Text is understood as a human thought recorded on a specific medium. In a narrower sense, it is the coherent and sequential transmission of symbols. The text exists in two forms (written and oral) and is determined by such characteristics as semantic integrity and articulation (in other words, the identification of fragments in its composition). One sentence cannot be considered a text. There should be at least two of them.
Text styles and types
Let's look at what types of texts there are. The Russian language distinguishes the following styles:
Colloquial
- Journalistic. This style is characterized by logic, emotionality, evaluativeness, and appeal. The main feature is socio-political vocabulary. Words are emotionally charged, solemn vocabulary and the use of short sentences are characteristic. Example: “Deputy head of Moscow City Bank Nikolai Petrov was sentenced to 6 years in prison for theft of 330 million rubles.”
- Scientific. It is distinguished by a logical sequence of presentation, an orderly system of connections between statements, and a desire for accuracy and conciseness.
- Official business. A means of written communication that is used in the field of legal relations and management. Example: “By this receipt, I, Sergey Ivanovich Ivanov, undertake to return money in the amount of 500,000 (five hundred thousand) rubles by 03/01/2016.”
- Art. It is used exclusively in fiction using the entire wealth of vocabulary, various styles, and emotional speech. This style is aimed at conveying the author’s feelings and thoughts. Example: “A fog, like fresh milk, quietly spread over the river. The birds in the forest have almost died down. Another June morning was beginning.”
Types of texts
Initially, the text was supposed to convey the author’s opinion and impression of what surrounds him, about people and events. In this regard, let’s look at what types of texts there are:
- Narration. The text tells about events that are interconnected by a time sequence. A distinctive feature is a certain structure: beginning, development, denouement. The story is written in the first or third person, using past perfect verbs.
- containing the study and research of specific subjects and their relationship to each other. A certain scheme and logical structure can be traced. The main idea is the thesis, which is formulated at the beginning of the text. Next come the arguments and evidence that confirm or refute this thesis. At the end, conclusions are drawn.
- Description. Text that has a consistent image and characterization of events, objects and people. You can trace the list of characteristic properties and features inherent in the main character. The text is characterized by additions, circumstances, the use of metaphors, comparisons, epithets and other expressive means of language. The main task is to create an opinion about the described object or character.
We have found out what types of texts there are, now we will look at what genres they are divided into.
Genres
A genre is a form of organization of speech that distinguishes and characterizes types of text. Genre also distinguishes the nature of speech activity and the form of its use. For example, the genre of an interview is dialogue, the genre of a journalistic article is monologue. Moreover, an article is a written genre, and a report is an oral genre. There is also such a thing as an inter-style genre, where one genre can belong to several styles: an interview as a genre can be classified as both an official business and a journalistic style, and a feature story, an essay or an article can be classified as both a scientific and a journalistic style style.
Let's consider what literary genres there are regarding styles:
- Fiction includes genres such as novel, short story, essay, tale, fable. This also includes lyrics in all its manifestations.
- Educational literature includes tutorials, lessons, textbooks and manuals - in other words, those documents that are available for study.
- Historical literature includes all genres that deal with past events and key moments in human history. These are historical essays, poems, dramas, essays, etc.
- Scientific literature includes highly focused texts on specific topics. These are reports, monographs, popular science articles, notes, reference books, essays, encyclopedias, practical advice, and memos.
Digital text
What other texts are there? In the era of digital technology, such a concept as digital text has appeared. And if previously the Internet served only as a means for searching for information, now on this resource you can find entire libraries with different types of texts. Today, not only newspaper and scientific publications are being digitized, but also masterpieces of world literature. Now you don't have to go to the library or bookstore. All you need to do is go online from any device and find the publication you are interested in.
Primary School Study
A detailed study of the text begins in elementary school, when the teacher introduces children to the types of sentences and establishes the connection of words in these sentences. Next comes an introduction to the text and consideration of the topic “What kinds of texts are there?” In this lesson, grade 2 will not only get acquainted with the structural features of the text, children will be asked to compose it themselves, highlighting the main idea and theme. Particular attention is paid to building dialogue.
Language and society. Language as the main means of human communication exists only in human society. The connection between language and society is two-way: there is no language outside society and there is no society without language. Thus, language is primarily a social phenomenon, therefore it cannot but be influenced by social factors.
Any society is heterogeneous in its composition: people differ in their social status, level of education, place of residence, age, gender, etc. Everyone, of course, notices the differences that exist in the speech of urban and rural residents, people with higher education and illiterate people, etc. But the social differentiation of language is not limited to this. Everyone knows that in the speech of people united by one profession, there are words that are incomprehensible to the “uninitiated” - this is professional jargon. And in some cases, differences in people's language also depend on their gender. For example, in the language of the Yana Indians (Northern California), men call an object one word, and women another. In Japan, the speech of girls is much richer and more varied than the speech of boys, because this is a necessary requirement for a girl’s education in preparing her for family life.
Common language and its varieties. The language of a given people, taken in the totality of its inherent features that distinguish it from other languages, is called nationwide, or national language. When we talk about the national language, we mean Russian, English, German, French, etc. National language- a means of written and oral national communication of the nation. N.Ya. – a historical category, it is formed during the formation of a nation, its development from a nationality.
Russian N.Ya. according to family ties that arose and formed in the process of historical development, it belongs to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. There are three subgroups in this group: East Slavic(Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian), West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbo-Sorbian and dead Polabian languages), South Slavic(Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Ruthenian and dead Old Church Slavonic languages). In terms of prevalence, Slavic languages occupy fifth place in the world (after Chinese, Indian, Germanic and Romance languages). Today they are spoken by 280 million people. The Russian literary language dominates among other Slavic languages in terms of the number of speakers. Along with English, French, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic, it is recognized as an official and working language of the United Nations. More than 250 million people study a modern literary language in almost 100 countries around the world.
Basic functions of the language. Language by its nature is multifunctional. It serves as a means of communication, allows the speaker (individual) to express his thoughts, and another individual to perceive them and, in turn), somehow react (take note, agree, object). In this case, the language performs communicative function (Latin: Communicare – to communicate, to talk).
Language also serves as a means of consciousness, promotes the activity of consciousness and reflects its results. Thus, language participates in the formation of the thinking of the individual (individual consciousness) and the thinking of society (social consciousness). This educational function. ( cognitive, epistemological).
