From time to time, aliens from outer space come to us - these are meteorites, “pieces of unearthly matter” (literally - “stone from the sky”) that fell to the ground. In addition, from collisions with these “guests”, new minerals in composition can form on the surface of the earth under the influence of extreme temperatures. There is still no consensus among scientists about the origin of some “space” stones. Are they completely extraterrestrial, or are they terrestrial rocks that have been altered by a meteorite impact?
Be that as it may, you will agree that it is very tempting to become the owner of a rare pebble - a fragment of a celestial body that flew to Earth from space.
Origin of meteorites
Scientists divide all meteorites into two main types: fallen and found. Fallen means that their fall was observed, which happens very rarely. Found means that they were accidentally found and their cosmic origin was identified. Very often, found fragments of meteorites are named after the area where they were found, for example, Libyan glass.
The chemical composition of meteorite rocks is different from those on Earth.
Meteorites are of great interest not only to scientists, but also to lovers of magical amulets and talismans, as well as unusual jewelry.
All meteorites are divided into two large groups: metal and stone.
Stone meteorites, in turn, are divided into chondrites (more than 80% of all meteorites that fell to Earth) and achondrites.
Chondrites are named after “chondrules”, i.e. they consist of tiny glassy grains - “chondrules” (up to 1 mm). Such “chondrules” are not found in “terrestrial” rocks, just like on the Moon.
Achondrites do not contain glassy grains and resemble lunar rock in composition and appearance.
Is a tektite stone a meteorite or not?
Tektites are a mysterious type of minerals, the origin of which has not yet been clearly explained. Tektites are a melted glassy mass. Tektites found in different places on our planet have a huge difference in age - millions of times!
The appearance of tektites is rather unpresentable - they are porous black stones, irregular in shape (cores, disks, drops, pears), which can seem to be eaten away by snails, weighing from a few hundredths of a gram to a kilogram. The absolute record for tektite weight is 3.2 kg.
Thus, “young” tektites were found near Nizhny Novgorod and in Libya. They are only about 30 thousand years old. Other tektites found in the subsurface are tens of millions of years old.
Scientists have put forward two hypotheses about the origin of tektites:
1) the stones were originally “earthly”, but as a result of catastrophically rapid heating and cooling, they acquired a melted appearance.
2) the stones “flew” to us from space.
Both hypotheses have both scientific explanations and unproven claims.
It should be noted that most scientists studying tektites are still inclined to the first hypothesis - their terrestrial origin. But tektites have nothing in common with meteorites, so identifying them is wrong.
Tektites-protvanites of Russia
Based on the area where these cosmic stones were discovered, they are called Nizhny Novgorod. This type of tektite is characterized by a high calcium content.
A feature of tektites is their very low water content, for example, “terrestrial” rocks contain about one percent of water, human-made glass contains about two hundredths of a percent, but tektites contain only five ten-thousandths of a percent! This indicates both their extraterrestrial origin and strong heating.
Moldavites are a subspecies of tektites
The name was obtained from the place where they were found - the Vltava or Moldau River. Pieces of this mineral littered the Vltava area about 15 million years ago. In appearance, they resemble melted bottle glass (green), and in chemical composition they are completely different from earthly volcanic glass. It was decided that these were guests from outer space.
Uncut moldavite (or vtalvite) is as inconspicuous as any tektite. But after processing it becomes simply beautiful, as jewelers say - it is a mineral “the color of June green.” Not surprisingly, moldavite is expensive.
Libyan glass
This is the name of the mineral, another type of tektite, similar to fused glass. It has been found since ancient times on the territory of modern Libya.
The central part of Tutankhamun's medallion contains nothing more than Libyan glass.
It is believed that Libyan glass was formed when a comet or meteorite hit the sand, which melted. In terms of chemical composition, it consists of 98% silicon dioxide and 2% cosmogenic dust.
The pieces of Libyan glass are about 30 million years old.
Color – yellowish, greenish, can be transparent.
