication (for example, on the understandability of arguments), the solution of rational-expressive and communicative problems becomes the focus of the speaker’s consciousness.

Unprepared speech is a complex speech skill that manifests itself in the ability of students to solve communicative and mental problems without spending time on preparation, using acquired language material in both familiar and unfamiliar speech situations.

All stages of speech production, from internal programming to the implementation of the plan in external speech, are carried out in the case of an unprepared utterance by the speaker independently with complete synchronization of internal and external speech. In prepared speech, such synchronization is not observed, and the speaker’s mental activity is mainly aimed at adequately reproducing a pre-thought-out or memorized text.

When describing unprepared speech, the main features are: linguistic correctness of the statement, absence of specified material and specified content; expression of one's own assessment and judgment; situational-contextual nature of speech, the ability to determine the logical topic of a statement, the presence of a high level of development of speech mechanisms, natural tempo, etc.

Unprepared speech is in constant improvement, and it is hardly possible to describe it using constant features.

At the initial stage of training, it is characterized by insufficient content, lack of consistency and evidence in judgments, stylistic neutrality, and slight generalization.

Students at advanced stages, especially in lyceums and gymnasiums, have greater opportunities for informative and stylistically refined speech. Their assessment of what they listened to (or read) is associated with a more complete generalization, and relatively easy orientation in contexts of different sizes and freedom in operating with material make the unprepared statements of a high school student a qualitatively new level of verbal communication.

Without taking into account such parameters as natural tempo, linguistic correctness, and a sufficient level of development of speech mechanisms, since they are equally characteristic of both prepared and unprepared speech, it is necessary to distinguish between constant and variable signs of unprepared speech.

Constant features include novelty of information, independence and creativity, lack of preliminary training and given language material.

Variable features are the prompting of the topic, conversation, speech, etc., the construction of a logical scheme of the statement, emotionality and imagery, initiative and spontaneity.

Taking into account the peculiarities of speaking as a form of oral communication, it can be stated that an unprepared dialogical utterance is formed in the following sequence.

Stage of development of prepared speech:

1) Modification of the sample text.

2) Generating an independent statement:

a) using verbal supports (keywords, outline, abstracts, headings, etc.);

b) based on sources of information (pictures, films, TV shows, etc.);

c) based on the topic studied.

Stage of development of unprepared speech:

a) based on the source of information (book, article, picture, feature or documentary film, etc.);

b) based on the life and speech experience of students (on what they once read or saw, on their own judgment, on imagination, etc.);

c) based on a problem situation, including role-playing games and discussions.

Speech exercises for teaching unprepared dialogical speech:

a) drawing up reasoned answers to questions;

b) conducting combined dialogues (with remarks and comments from other students);

c) conducting role-playing games and quizzes;

d) holding a discussion or debate;

e) round table discussion, etc.

Speech exercises for unprepared monologue speech:

a) coming up with a title and justifying it;

b) description of a picture or cartoons not related to the topic studied;

c) drawing up a situation based on life experience or previously read;

d) justification of one’s own judgment or attitude to the facts;

e) characteristics of the characters (location, era, etc.);

f) evaluation of what was listened and read;

g) drawing up short announcements and postcard texts.

Exercises of all listed stages must, in addition, meet the following requirements: be feasible in volume, appeal to different types of memory, perception and thinking, be purposeful and motivated (which involves formulating the final or intermediate goal of performing the exercises), activate the mental activity of students, contain life and typical examples and situations.

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Types and characteristics of dialogic speech
Dialogical speech is a process of direct verbal communication, characterized by alternating replicas of two or more persons. It is a form of speaking whose main purpose is the verbal interaction of two or more speakers. The interlocutors speak alternately...

Prepared oral speech (report, lecture) is characterized by thoughtfulness, a clear structure, and a certain selection of linguistic means. But at the same time, the speaker still strives to ensure that the speech is relaxed, “not in a written way,” and resembles direct communication.

Most often, oral speech is unprepared. Unprepared oral speech is characterized by spontaneity. An unprepared oral statement is formed gradually, as one realizes what should be said next, what needs to be repeated or clarified. Therefore, in spontaneous speech, longer stops and pauses are observed (between words, combinations of words, sentences, parts of statements), repetitions of individual words and even sounds (“uh”), and disruptions of begun constructions. Oral speech is characterized by less lexical accuracy, even the presence of speech errors; short sentences, often incomplete in meaning and structure; participial and participial phrases are often replaced by complex sentences.