Language also helps to store and transmit information, which is important both for the individual and for the entire society. Written sources (chronicles, documents, memoirs, newspapers, fiction), and oral folk art record the life of a people, a nation, and the history of speakers of a given language. This is the function - accumulative.
In addition to these three main functions (communicative, cognitive, accumulative), language performs: emotional function (expresses feelings and emotions); function impact (voluntary).
Here, for example, is how, figuratively characterizing language, Aesop, the hero of the drama of the Brazilian theater critic and writer Guillermo Figueiredo, “The Fox and the Grapes,” emphasizes its multifunctionality: “Language is what unites us when we speak. Without language we could not communicate our thoughts. Language is the key of science, the instrument of truth and reason. Language helps build cities. Love is expressed through language. Language is used to teach, convince, and instruct. They pray in language, explain, sing. They use language to describe, praise, prove, affirm. With our tongue we pronounce the word “beloved” and the sacred word “mother”. This is the language we say “Yes”. This is the language used to order the troops to win.” The first sentence indicates the communicative function of language, the second and third - the cognitive function; fifth – emotional; sixth - voluntary.
The concept of “modern Russian literary language”. Any national language is not uniform in its composition, since it is used by people who differ in their social status, occupation, level of culture, etc., and, in addition, they use it in different situations (business conversation, lecture, etc.). d.). It exists in several forms. These include dialects (territorial), vernacular (speech of illiterate or insufficiently literate sections of the urban population), jargons (speech of individual professional and social groups for the purpose of linguistic isolation) and literary language .
LITERARY LANGUAGE. The highest form of the national Russian language is literary language. It serves various spheres of human activity: politics; culture; office work; legislation; verbal arts; everyday communication; interethnic communication. Literary language is the main means of communication between people of the same nationality. It is characterized by two main properties: processed and normalized. Processed literary language arises as a result of a purposeful selection of all the best that is in the language. This selection is carried out in the process of using the language, as a result of special research by philologists, writers, and public figures. Standardization is expressed in the fact that the use of linguistic means is regulated by a single generally binding norm. A norm as a set of rules of word usage is necessary to preserve the integrity and general intelligibility of the national language, to transmit information from one generation to another. If there were no single language norm, then such changes could occur in the language (for example, in vocabulary) that people living in different parts of Russia would cease to understand each other.
Basic requirements, which a literary language must comply with is its unity and general intelligibility. Other varieties of the national language do not meet these requirements.
The modern Russian literary language is multifunctional, that is, it is used in various spheres of human activity. In this regard, the means of literary language (vocabulary, grammatical structures, etc.) are functionally differentiated: some are used in some areas, others in others. The use of certain linguistic means depends on the type of communication. Therefore, literary language is divided into two functional varieties: conversational and bookish. In accordance with this, it stands out Speaking And book language.
Spoken a type of literary language, or colloquial speech, is used, as a rule, in situations of casual communication. The main features of colloquial speech:
Oral form of expression;
Implementation is primarily in the form of dialogue;
Unpreparedness, unplannedness, spontaneousness;
Direct contact between communicants.
A norm in colloquial speech is the result of speech tradition, determined by the appropriateness of using an expression in a given situation. Depending on how clearly and carefully the words are pronounced, oral colloquial speech is distinguished three pronunciation styles: full, neutral, conversational. Full style characterized by clear articulation, careful pronunciation of all sounds, and a leisurely pace. Examples of this style can be heard mainly in public speeches by experienced speakers and in the speech of professional radio and television announcers. Neutral style characterized by fairly distinct articulation, but at the same time some reduction of sounds (that is, “swallowing”, contraction). The pace of speech is faster, average. Business conversations, negotiations and similar situations of business communication, as a rule, are conducted in a neutral style. Conversational style – This is a way of pronunciation characteristic of communication situations in everyday life, in a relaxed atmosphere. Fuzzy articulation, “swallowing” of sounds and syllables, fast tempo - these are the features inherent in this style. The differences between the styles can be illustrated by the example of the word “sixty”: [sixty]– full style, [shi-isyat]– neutral, [shit]– colloquial.
Book language– the second functional variety of literary language. Its main features are a written form of expression and implementation mainly in the form of a monologue. It is because of the written form of expression that this functional variety received the name “book language,” that is, the language used in books. The main property of a book language is its ability to preserve text and thereby serve as a means of communication between generations. All types of indirect communication are carried out using bookish language. It has all the means necessary for a variety of communication purposes, for expressing abstract concepts and relationships. The functions of book language are numerous and become more complex with the development of society.
Since the book language serves different spheres of social life, it is divided into functional styles. Functional style – a type of book language that is characteristic of a certain sphere of human activity and has a certain originality in the use of linguistic means. Each functional style is implemented in speech genres. Genre - this is a specific type of texts that have specific features that distinguish genres from each other, as well as commonality, which is due to the fact that certain groups of genres belong to the same functional style. For example, in the official business style, the genres of business letters, statements, instructions, etc. are distinguished.
There are three main functional styles in book language: scientific, official business, journalistic . Scientific style characterized by abstraction, strict logic of presentation, a large number of special terms, and certain features of syntax. It uses predominantly bookish, specialized, and stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the scientific style, the following genres are distinguished: article, monograph, dissertation, textbook, review, overview, abstract, etc. Formal business style is distinguished by precision of formulation, impersonality and dryness of presentation, high standardization, a large number of stable phrases, cliches (for example, impose a duty, due to absence, to take measures etc.). There are a large number of genres in this style: law, resolution, note, agreement, instruction, announcement, complaint, etc. Journalistic style characteristic primarily of the media. Its specificity lies in the combination of two functions of language: informational and propaganda (with the aim of influencing the reader or listener). It is characterized by the use of expressive-evaluative vocabulary (along with neutral and general functional ones), as well as phraseology. The following genres of journalistic style are distinguished: editorial, report, essay, reportage, feuilleton, etc.
Along with the listed styles in the popular language there is also the language of fiction. Sometimes it is classified as the fourth functional style of bookish language or is mistakenly called literary language. However, what is characteristic of artistic speech is that all linguistic means can be used here: not only words and expressions of the literary language, but also elements of vernacular, jargon, and territorial dialects. The author of a literary text uses these means to express the idea of the work, give it expressiveness, reflect local color, etc.