The reserves of this mysterious mineral on Earth are estimated at 1 thousand 400 tons and therefore it is considered the rarest of all minerals.
Pallasite - a piece of meteorite
Pallasite is, unlike tectonites, a stony-iron type of meteorite. They have a very beautiful color, “unearthly” in texture.
An alloy of metal (iron 80-90% and nickel 3-20%) and stone (transparent silicate).
It was first found in 1749 near the city of Krasnoyarsk and later described by the scientist Pallas as native iron.
There is quite a lot of pallasite in the world; pieces of it are found in almost every country. It is in high demand in the jewelry world because after processing it becomes very beautiful. Pallasites, unique in appearance and size, can cost up to several thousand dollars per gram.
Is Gibeon a type of meteorite?
Yes, Gibeon (according to the place of its discovery - the city of Gibeon in Africa) consists of almost 100% iron and is a meteorite. Scientists have no dispute about its cosmic origin. Microinclusions of nickel, cobalt and other rare metals made the gibeon stainless. After processing, the inconspicuous-looking gibeon becomes more attractive, although it looks like an ordinary piece of iron. But knowing that he is the same age as the Earth, you involuntarily become imbued with respect for him.
It is used as jewelry, but it is impossible to distinguish it from ordinary “earthly” metal unless one obtains a certificate of chemical composition certifying its origin.
Pushing the limits of the Hubble Telescope, an international team of astronomers has broken the cosmic observing distance record by measuring the properties of the most distant galaxy previously observed in the Universe. This unexpectedly bright nascent galaxy, named GN-z11, is seen as it was 13.4 billion years ago, just 400 million years after the Big Bang. Galaxy GN-z11 is located in the constellation Ursa Major.
“We have taken the biggest step back in time, beyond what we thought possible with the Hubble telescope. We see the galaxy GN-z11 at a time when the age of the Universe was only three percent of its current age." - explained principal investigator Pascal Oesch from Yale University.
Astronomers have moved closer to the first galaxies to form in the Universe. Hubble's new observations take researchers into an area previously thought could only be reached by the James Webb Space Telescope (scheduled for launch in 2018).
The measurements provide compelling evidence that some unusual and unexpectedly bright galaxies previously detected in Hubble images are actually located at extreme distances. Previously, a team of scientists estimated the distance to GN-z11 by determining its color using Hubble and the Spitzer Space Telescope. Now, in a first for a galaxy at such an extreme distance, the team used Hubble's Wide-Field Camera 3. To accurately measure the distance to GN-z11, the light was spectroscopically separated into its component colors.
Astronomers measure large distances to determine the "redshift" of a galaxy. This phenomenon is the result of the expansion of the Universe. Every distant object in the Universe appears to be moving away from us because its light is stretched into longer, redder wavelengths of light as it passes through expanding space to reach our telescopes. The higher the redshift, the further away the galaxy is.
“Our spectroscopic observations show that the galaxy is further away than we originally thought, right at the limit of the distance at which Hubble can observe,” says Gabriel Brammer, study co-author from the Space Telescope Institute.
Before astronomers measured the distance to the galaxy GN-z11, the largest distance measured spectroscopically was a redshift of 8.68 (13.2 millirads in the past). The team has now confirmed for GN-z11 a redshift of 11.1, about 200 million years closer to the Big Bang. “This is a remarkable achievement for Hubble. It managed to break all previous distance records held for years by larger ground-based telescopes,” says researcher Pieter van Dokkum from Yale University. “This new record will likely stand until the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope.”
Galaxy GN-z11 is 25 times smaller than the Milky Way, and contains only one percent of the mass of our galaxy in its stars. However, the newborn GN-z11 is growing rapidly, forming new stars about 20 times faster than our galaxy does today. This makes the extremely distant galaxy bright enough for astronomers to conduct detailed studies with the Hubble and Spitzer telescopes.
The research results provide surprising clues to the nature of the early Universe. “It's amazing that such a massive galaxy exists only 200 or 300 million years after the very first stars began to form. This requires very rapid growth, producing stars at a monstrous rate to form a galaxy of a billion solar masses so quickly,” explains Garth Illingworth, a researcher at the University of California.