Oral speech, like written speech, is standardized and regulated, but the norms of oral speech are different. Researchers of oral speech formulate some general patterns of the oral form of a literary language.

Oral speech

(1) Features of word arrangement, word order. The main exponent of communicative articulation is intonation.

(2) The tendency to dismember the statement, which is expressed in the widespread use of connecting and plug-in constructions, introductory words, etc.

(3) Repeating the preposition before the postpositive (standing after the word being defined) definition.

(4) The non-literal nature of the reproduction of direct speech, in which only the use of facial forms is preserved.

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The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the literary language, but is most characteristic of the colloquial style.

The following are distinguished: functional varieties of oral speech :

Oral scientific speech;

Oral journalistic speech;

Types of oral speech in the field of official business communication;

Artistic speech;

Spoken speech.

Written speech- this is speech without a direct interlocutor; its motive and intention are completely determined by the writer. As noted above, writing arose historically later than oral speech. It is an auxiliary sign system created by people, used to record audio speech. The material expression of written speech are letters - signs with which the sounds of speech are indicated. On the other hand, writing is an independent communication system, which, while performing the function of recording oral speech, acquires a number of independent functions.

Written speech expands the scope of the individual’s immediate environment, makes it possible to get acquainted with the knowledge accumulated by humanity and assimilate it. The main function of written speech is to record oral speech, with the goal of preserving it in space and time. Writing is used as a means of communication when direct communication is impossible, when people are separated by space and time. Since ancient times, people have exchanged written messages, many of which have survived to this day. The development of technical means of communication, in particular the telephone, has reduced the role of writing. In recent years, with the advent of the fax and the Internet, the written form of speech has again intensified.

The main property of written speech is ability to store information for a long time.

Written speech unfolds not in a temporary, but in a static space, which allows the addresser to think through the speech, return to what has already been written, turn to dictionaries and reference books, replace words, etc. This determines the characteristics of written speech.

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Written speech

(1) Written speech uses book language, the use of which is strictly standardized.

(2) The sentence - the basic unit of written speech - expresses complex logical and semantic connections, therefore written speech is characterized by complex syntactic constructions.

In sentences, isolated members of the sentence (circumstances, definitions) and inserted constructions are widely represented.

(3) The order of words in a sentence is fixed. Inversion (reverse word order) of written speech is not typical, and in some cases, for example, in official business style, is unacceptable.

(4) Written speech is focused on perception by the visual organs, therefore it has a clear constructive organization: it has a page numbering system, division into chapters, paragraphs, font selection, etc.

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The written form is the main form of existence of speech in scientific, official business, journalistic and artistic styles.

Oral speech

Oral speech is sounding speech that functions in the sphere of direct communication, and in a broader sense it is any sounding speech. Historically, the oral form of speech is primary; it arose much earlier than writing. The material form of oral speech is sound waves, i.e., pronounced sounds that are the result of the complex activity of the human pronunciation organs. The rich intonation capabilities of oral speech are associated with this phenomenon. Intonation is created by the melody of speech, the intensity (loudness) of speech, duration, increase or decrease in the tempo of speech and the timbre of pronunciation. In oral speech, the place of logical stress, the degree of clarity of pronunciation, and the presence or absence of pauses play an important role. Oral speech has such intonation variety of speech that it can convey all the richness of human feelings, experiences, moods, etc.

The perception of oral speech during direct communication occurs simultaneously through both the auditory and visual channels. Therefore, oral speech is accompanied, enhancing its expressiveness, by such additional means as the nature of the gaze (wary or open, etc.), the spatial arrangement of the speaker and listener, facial expressions and gestures. Thus, a gesture can be likened to an index word (pointing to some object), can express an emotional state, agreement or disagreement, surprise, etc., serve as a means of establishing contact, for example, a raised hand as a sign of greeting (in this case, gestures have a national-cultural specificity, therefore, they must be used carefully, especially in oral business and scientific speech). All these linguistic and extralinguistic means help to increase the semantic significance and emotional richness of oral speech.