Genres of speech communication. The nature and forms of language use are as diverse as the areas of human activity. Each individual utterance, of course, is individual, but each sphere of language use develops its own relatively resistant types such statements which are called speech genres. Genre is a form of organization of speech material within a particular style of speech. The richness and variety of speech genres is boundless, because the possibilities of diverse human activity are inexhaustible. Speech genre determine as a relatively stable statement produced by a specific area of language use. It is considered as a phenomenon of speech reality, a model of consciousness. Its defining feature is dialogicality, since the genre of speech is not just a separate statement that exists only as an abstract concept, but a necessary element in the structure of a holistic dialogue. Along with dialogism, other features of the speech genre are also distinguished: goal-setting, completeness, connection with a certain sphere of communication. Each speech genre in each area of speech communication has its own typical concept of the addressee that defines it as a genre.
Classification of speech genres. Speech genres are divided into:
Written;
Primary (simple);
Secondary (complex): novels, dramas, scientific studies of all kinds, large journalistic genres, etc.
Genre is inextricably linked with style, which is especially clearly revealed when analyzing functional styles. Essentially, functional styles are nothing more than genre styles of certain areas of communication. Each person, as a rule, uses only certain speech genres, that is, all his statements have certain and relatively stable typical forms of constructing the whole. These speech genres are given to us almost in the same way as we are given our native language, which we speak fluently even without theoretical study of grammar. We learn our native language - its vocabulary and grammar - not from dictionaries and textbooks, but from specific statements that we hear and which we ourselves reproduce in live verbal communication with the people around us. Forms of language and typical forms of statements, i.e. speech genres, come into our experience and into our consciousness together and in close connection with each other. Speech genres organize our speech in almost the same way as grammatical forms (syntactic) organize it. The better we master genres, the more freely we use them, the more fully and brightly we reveal our individuality in them.
So, a person masters speech genres in the process of socialization. They are present in the consciousness of a linguistic personality in the form of ready-made samples (frames) that influence the process of unfolding thoughts in speech. The linguistic personality gradually masters these ready-made samples in the course of its social formation. The wider the range of mastered speech genres, the higher the level of a person’s communicative competence. This position is relevant for both the speaker and the listener. The formation of genre thinking, i.e. knowledge of how they speak and behave in a particular socially significant communication situation, increases the predictability of the speech message, which significantly improves its understanding. Speech genres, compared to forms of language, are much more changeable, flexible, and plastic, but for the speaker they have a normative meaning; they are not created by him, but given to him.
For a modern person with a high level of communicative competence, it is necessary to know the genres of speech communication that function in different areas. Thus, in the educational field of activity, the genres of speech communication include explanation of the teacher, pedagogical dialogue between the teacher and the student in a questioning situation, lecture, seminar, defense of coursework, thesis. The main goal of educational speech communication is the transfer of knowledge and control over the level of knowledge. In the scientific field, the main genres of speech communication are scientific report, scientific communication at the conference, round table(if there are listeners), defense of candidate's theses And doctoral dissertations at the academic council (if there are invited guests). The main function of oral scientific communication is to find scientific truth or to recognize a found scientific truth as truth. In the business sphere, one can distinguish genres of speech communication that are common to all subjects of activity, regardless of the field of work (factory, theater, school, etc.) - meeting, banquet, anniversary, memorial service, the purpose of which is to ensure the functioning of the work collective as a single organism. There are also special genres of business speech communication, specific to such labor spheres as parliamentary, judicial activity - parliamentary debates, court hearing(open), representing a complex of genres of public communication. The purpose of special genres of business speech communication is to ensure the functioning of the state, ensure the safety of citizens, and impose punishment. Among the general genres of public business communication, the so-called PR genres that serve to create positive publicity for an organization, for example, press conference And presentation perform, on the one hand, the function of informing the public, i.e., conveying to the public the organization’s point of view on current issues, and on the other hand, the function of persuasion, which consists in forming a positive attitude towards the organization among the public with the help of the text. In the socio-political and socio-cultural spheres, oral journalistic speech is represented by genres political speech at a rally, public television interviews And discussions(if there are spectators in the studio). The function of these genres is to influence the consciousness of listeners in order to attract attention to socially significant problems and create public opinion. The religious sphere of communication is characterized by such a genre of public communication as sermon, aimed at the formation of moral values and general spiritual growth of parishioners.
Thus, public communication gives a person the opportunity to:
Carry out joint activities with others to successfully solve life problems;
Gain knowledge about the world;
Form samples and models of your behavior;
Organize thinking, develop the ability to analyze and evaluate, create an image of the world.
Types of public communication. Modern scientific and methodological literature notes the variety of types of public communication and classifies them on various grounds. They authors divide oral presentations into 1) monologue and 2) dialogical; others are 1) emotional and 2) rational, etc.
The most complete classification of modern eloquence is presented in the book by G.Z. Apresyan "Oratory". The author identifies the following main types of eloquence: socio-political, academic, social, judicial, theological and church. The socio-functional sign of speech is taken as the basis for this classification.
Each genus combines certain types of speech depending on the function that speech performs from a social point of view.
1. The author classifies as socio-political eloquence a report on socio-political and political-economic topics, a reporting report, a political speech, a diplomatic speech, a political review, a rally speech, and an agitator speech.
2. Towards academic eloquence - a university lecture, a scientific report, a scientific review, a scientific report.
3. To judicial eloquence - prosecutorial, or accusatory, speech, socially accusatory speech; advocacy, or defensive speech; socially protective speech; self-defense speech of the accused.
4. To the social and everyday – anniversary speech, table speech (toast), funeral speech (funeral word),
5. Towards theological and church eloquence - a sermon, a speech at a council.
This classification fairly fully reflects modern oratory, although it does not cover all types of eloquence. In particular, it does not present discussion and polemical speeches, such an effective form of oratory as a remark, answers at a press conference, a word at a round table, as well as types of eloquence used on radio and television.
TERRITORIAL DIALECTS. Any modern developed language presupposes the presence of territorial dialects, which represent the most archaic and natural forms of linguistic existence.
Dialect is a type of common language used as a means of communication between people connected by a close territorial community. Dialects Russian language developed as stable territorial formations in a fairly early period - the period of feudal fragmentation. In the twentieth century, due to the growth of education, the development of radio and television, the influence of the literary language increases and the process of degradation of dialects intensifies.