These discoveries are an exciting preview of the research that the James Webb Space Telescope will undertake when it launches into space in 2018. “This new discovery shows that the Webb telescope is likely to find many of these young galaxies by peering into where the first galaxies are forming,” Illingworth says.
The research team includes scientists from Yale University, the Space Telescope Science Institute and the University of California.
This video shows the location of the galaxy GN-z11 in the visible sky.
The peculiar blue bubble surrounding the star WR 31a is the Wolf-Rayet Nebula, an interstellar cloud of dust, hydrogen, helium and other gases. Such nebulae usually have a spherical or ring shape. They arise from the interaction of fast stellar wind with the outer layers of hydrogen ejected by Wolf-Rayet stars. This bubble, formed approximately 20,000 years ago, is expanding at a speed of about 220,000 kilometers per hour!
Unfortunately, the life cycle of a Wolf-Rayet star lasts only a few hundred thousand years—an instant on a cosmic scale. Starting its life with at least 20 times the mass of the Sun, a Wolf-Rayet star loses half its mass in less than 100,000 years.
And the star WR 31a in this case is no exception. Eventually it will end its life in a spectacular flare, and the stellar material ejected from the explosion will become the basis for the next generation of stars and planets.
The recent meteorite fall in Chelyabinsk became another reminder to humanity that it is too early to talk about the safety of our planet. Everyone, young and old, talked about this cosmic “guest”. Along the way, we also remembered other space objects that had flown to Earth. One of the most unusual - Fukan meteorite, a true precious gift from the Universe.
The age of the miracle meteorite is 4.5 billion years, it is the same age as our planet. Fukang was found near the city of Fukang (northwest China), after which it was named. The stunningly beautiful meteorite is composed of 50% iron-nickel base and 50% olivine, which is sometimes called a space gem. Olivine (its second name is chrysolite) is also found on earth, but such large crystals cannot be found in nature.
An amazing meteorite was discovered by an American tourist who often stopped to have lunch on a huge rock. Over time, seeing the crystalline structure of the rock, he became interested in its origin and, using a hammer and chisel, obtained several fragments and sent them for examination to the USA. The Americans confirmed that the unexpected find turned out to be a meteorite.
In total, the cosmic block weighed more than a thousand kilograms, but insatiable tourists immediately wanted to “break off” a piece, so the weight of the cosmic “gift” began to steadily melt away. The decision was made to split the meteorite into hundreds of small pieces, which were auctioned around the world.
In 2008, a meteorite fragment weighing 420 kg (!) Marvin Killgore, one of the employees of the Southwest Laboratory of the University of Arizona Meteorites, decided to put it up for auction in New York. The starting price for the “precious” stone was $2 million, but unfortunately, buyers that day were not impressed with the lot. A giant fragment of a meteorite was divided into several parts, and they were cut. Today, one of the parts (weighing 31 kg) was transferred to the American Museum of Natural History.
1. What is the ability of the soil to satisfy the needs of plants for nutrients, water, and air?2. What do plants use for nutrition?
A) humus b) microbes c) air d) mushrooms
3. What is the name of the science that studies soils?
A) botany b) soil science c) zoology d) microbiology
4. What is formed from the remains of dead plants and animals under the influence of microorganisms and fungi?
A) sand b) humus c) clay d) water
5. What nature can soil be classified as?
A) to living nature b) to inanimate nature c) to the community of inanimate and animate nature
6. The layer of the earth's crust on which plants can grow:
A) soil b) sand c) clay d) peat
7. Substance that increases soil fertility
A) air b) humus c) water d) limestone
8. One of the components of the soil:
A) stone b) sand c) pebbles d) crushed stone
9.Best fertilizer:
A) sand b) manure c) water d) mineral fertilizer
10.Which soil is the most fertile?