Irreversibility, progressive and linear nature deployment in time is one of the main properties of oral speech. It is impossible to return to some point in oral speech again, and because of this, the speaker is forced to think and speak at the same time, that is, he thinks as if “on the go,” therefore oral speech may be characterized by unfluency, fragmentation, division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent units, for example. “The director called. Delayed. It'll be there in half an hour. Start without him"(message from the director’s secretary for participants in the production meeting) On the other hand, the speaker is obliged to take into account the reaction of the listener and strive to attract his attention and arouse interest in the message. Therefore, in oral speech there appears intonation highlighting of important points, underlining, clarification of some parts, auto-commenting, repetitions; “The department/ carried out a lot of work/ over the course of a year/ yes/ I must say/ great and important// educational, and scientific, and methodological// Well/ everyone knows/ the educational// Do I need to detail/ the educational// No// Yes / I also think / it’s not necessary //"

Oral speech can be prepared (report, lecture, etc.) and unprepared (conversation, conversation). Prepared oral speech It is distinguished by thoughtfulness, a clearer structural organization, but at the same time, the speaker, as a rule, strives for his speech to be relaxed, not “memorized”, and to resemble direct communication.

Unprepared oral speech characterized by spontaneity. An unprepared oral utterance (the basic unit of oral speech, similar to a sentence in written speech) is formed gradually, in portions, as one realizes what has been said, what should be said next, what needs to be repeated, clarified. Therefore, in oral unprepared speech there are many pauses, and the use of pause fillers (words like uh, hmm) allows the speaker to think about what happens next. The speaker controls the logical-compositional, syntactic and partially lexical-phraselogical levels of the language, i.e. makes sure that his speech is logical and coherent, chooses the appropriate words to adequately express thoughts. The phonetic and morphological levels of the language, i.e. pronunciation and grammatical forms, are not controlled and are reproduced automatically. Therefore, oral speech is characterized by less lexical precision, even the presence of speech errors, short sentence length, limited complexity of phrases and sentences, the absence of participial and participial phrases, and the division of a single sentence into several communicatively independent ones. Participial and adverbial phrases are usually replaced by complex sentences; verbs are used instead of verbal nouns; inversion is possible.

As an example, here is an excerpt from a written text: “Distracting slightly from domestic issues, I would like to note that, as the modern experience of the Scandinavian region and a number of other countries has shown, the point is not at all in the monarchy, not in the form of political organization, but in the division of political power between the state and society.”(“Star”. 1997, No. 6). When this fragment is reproduced orally, for example at a lecture, it will, of course, be changed and may have approximately the following form: “If we abstract from domestic issues, we will see that the issue is not at all about the monarchy, it is not about the form of political organization. The whole point is how to divide power between the state and society. And this is confirmed today by the experience of the Scandinavian countries"

Oral speech, just like written speech, is standardized and regulated, but the norms of oral speech are completely different. “Many so-called flaws of oral speech - the functioning of unfinished statements, poor structure, the introduction of interruptions, auto-commentators, contactors, reprises, elements of hesitation, etc. - are a necessary condition for the success and effectiveness of the oral method of communication" *. The listener cannot retain in memory all the grammatical and semantic connections of the text, and the speaker must take this into account, then his speech will be understood and meaningful. Unlike written speech, which is constructed in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative additions.

* Bubnova G. I. Garbovsky N. K. Written and oral communications: Syntax and prosody M, 1991. P. 8.

The oral form of speech is assigned to all functional styles of the Russian language, but it has an undoubted advantage in the colloquial and everyday style of speech. The following functional types of oral speech are distinguished: oral scientific speech, oral journalistic speech, types of oral speech in the field of official business communication, artistic speech and colloquial speech. It should be said that colloquial speech influences all types of oral speech. This is expressed in the manifestation of the author’s “I”, the personal principle in speech in order to enhance the impact on the listeners. Therefore, in oral speech, emotionally and expressively colored vocabulary, figurative comparative constructions, phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, and even colloquial elements are used.

As an example, here is an excerpt from an interview with the Chairman of the Constitutional Court of Russia: “Of course, there are exceptions... The mayor of Izhevsk approached us with a claim to declare the law adopted by the republican authorities unconstitutional. And the court actually recognized some articles as such. Unfortunately, at first this caused irritation among the local authorities, to the point that, they say, as it was, so it will be, no one can tell us. Then, as they say, “heavy artillery” was launched: the State Duma got involved. The President of Russia issued a decree... There was a lot of noise in the local and central press" (Business People. 1997. No. 78).

This fragment also contains colloquial particles well, they say, and expressions of colloquial and phraseological nature at first, no one ordered us, as they say, there was a lot of noise, expression heavy artillery in a figurative sense, and inversion issued a decree. The number of conversational elements is determined by the characteristics of a specific communicative situation. For example, the speech of a speaker leading a meeting in the State Duma and the speech of a manager leading a production meeting will, of course, be different. In the first case, when meetings are broadcast on radio and television to a huge audience, you need to be especially careful in choosing spoken language units.