Dialects exist only in oral form and are used for everyday communication (among fellow villagers, in a peasant family). Dialects differ from jargons and vernacular in that they have a set of phonetic, grammatical, and lexical differences characteristic of each dialect.
In the popular Russian language there are three groups territorial dialects: Northern Russian, Southern Russian and Central Russian. They differ from the literary language and from each other in a number of features in phonetics, grammar and vocabulary. Northern Russian dialects distributed north of Moscow, in the territory of Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Vologda, Arkhangelsk, Novgorod and some other regions. They have the following features:
– okanye– sound pronunciation [O] in an unstressed position (in pre-stressed syllables) where the sound is pronounced in the literary language [A]. For example, [water] vm. [vada], [milk] vm. [malako] and so on.
- clicking– inability to distinguish sounds [ts] And [h]: pronounce [tsasy] vm. watch, [kuricha] vm. chicken and so on.
– vowel contraction when pronouncing personal endings of verbs: [znaash], [know] vm. you know, [understand] vm. understands and so on.
– shape match instrumental case plural of nouns with the dative case form: let's go pick up some mushrooms and berries vm. let's go pick up mushrooms and berries and so on.
South Russian dialects distributed south of Moscow, in the territories of Kaluga, Tula, Oryol, Tambov, Voronezh and some other regions. They have the following features:
– akanye– inability to distinguish sounds [O] And [A] in unstressed syllables: [vada] vm. water, [karova] vm. cow(this pronunciation is typical for a literary language);
- yak– sound pronunciation [A] after a soft consonant in place of letters I And E in unstressed (pre-stressed) syllables: [n"asu] vm. I carry it, [b "hell] instead of trouble etc.;
– special pronunciation sound [G]: it is pronounced as a fricative sound [y](this is how the word is pronounced in literary language God);
– sound pronunciation [T] how soft in verb forms: [goes’] vm. goes, [sing’] vm. sing etc.;
– consonant pronunciation [To] like a soft-spoken type barrel, Tanka:[bochk'a], [tan'k'a].
Central Russian dialects occupy an intermediate position between northern and southern Russians. They are located between the areas of distribution of the northern and southern dialects. Their inherent features include both Northern Russian and Southern Russian dialectal features: as in Northern Russian dialects - sound [G] explosive, sound [T] solid; as in southern Russian dialects - akanye. Features that distinguish Central Russian dialects from others:
- hiccups– sound pronunciation [And] in place of the letters I and E in the pre-stressed syllable: [petukh] vm. rooster, [pitak] vm. nickel and so on.;
– sound pronunciation [w] long soft in place of the letter Ш or combinations СЧ, СШ (for example, in the words pike, happiness, crevice and etc.);
– sound pronunciation [and] long soft in place of combinations LJ, ZH (for example, in the words buzz, splash and etc.).
It should be noted that the main features of Russian literary pronunciation were formed precisely on the basis of the phonetics of Central Russian dialects.
The named territorial dialects also have their own lexical features. For example, the device used to hold a frying pan is called in some places frying pan, in others - chapelnik, Thirdly - chapel, heron or stove maker It is sometimes very difficult for a person who does not know dialect vocabulary to understand the true meaning of words. Here is a short excerpt from the book “Vyatka Elegy” by P.L. Yakovlev, writer, friend of A.S. Pushkin, who recorded a conversation between two peasants: “Shtee u tey?” - “Blinders!” - “Lonskys?” - “Lonskie lonistas are sold out.” - “Do you have selyushki?” - “No, guy, I sold everyone.” - “Are your people blushing?” - “Yes! After the coma, you know!” - “Well, forgive me, darling: go buy some chalk!”
And here is the “translation” of this dialogue into literary language: “What do you have?” - “Turkeys!” - “Last year?” - “Last year’s ones were sold last year.” - “Do you have chickens?” - “No, guy, I sold everyone.” - “Why are your eyes red?” - “What! After the fever, you know!” - “Well, goodbye, dear: I’ll go buy some yeast!”
Nowadays, dialects are being destroyed under the pressure of the literary language, which, with the help of the media, penetrates into the most remote areas. However, individual dialectal features (primarily phonetic) in a person who is a carrier of a particular dialect are preserved throughout life and can only be eliminated as a result of purposeful training.
VERBOSE– another variety of the popular Russian language. Unlike local dialects, which are geographically limited, vernacular is not attached to any specific place - it is the speech of an urban, poorly educated population who does not know the norms of the literary language. It developed as a result of the mixing of different dialectal speech in the city, where people from various rural regions of Russia have long moved. The main feature of the vernacular is anorativity, that is, the absence of literary language norms in speech: here everything that exists in the language system is possible, but without any normatively determined selection. Speakers of the vernacular are not aware of such a violation of the norm; they do not grasp or understand the difference between non-literary and literary forms.
Modern Russian vernacular has the following characteristic features.
In the area of pronunciation: 1. softening consonants before soft vowels: candy, brick etc.; 2. solid pronunciation [R] in words: capricious, princess and so on.; 3. inserting a sound between vowels: for the sake of it; 4. inserting a vowel between consonants: zhizin, rubel(vm. ruble); 5. likening consonants to each other: I was afraid(vm. afraid); 6. dissociation of consonants: speaker(vm. director), collidor(vm. corridor), tranway(vm. tram).
In the field of morphology: 1. alignment of consonants at the base of a word during conjugation: Want – I want to bake – you bake etc.; 2. confusion of genders of nouns: I'll eat it all jam . Which apples sour! etc.; 3. mixing case forms of one word: at my sister's, at my mother's; 4. build up ending -s in the genitive plural: too much to do, no room; 5. Declension of indeclinable nouns: without a coat, there will be no cinema.
In the area of syntax: 1. full form of an adjective or participle as part of a nominal predicate: I don't agree. I don't need you. Lunch is already prepared; 2. use of participles on -moss in the predicate function: He's drunk. I don't spam; 3. use of the dative case vm. genitive with preposition: My stomach hurts; 4. indeclinability of numerals: Time: ten minutes to three; 5. indeclinability of nouns: What time is it? No time(vm. time).
In the area of vocabulary: 1. use of words denoting the degree of relationship when addressing strangers: dad, brother, daughter, sister, as well as words man Woman; 2. use of nouns with diminutive suffixes: Would you like some tea? Should I shave my temples?; 3 replacement of some words that are falsely understood as rude: rest(vm. sleep), express(vm. swear), eat(vm. There is); 4. use of emotional vocabulary in a “blurred” meaning: play, scald, chip, scratch (Rainscalds . He scalds On guitar. She speaks great English scalds ).