A) podzolic b) clayey c) chernozem d) peat
11. The best soil protectors from destruction:
A) man b) plants c) mole d) wind
12. What is the main part of the soil?
A) air b) humus c) clay d) water
13. The destruction of the fertile soil layer by water and wind is called:
A) watering b) fertility c) erosion d) breathability
14.What is the name of finely crushed silty soil?
A) structural b) fertile c) structureless d) sandy
Guys, I'm sorry that I'm writing about school knowledge, but it's urgent. Does anyone remember the name of the anime, about his older brother (he's 16-17 years old) and about his younger sister (she5-6 years old)? I remember that my brother always picked up his sister from kindergarten, and this brother had a girlfriend. And then one day, the brother was late, and the little sister ran away from the kindergarten to God knows where. The brother came to the kindergarten, and there he was told that she said that he had come for her. And so he went to look for her, when he passed by the playground, he heard a rustling sound, and went into a small children's house, in the shape of a mushroom, and there his little sister was sitting and picking in the sand with a spatula, she heard footsteps and turned around. Her brother was standing there: he asked, “Why did you run away?”
And she replied: You don’t need me, you have a girlfriend...
I don’t remember further, I also remember that my brother and his girlfriend were sweeping the street. Who knows what this anime is called, please tell me. I watched it a long time ago, I don’t remember anymore, I watched it when I was 5 years old: please tell me, good people:
years, Mars spacecraft with serial numbers from 1 to 7 were sent to the red planet. What was the name of this space program?
a) "God of War"
b) “Red Planet”,
c) “Mars”,
d) "Phobos";
2. Find a group that lists only vegetable crops. 1. raspberries, currants, gooseberries, strawberries 2. onions, tomatoes, radishes, sorrel 3. rye, garlic, cucumber, rice 3. What are the names of animals that get their own food, arrange housing, and breed offspring? 1. independent 2. forest 3. wild 4. Choose the products that a person gets from a cow. 1. milk, cheese, fluff, skins 2. cottage cheese, sour cream, lard, feathers 3. meat, milk, skins, kefir 5. Where should most indoor plants be placed? 1. in the shade 2. closer to the light 3. in dark places 6. What should be the water for irrigation? 1. cold 2. hot 3. room temperature 7. Find a statement that refers to the rules of friends of nature. 1. Chicks that fall out of the nest must be taken home. 2. You must maintain silence in the forest. 3. Butterflies must be caught with a net. 8. Which sector of the economy gives us bread, milk, meat? 1. industry 2. agriculture 3. trade 9. Find the material from which the notebook is made. 1. plastic 2. wood 3. metal 10. What applies to underground transport? 1. electric train 2. motor ship 3. metro 11. What institutions include school, gymnasium, university? 1. education 2. culture 3. entertainment 12. What do the head, neck, torso, and limbs belong to? 1. internal organs 2. external organs 3. parts of the body 13. With the help of which organ does a person breathe? 1. lungs 2. liver 3. intestines 14. Find a hygiene item that can be used by all family members. 1. towel 2. soap 3. comb 15. Which crossing is the safest? 1. at a traffic light 2. along a zebra crossing 3. underpass 16. Connect the phone numbers and names of emergency services: 01 police 02 ambulance 03 fire department 17. When crossing the street, you need to be: 1. strong, brave, slender 2. collected, attentive , careful 3. smart, beautiful, joyful
Stones from space - a selection of stones, photographs, properties, features. Stones that are reliably known to have come from space are rare. They are not always beautiful - although sometimes they amaze the imagination with the whimsicality of their appearance - but they are always rare. Owning a meteorite is prestigious! In the eyes of those around him, the owner of the pebble, which arrived on Earth with a roar, a roar and a glow across half the sky, is almost the personal addressee of the Lord God.Of course, there is nothing supernatural about meteorites, but jewelry made from them is in great demand. Let's take a closer look at heavenly gifts! Perhaps it’s worth putting in a little effort and becoming the owner of such a thing?
Pieces of melted glassy mass are called tektites. There is no consensus in the scientific community regarding the origin of tektites - especially since the age of such formations found in different areas of the planet varies... by millions of times!
The youngest tektites were found in Libya and near Nizhny Novgorod. Libyan stones are approximately 30 thousand years old. The Novgorod ones came to Earth in the winter of 1996-97. The oldest tektites are mined from the depths, from layers formed tens of millions of years ago. It is generally accepted that in most cases tektites are either direct guests from space or a product of the impact interaction of large meteorites with the Earth's surface.
Libyan glass is also an undoubted relative of tektites - translucent greenish-yellow smoothed fragments, found in the desert in the territory of modern Libya since ancient times. True, experts are not completely sure of the cosmic origin of Libyan glass - but there is, however, no doubt: such a mineral simply could not have appeared without the intervention of cosmic forces.
It is not clear whether it was earthly sand that melted into glass as a result of shock heating, or whether heavenly quartz melted due to the braking of a meteor in the atmosphere... However, Pharaoh Tutankhamun, who decorated his medallion with a scarab made of Libyan glass, did not seem to care about this problem. Well, why are we any worse?
Gibeon
In 1836, in South Africa, near the city of Gibeon, the sky opened up and a large metal meteorite fell to the ground. The surrounding area of Gibeon is desert, which made it easier to search for the wreckage of the alien from outer space. Over the course of a century and a half, no less than 26 tons of remains of a celestial body have been found and recorded.
The composition of the Gibeon meteorite is almost pure iron. Impurities - nickel, cobalt and rare metals in trace amounts - made the extraterrestrial alloy stainless. Jewelry is often made from the metal of the Gibeon meteorite. Partly because the fragments themselves are unsightly. Partly because meteorite iron is easy to falsify...
When purchasing a product from the Gibeon meteorite, request a certificate of the chemical composition of the metal. Having received a authentic meteorite decoration, you will feel involved in eternity: the age of this heavenly guest is equal to the age of our planet.
Moldavite
Green natural glass is moldavite (a type of tektite).
Photo by Mohammad Iskandar
Tektite is classical in origin, but unusual in appearance. Moldavite looks like bottle glass. It could be classified as volcanic glass - only the chemical composition does not give it. Scientists are unanimous in their opinion: moldavite (more correctly called vltavin) is a guest from outer space!
The comet that dotted the area around the Vltava River (Moldau in German, hence the name) with fragments 15 million years ago consisted primarily of silicon compounds. The melted fragments are inconspicuous - but only until they fall into the hands of cutters. It is not surprising that gemologists are more interested in the mineral moldavite than geologists. Jewelry made from moldavite, a heavenly stone the color of June green, is extremely beautiful!
Meteorites, classified as Pallas's iron since 1749, are rare. Peter Pallas, who found this heavenly “gift” near Krasnoyarsk, gave his name to a whole class of tektites.
Any pallasite is primarily a metallic body with greater or lesser inclusion of silicates. Particularly attractive are pallasites, the silicate part of which is represented by a mineral of rare beauty and stunning aesthetic qualities.
Freed from drops of metal (visible to the naked eye, in any case), olivine can be cut in the most whimsical way. With a little imagination, the sparks of light reflected by it can easily be imagined as the reflection of the stars past which this pebble flew at arm's length...
Pallasite
The most beautiful meteorites found on Earth are, of course, pallasites. Science calls them iron-stone. However, the iron in these formations is saturated with nickel, and the stone is usually a transparent silicate gem.
Palassites are found everywhere! If one of the countries does not register a single discovery of pallasite for decades, then either this is an underdeveloped state, or all the “gifts from space” found here are cut, polished and sold.
The retail price of processed pallasite depends on its expressiveness, and usually ranges from several tens of dollars per gram. A high-quality specimen rarely costs the buyer less than a thousand dollars, but a representative collection of pallasites can be sold at a profit. You just need to try to: a) the stones represent all the continents of the Earth; b) their appearance made hearts beat faster and breathing stopped.
However, there are no other pallasites...