JARGONS- the speech of social and professional groups of people united by common occupations, interests, social status, etc. They are characterized by the presence of specific vocabulary and phraseology. There are jargons of musicians, actors, students, athletes, hunters, etc. They do not represent a complete system. The grammar in them is the same as in the national language. Their specificity lies in their vocabulary: many words in them have a special meaning and sometimes differ in form from commonly used words. Professional jargons used by people of the same profession mainly when communicating on work-related topics. In pilot's jargon, the bottom of an airplane's fuselage is called belly, aerobatics - barrel, slide, loop. In the speech of doctors, for example, the words brilliant green, castor oil, injections are slang. Social jargon – This is the speech of a socially isolated group of people. Often the emergence of social jargon is dictated by the needs of the functioning and livelihoods of any social group of people. An example is the argot ofen that existed in pre-revolutionary Russia. Ofenya is a wandering merchant of small goods, a peddler. It happened that peddlers were attacked, money and goods were taken from them, so they were forced to hide their intentions and actions from outsiders. They were helped in this by a specially developed “language” that was incomprehensible to others. Some elements of the beggar, thief and Ofen jargon have been preserved in our time, and some words have become commonly used, having lost their slang connotation and undergone semantic changes: double-dealer(among the beggars this was the name given to the one who collected alms with both hands), Linden(fake), rogue, nimble and etc.
In the modern Russian language there are no such jargons that would be created with the special purpose of encrypting a method of communication. Nowadays, such group jargons are widespread that reflect specific associations of people based on interests (fans, car enthusiasts, collectors, etc.). In many languages, there are youth jargons - school and student ones, which are characterized by altering the form and meaning of the word in order to create expressive, emotionally charged means (ancestors, spur, tail, cool). Sometimes, when characterizing the speech of representatives of various social strata, the terms are used slang, pidgin, koine. Slang is a collection of slang words that make up a layer of colloquial vocabulary, reflecting a rudely familiar, sometimes humorous attitude towards the subject of speech. This category is quite vague. Some researchers identify slang with vernacular, others with jargons. Pidgins call structural-functional types of languages that do not have a group of original speakers and developed by simplifying the structure of the source language. Pidgin - languages widely spoken in former colonies: in Southeast Asia in India, Bangladesh, etc. They speak pidgin English. This is “spoiled” English, the pronunciation of which is sometimes only vaguely reminiscent of the normative one (the word itself pidgin comes from a word that is misspelled business), and some English words have a specific meaning. In African countries, the population, when communicating with foreigners, speaks pidgin French, pidgin Portuguese, etc. Koine – a functional type of language used as the main means of everyday communication and used in various communicative spheres (subject to regular social contacts between speakers of different dialects and languages). Word koine of Greek origin and translated means “common”. Koine is any means of communication (oral) that provides communicative connectivity of a certain region in the process of interethnic communication. Medieval Latin is thought to represent the written Koine as the language of science, linking scholars of different generations and nationalities.
Thus, the national language is heterogeneous in its composition. There are noticeable differences in the speech of representatives of different walks of life. In addition, different language means are used in different communication situations. A person’s speech can “tell” a lot about him to his interlocutor. In order to make a good impression and achieve success in business, it is necessary, firstly, to know the norms of the literary language (pronunciation, grammatical) and, secondly, to use linguistic means depending on the situation and purpose of communication (know the stylistic gradations of linguistic units) . These requirements form the basis of speech culture.
questions for control
1. What is the national language? In what century was the Russian national language formed?
2. What is functional style? What types of functional styles can be named?
3. What is jargon? What types of jargon do you know?
4. What is a dialect? Give examples of dialects of the Russian language?
5. Describe the phenomenon of pidgin.
6. What is a speech genre? What types of speech genres do you know?
7. What types of public communication do you know?
There are not only stylistically opposed units of language, but also the linguistic laws of their use. If you look at several pages of the dictionary for words marked “colloquial.” and “high.”, then you can immediately notice that there are significantly fewer high words than colloquial words. This reflects the norm of modern literary language: a text (written or oral) may contain many colloquial words, and this does not disgust modern linguistic taste. On the contrary, words of high style should be used sparingly so as not to give the impression of deliberate exaltation or insincerity. This is the taste of the times, reflected in speech and in the laws of use of linguistic units.
On the squares of Maloyaroslavets and Mozhaisk I saw holy Mongols, here the brave men who participated in the liberation of these cities were buried. Years will pass. The terrible months of war will be forgotten. People will build new cities, new schools, new clubs. Our cities will become more beautiful and larger than before.
Expensive monuments will remain in the heart of the liberated cities. And the mother, pointing the child to the plinth with the names inscribed, will say, “Here, Petya, who saved you...” And in the field, the collective farmers will honor the lonely grave of a Red Army soldier. The ears of corn will part around her. Time won't touch her...
Our soldiers who fell on the battlefield defeated not only the enemy, they also defeated death. They died for loved ones, for friends, for their small village and for our vast country. Orphans will have mothers - all women of Russia. The dead childless people will have descendants - the entire Russian people (I. G. Ehrenburg).
There are few solemn words in this text, but they are enough to convey a feeling of sorrow, gratitude and high sadness.
The text can consist of neutral style units and conversational style units; may consist of neutral style units and high style units. There are texts from only units of neutral style, but they are rare.
There are types of combination of colored linguistic units in one text that are stable in this era. Such types are called stylistic genres. In the modern era, we encounter such stylistic genres as artistic narration, scientific research, newspaper information, humorous everyday dialogue, fable, lyric poem, report at a scientific conference, feuilleton, meeting minutes, application to an institution, advertising, work report, conversation between the seller and a buyer in a store, a story to friends about an event, a journalistic interview, a popular science presentation of a theory, a guidebook, etc.
These genres belong not only to speech, but also to language. The very laws of combining different colored words within each genre (what is permissible and what is not, or permissible as a special case, what possible saturation of the text with given colored units, how they should be introduced into the text, etc.) are to a certain extent stable in each era, they characterize not only the given text, but the genre as a whole. Therefore, such laws are not only speech, but also linguistic in nature.
Language genres and those studied by literary criticism do not coincide with each other. For example, a literary critic distinguishes between a story and a tale - for a linguist this is one genre - artistic narration. There are no actual linguistic (and typified) differences to contrast the story with the story. And even in those cases when a genre is distinguished from both linguistic and literary positions, what is important for a linguist is the stable, general language that goes beyond the scope of personal creativity, and for a literary critic - individual, what in a given text creates the unity of a given figurative system and its given artistic expression.
Here family letter genre:
My friends Tungus! Was it raining when Ivan returned from the Lavra? It was raining so much in Yaroslavl that I had to put on a leather tunic. The first impression of the Volga was poisoned by the rain, the tear-stained cabin windows and the wet nose of Gurland, who came out to the station to meet me. ...)
On the ship, the first thing I did was give free rein to my talent, that is, I went to bed. Waking up, I saw the sun. The Volga is not bad; water meadows, sun-drenched monasteries, white churches; the expanse is amazing; Everywhere you look, it’s convenient to sit down and start fishing. Cool ladies wander along the shore and nibble green grass, and the occasional shepherd's horn is heard.
Kostroma is a good city. I saw Plyos, where languid Levitan lived; I saw Kineshma, where I walked along the boulevard and observed the local shpaks.
Well, stay healthy and safe (A.P. Chekhov).
The linguistic genre of family writing is expressed very clearly. The following features are typical: colloquial style vocabulary (beat - about the rain, not bad, coldish, etc.), occasionally colloquial words (everything inside was filled up) ", a lot of playful figurative meanings, ironic use of high words (put on, see), inclusion of words of the family language - so spoke in childhood by M.P. Chekhov, Drishka - the family form of the name Daria, the introduction of fragments of other language systems (menu), the predominance of simple syntactic constructions (there are no particularly dissected sentences, with a deep “syntactic perspective”), very moderate use of participial and participial phrases .
As you can see, different language genres are characterized not only by different use of words of high or colloquial style, but also by a number of other features. They present the signs of functional varieties of language in different ways. What are called functional varieties of language?
Some genres exhibit linguistic affinity. For example, a notarial deed, a business agreement, minutes of a meeting, and an official notice are similar to each other. A characteristic feature of these genres is the use of vocabulary associated with a specific area of human activity, the frequent use of grammatical (primarily syntactic) features that are appropriate specifically in texts intended for this area. All these signs constitute the distinctive features of the business variety of the modern Russian language. It is characterized not only by what is appropriate in it, but also by the fact that, as a rule, it does not contain words of a colloquial style (darling, neck to neck, Vanyusha, minced), high, solemn words are completely inappropriate, emotional means of language are uncommon (oh, oh, eyes, nose, white, blue-blue, the worst, and I’ll forget about this agreement).
Functional varieties of language are distinguished by generalizing those features that a certain group of language genres has. It is possible to group language genres in different ways, so different researchers have different sets of functional varieties of language. Most often, such functional varieties are business, journalistic, scientific and popular science, information (for example, a newspaper chronicle), and everyday (for example, a conversation on everyday, everyday topics).
It is very important to remember that the organization of the text, its stylistic features are set by the author’s intention, the author’s intention, but this intention itself, this intention, or attitude is a complex phenomenon; it includes several sides: on the one hand, this is an attitude that is “imposed” on the author himself, “set” by the conditions of communication, in particular, the sphere of social activity in which communication takes place, the nature of the addressee, the nature of the relationship with him, and on the other On the other hand, this is the author’s own personal attitude, determined precisely by the author’s individuality, the level of his speech culture and the characteristics of his character and temperament, which is manifested in his speech preferences. So, for example, if communication takes place in the field of scientific social activity (in the field of science), then the author will strive for the most accurate, logical, evidence-based, objective presentation. The nature of the addressee (for example, an audience of specialists with whom the author of the text will communicate “on an equal footing”, or a mass audience of non-specialists to whom the speaker must convey scientific information in a popular form) will also determine the author of the text’s orientation to the strictly scientific and abstract nature of the presentation in the first case or, on the contrary, to a more specific, visual and thereby more accessible to the understanding of the audience nature of the presentation of a scientific problem - in the second.
At the same time, different authors, under equal conditions, will construct - Already due to purely individual speech characteristics - different texts. Therefore, in the presence of such purely individual characteristics, the stylistics of speech is still interested in the stylistic features of texts as, to a certain extent, typified speech works that implement the author’s attitude and are built according to certain canons enshrined in culture. This typification allows us to talk about types of texts, or genres of speech.“Thus, clarifying the position given at the end of the previous paragraph, we can say that speech style- This is the style of texts belonging to certain genres of speech.
Of course, a researcher may set out to study those features of the text that are associated with the author’s personal tastes and speech preferences; such a task was set before stylistics, which Sh. Bally called individual. Individual stylistics, according to the scientist, should study the characteristics of the speech of each individual, each native speaker. This kind of research could be considered appropriate if, for example, the task was to establish how and for what reasons some individual features of the speech of individual native speakers become common features of the speech of all members of the linguistic community or some specific part of it ( sociolinguistic task). In another case, such a task arises when the goal is to study the features of the writing style of an individual artist of the word: those ideological and artistic features of all the works of a particular writer that make up his individual style, or idiostyle, are clarified. But this is no longer a task of speech stylistics or individual stylistics, but of the stylistics of fiction. But for the stylistics of speech, what is important is not these individual features of the speech of each individual and not the idiostyles of writers, but those features that are characteristic of texts of a certain type, that is, certain genres of speech. Let's consider the concept genre of speech.
First of all, we note that there are two different approaches to interpreting the genre: literary And linguistic.
From the point of view of literary criticism, genres are distinguished artistic works: this is a type of literary and artistic work within the genre (epic, lyric and drama): heroic song, ode, poem, ballad, elegy, idyll, tragedy, drama, comedy, etc.; within the genus, genres are distinguished according to their leading aesthetic quality, aesthetic “tonality”: comic, tragic, elegiac, satirical, idyllic, etc. And, finally, genres are distinguished according to the third feature - volume and the corresponding general structure of the work: lyrics usually small in volume, drama has dimensions dictated by the conditions of stage embodiment, and heroism and tragedy require an expanded, “wide breath” (Kozhinov 1964: 39-50).
With the development of literary criticism, the understanding of the characteristics of literary genres deepens. Now, to the main characteristics of the genre identified earlier, the following are added: 1) the aesthetic basis of relations to reality; 2) coverage of reality (cf.: story and novel); 3) type of presentation (narration, description, dialogue); 4) compositional structure (role of action, character, circumstances); 5) the nature of the organization of verbal fabric (rhythm, intonation, tropes, etc.). Based on these five features, the range of the genre is determined, “the play between thematic and stylistic structures, the possibilities of variations of various elements inherent in the text” (Polyakov 1983: 3-52). Literary scholars: Yu.N. Tynyanov, D.S. Likhachev, V.V. Kozhinov and others - emphasize both the long history of the formation of genres and their historical variability. On the one hand, the genre is constantly changing, transforming in the work of every outstanding writer. A genre is born and dies. At the same time, not only some genres come to replace others, but even the principles of identifying genres change, the types and nature of genres, their functions in a given era change. On the other hand, a genre can exhibit stability and vitality.
The historian of literary language and literary critic are faced with the task of studying literary genres in various aspects: firstly, the task is to study the formation, formation of genres; secondly, the task is to study the principles on which genre divisions are made; thirdly, to study the system of genres of each era, i.e. their interaction.
New to genre theory is the problem of the connection between genre and culture and history. Theoretical studies on the problems of genre only in literary criticism in recent years are so numerous that the study of genre is often separated into a special section of literary criticism, which is called “genrology” or “genology” (from the French genre).
In addition to the considered interpretation of genres associated with works of art, in recent decades the concept of “speech genres”, put forward by M. Bakhtin and actively developed by many modern scientists, has become widespread in linguistic literature: T.G. Vinokur, N.D. Arutyunova, A. Vezhbitskaya, T.V. Shmeleva, T.V. Matveeva, M.Yu. Fedosyuk and others.
Concept speech genre is interpreted ambiguously in linguistic literature. For the most part, researchers rely on the concept of speech genres by M. Bakhtin, who emphasized that speech genres are extremely diverse, so the difficulties of studying their nature cannot be downplayed. Speech genres correspond to typical situations of speech communication, typical topics, i.e. they represent a reflection in speech of certain types of social interaction of people that occur many times in life. These are “relatively stable thematic, compositional and stylistic types of statements” (Bakhtin 1996:164). At the same time, it is important to emphasize that statement in this definition does not mean a sentence, but a certain unit of communication, which is characterized by semantic completeness and which is delimited from other similar units by a change of subjects of speech. Essentially, the definition of a speech genre given by M. Bakhtin allows for a dual interpretation, i.e. both a typical type of text (letter, statement, text of a decree, story, novel, etc.) and a situationally typical type fit this definition. utterance (replica of dialogue, order, command, question, etc.) The sign “change of the subject of speech” does not play a role in this case, since there may be speech genres within which the subjects of speech regularly change (for example, an argument, a quarrel , dialogue, conversation), and this, nevertheless, is one speech genre. And in other cases, on the contrary, there is no change in the subjects of speech, but the speech genres are different; for example: preface and text of the work; dedication and main text or novel text and epilogue. Therefore, if we replace M.M. in the definition. Bakhtin's word statement on word text, then under the definition of speech genre (this relatively stable thematic, compositional and stylistic type of text) a short story, a story, and all other literary genres are suitable, as well as lines of everyday dialogue, a discussion, a quarrel, a letter, an order, a military command, a statement, an essay, etc.
Legality of the proposed replacement of the term statement per term text in defining a speech genre, one can prove by reference to the signs of “utterance” that we find in M.M. himself. Bakhtin. They coincide with the characteristics of the text. The first sign is the presence of clear boundaries; the second - completeness, integrity; third - the presence of a certain author's intention; finally, the fourth - certain compositional and stylistic features specified by the subject-semantic content, the author's intention and his subjective-emotional attitude to this content. Thus, the “statement” of M.M. Bakhtin is characterized by integrity, determined by three factors: 1) subject-semantic exhaustion, 2) speech intent, or the speech will of the speaker, 3) typical compositional-genre forms of completion. It is absolutely clear that the characteristics of the text are given here, as it is currently understood by the majority of linguists. With this interpretation of speech genres, they turn out to be functionally very heterogeneous (compare, for example, on the one hand, a short military command, a proverb, and on the other, all literary genres from a short story to a multi-volume novel). Therefore M.M. Bakhtin proposed to distinguish primary (simple) speech genres and secondary (complex). He considered the primary ones, in particular, an everyday story or letter, replicas of everyday dialogue, i.e., genres that developed in conditions of direct verbal communication. In contrast, secondary speech genres (novels, dramas, scientific studies of all kinds, large journalistic genres, etc.) arise in conditions of more complex and relatively highly developed and organized cultural communication, mainly written.
But besides this opposition, another one is proposed: elementary speech genres/ complex speech genres. Elementary (in other terminology - atomic) speech genres are thematic, compositional and stylistic types of texts that do not contain components that have the status of certain genres of speech; For example, praise, greeting, order. And complex speech genres are types of texts that include such components, which, in turn, themselves have the status of certain speech genres; For example: consolation, persuasion, conversation, discussion, quarrel and etc.
Thus, as part of a complex speech genre argument includes elementary (atomic) speech genres reproach, threat, accusation, insult and so on.
How do the concepts of functional style, speech style and speech genre relate? A speech genre, as has been said, is identified with a certain type of text. At the same time, speech style is the compositional speech structure of texts of this type (texts belonging to a given speech genre). From the point of view of functional styles of a language, one speech genre can be the embodiment of various functional styles. For example, the speech genre about accusation, relating to the primary elementary (atomic) Speech genres, may be the embodiment vernacular(example 1), Spoken speech(example 2), journalistic style(example 3), of formal business style(example 4): (1) You're being rude, you asshole!!! (2) It was you who set the dog on!(3) These street riots are clearly inspired by representatives of your party;(4) X. is accused of speeding, causing moderate injuries to citizen U.
We come across a variety of texts every day: some “urge” us to buy something (advertising slogans), others tell a fascinating story (fiction), and others we use to convey information to our interlocutor (colloquial speech).
We see, hear or pronounce certain combinations of letters, and sometimes we don’t even think about what style they are presented in, what genres of text we use. We do this intuitively - we concisely talk with business partners, allow ourselves slang in a friendly conversation, expect beautiful descriptions from fiction and a clear presentation of information from scientific literature.
But sometimes the choice of style can be wrong, i.e. does not correspond to the speech situation. How can this be avoided? It turns out that there is such a science - stylistics, which studies the style, type, genre of a text and helps to understand their classification.
Let's try to understand the expressive capabilities of the text, study the classification of styles and genres and determine in what situations they should be used.
Conversational style
This style is most suitable for communication in everyday life and has the character of live communication between people of different social ranks and levels of education. It can be expressed both through dialogue and in personal correspondence (e-mail, chat, postal correspondence).
The styles and genres of text that are available for communication in everyday life do not have strict boundaries, are tolerant of errors, and allow the introduction of foreign language, slang words, abbreviations and even profanity. In addition, the conversational style uses free word order.
Dialogue example:
A: Well, my friend, are you ready for the test?
B: Yes, I’m already going crazy from this cramming...
This style is characterized by emotional coloring, which is achieved through exaggeration, affectionate treatment, indignation or delight.
Dialogue example:
A: Hurray!
B: What happened, daughter?
A: Mommy, I got the main role in the school play.
B: Well, how smart you are!
Dialogue example:
A: In short, I came to her... We agreed. In short, do you understand!?
B: Well..?
A: And she, in short, is not at home.
All sentences in conversational style are simple and understandable. They do not contain eloquent comparisons or complex turns of phrase.
Dialogue example:
Would you like some coffee?
- Let's!
- With sugar?
- Without.
Scientific style
This style serves to present a clear and educational character.
Unlike the colloquial style, the scientific style is restrained from an emotional point of view and has a clear sequence of presentation. He does not tolerate mistakes and colloquial expressions.
Each fact of scientific presentation has a foundation of arguments that prove its relevance.
The scientific style has a clear narrative structure:
Introduction, which denotes a specific theory;
- the main part, where arguments and counterarguments are given;
- a conclusion summarizing all the facts presented.
This style is presented in the form of a well-thought-out monologue, and dialogues are carried out in the form of discussions. Addresses of all discussion participants are presented to each other in a respectful manner.
Dialogue example:
A: This theorem does not require proof.
B: I beg your pardon, Doctor Fedorov, I have to disagree with you.
The scientific style is characterized by the use of special terminology and words not used in In addition, the presentation often uses words designed to emphasize the logical sequence of judgments: thus, for example, however, etc.
The deviant behavior of some individuals is often associated with incorrect construction of the chain of priorities.
This style corresponds to such genres of text as report, abstract, article, methodological manual.
Formal business style
This is a style of business negotiations. The method of presenting information in this style is regulated and standardized, as evidenced by the presence of special forms and stamps. It is characterized by accuracy, conciseness, and neutrality of narration.
This style can also be recognized by the presence of special words: in connection with, on the basis of, order, undertake, plaintiff, employer, responsible person, take measures, etc.
Due to systematic violations of discipline, I order the removal of citizen A.E. Ivanov from official duties until further clarification of the reasons.
He was so excited that he could not speak. She was also silent.
Fiction has no clear boundaries and borrows characteristics from other styles. The character's dialogue may use a conversational style, and some monologues are described in a scientific style. But such expressive and emotional techniques as epithets, allegory and metaphor are purely artistic texts.
The leaves shimmered with bargot-amber colors under the rays of the setting sun.
Sentences in this style are filled with synonyms and antonyms. A popular technique in fiction is to alternately present simple and complex sentences.
I ran along the main street for several miles, then turned into a park and looked around frantically. Empty.
Typology by form
The classification of the genre of texts is carried out in three directions: form, content and gender.
Literary form refers to the unification of works with identical formal properties.
The following genres of text are distinguished by form:
1. A play is a literary creation intended for stage production in the theater.
2. A story is a prose narrative about one or more characters, contained within fifty pages.
3. The novel is a large-scale epic work that tells the story of a change in the protagonist’s worldview, overcoming a period of crisis and spiritual rebirth. Here, the presence of one or more protagonists (the main character striving for a specific goal) and an antagonist (a character who interferes with the achievement of the main goal of the protagonist) is required. The volume of the work can vary from 200 pages to several volumes.
4. A story is something between a short story and a novel. It is based on a narrative about events and incidents in the life of the main character.
5. An essay is a work of art that does not contain conflict.
There are other types of text genres in this category (epic, short story, ode), but at this stage of the development of literature they are not as popular as the above types.
Characteristics of genres by content
Text genres in Russian can also be classified according to content:
1. Comedy - a work with a pronounced humorous or satirical overtones.
Examples: “Woe from Wit”, “The Taming of the Shrew”, “The Inspector General”, “An Ideal Husband”.
2. Tragedy - the plot of this type of work is built on a sequence of events that inevitably lead to a tragic ending.
Examples: “Hamlet”, “Romeo and Juliet”, “Moo-moo”.
3. Drama - at the heart of works of this type is the problem of human interaction with society, with the outside world and with oneself.
Examples: “The Green Mile”, “Life on Borrow”, “Wuthering Heights”.
Text genres in Russian: classification by gender
1. Epic - works stretched over time, rich in many main and auxiliary characters, events and experiences. The story is told primarily from the perspective of an impartial observer and is presented in the form of memories of past events.
2. Lyrics - a literary text, rich in sensory experiences and the author’s own thoughts.
3. Lyric-epic is a combined type that has absorbed the characteristics of both epic and lyrical types.
4. The drama is built on the relationships between the characters. It is expressed mainly in the form of dialogue with explanatory remarks by the author.
To classify a particular work, it is necessary not only to sort it into categories, count the number of pages and evaluate the emotional coloring, but also to understand the author’s intention, comprehend the behavior of the characters, and extract morality from what is written.
What feelings did you experience after reading the literary work? Couldn't you stop laughing? Most likely, the work read was of a comedic nature. Can't hold back your tears over the sudden death of your favorite hero? You've read the tragedy. Do the relationships between the characters still keep you on edge? Now you are familiar with the genre - drama.
How big is your work? Perhaps this is several pages of text telling about some event in the character’s life. This is a story. Or is it a multi-volume work with many characters and a confusing plot. In this case we are talking about a novel.
How is the text presented: dry and impartial or, on the contrary, bright and emotional? In the first case, the work can be characterized as an epic, in the second - as lyricism.
Classifying texts of different genres is not so difficult; it is enough to understand their meaning.