Russian lexicography has accumulated significant experience in creating dictionaries and reference books of various types. Theoretically, the type of dictionary is determined by the information about the word that is basic for a given reference book. The practical classification of dictionaries looks somewhat more complicated. There are two classes of reference publications. These are philological dictionaries containing knowledge about the language, and encyclopedic reference books containing knowledge about the world.
The central object of description of philological (linguistic) dictionaries are language units. Dictionaries of the philological type store knowledge about the linguistic means used by people in their speech activity. Such dictionaries provide information that helps the reader pronounce a word correctly, express his speech in writing, and correctly understand a text written by someone. The use of language reference books allows a person to perform error-free speech acts so that the meaning contained in his statement is understandable to other people.
The central object of description of encyclopedic reference books are concepts associated with individual words, phrases, and knowledge about the world and people related to these concepts. Thus, encyclopedias and reference books characterize extra-linguistic realities, that is, our knowledge about objects and things, concepts related to natural and social phenomena is presented, biographies of people are given, information about important events is given, historical dates are indicated. Dictionaries of this type are a compendium about the world around us.
Within each class of publications, specific reference books may be characterized by additional properties that determine the type and quality of information contained in dictionary entries.
Directories are distinguished according to several parameters. These parameters can be combined in one dictionary or be a differentiating feature for dictionaries. Dictionaries are characterized by the object of description, the volume of the dictionary, the principles of selection of the dictionary, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary, the order of arrangement of description units, and the addressing of the dictionary.
The object of description for encyclopedic class reference books is knowledge about extra-linguistic realities. For example, a linguistic encyclopedic dictionary contains knowledge about the languages of the world, embodied in special concepts and terms that reflect specific properties and phenomena characteristic of a particular language, a group of languages, or all languages.
Dictionaries of the Russian language according to the object of description are also divided into two subclasses: dictionaries that describe the formal (morphological, syntactic) features of vocabulary, and dictionaries that describe the semantic features of the use of words in the text. In particular, dictionaries that describe the formal side of the use of vocabulary of the Russian language include dictionaries of morphemes, spelling, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of difficulties (correctness), grammatical, syntactic dictionaries. Dictionaries that describe the lexical semantics of the Russian language include explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words, phraseological dictionaries, and proverbial dictionaries.
The volume parameter of a dictionary takes into account not so much the quantitative composition of the dictionary as its qualitative composition. This means that small-volume dictionaries do not contain a small number of words, but only the most necessary, minimally sufficient vocabulary units with which you can characterize the object of the dictionary description. Dictionaries of medium size contain such a quantitative composition of the vocabulary, with the help of which the bulk of speech cases corresponding to the object of the dictionary description are described. Large-volume dictionaries cover the largest possible range of vocabulary units that make up the object of the dictionary description, and describe it with academic completeness.
The principles of vocabulary selection for Russian language dictionaries are an important differentiating parameter, which includes the selection of words on the basis of novelty, on the basis of synchrony and diachrony, on the basis of the regional existence of vocabulary, on the basis of the origin of words, on the basis of the fixation of words in the speech of a certain author or in a certain text. According to this parameter, a distinction is made between dictionaries formed according to the unity of stylistic characteristics (colloquial vocabulary, abusive vocabulary, everyday vocabulary) and dictionaries of a general type. A dictionary formed according to such predetermined principles can have both grammatical and semantic features of the selected vocabulary as an object of description.
According to the principles of vocabulary selection, encyclopedic class reference books are divided into encyclopedias, containing a compendium of knowledge, and industry reference books, containing special information from a particular field.
For dictionaries describing the lexical system of the Russian language, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary is an important differentiating parameter. This parameter distinguishes between universal and aspect dictionaries. Among the aspect dictionaries there are dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, dictionaries on onomastics and toponymy.
The conceptual and thematic composition of the vocabulary of encyclopedic reference books corresponds to the principles of vocabulary selection and differs in terms of universal and specialized.
According to the order of arrangement of units of description, alphabetical, reverse, ideographic, semantic, and thematic dictionaries are distinguished.
Dictionary addressing is an important parameter of reference publications. This parameter must be indicated in the annotation to any dictionary. Many other dictionary parameters depend on the categories of readers for which the dictionary is intended. Typically, reference publications are aimed at those who use a dictionary to master or study their native language in more depth, and at those for whom this language is a foreign language.
The purpose of spelling dictionaries is to provide information about the pronunciation, stress and formation of grammatical forms of each word included in the dictionary. Dictionaries of this type interpret the pronunciation norms of the literary language in relation to each unit of the vocabulary. For this purpose, a special system of regulatory guidelines is being developed, and prohibitive signs are being introduced. Depending on the volume of words included in it, such dictionaries can be intended for both specialists and the wider reader. For example, Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms (edited by R. I. Avanesov) is the most famous dictionary of this type. It is designed for specialists - philologists, Russian language teachers, lecturers, radio and television announcers, etc. For all other readers, the dictionary can be a reliable normative reference tool.
Dictionaries of this type contain information about the origin of words and the linguistic sources of their entry into our speech. Dictionaries that describe this aspect of the life of a word indicate the original language material, the original sound and meaning in the source language, and provide other additional information about the word that explains the conceptual content of the borrowed word. The immediate object of description of the etymological dictionary is borrowed vocabulary, which is accompanied by background information about the language source, the original forms of the word and its sound are reconstructed. The completeness of etymological information about a word varies depending on the intended readership. The reference publication, intended for specialists, is characterized by the maximum completeness of the dictionary, a detailed presentation of the life history of the word, and a broad argumentation of the proposed etymological interpretations. Educational etymological dictionaries, aimed at the general reader, have a smaller vocabulary consisting of the most frequent borrowed words of the literary language. Popular dictionaries give one version of the origin of the word and a brief, simplified argument for it. Popular etymological dictionaries of the Russian language are “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by G. P. Tsyganenko, “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by V. V. Ivanov, T. V. Shanskaya and N. M. Shansky. The “Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language” by P. Ya. Chernykh is intended for the general reader. The most famous scientific publication, of course, is the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by M. Vasmer.
As examples of general type dictionaries, we can point to ordinary explanatory and bilingual (translation) dictionaries, in which the vocabulary existing in the general literary layer of the language is described with varying degrees of completeness. When talking about general-type dictionaries, experts mean dictionaries of varying degrees of completeness, in which national, general literary vocabulary is interpreted in one way or another. Dictionaries of this type, of course, include Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by D. N. Ushakov, Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova, Modern Explanatory Dictionary Russian language S. A. Kuznetsova, Brief explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, ed. V.V. Rozanova, Small Explanatory Dictionary by V.V. Lopatin, L.E. Lopatina, etc. Dictionaries of the general type can, without a doubt, include all explanatory dictionaries that develop a separate lexical class of a common literary language. These are dictionaries of foreign words, phraseological dictionaries, dictionaries of personal names, etc. General non-linguistic dictionaries include various encyclopedic reference books (for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Encyclopedic Dictionary).
In the practice of written and oral speech, many people encounter difficulties of various kinds. These include: writing individual words, pronunciation of a word or choosing the place of stress in a certain word form, word usage corresponding to the specific meaning of the word, grammatical attribution of the word, choosing the correct form of case and number in a given speech situation, problems with the formation of short forms of adjectives, personal forms of the verb, syntactic and lexical compatibility of the word, etc. All these difficulties must be solved in dictionaries of difficulties. However, it is hardly possible to find an objective criterion for selecting language material for such a dictionary, especially when it comes to a dictionary intended for an indefinitely wide range of readers. When deciding on the composition of the vocabulary for such a publication, the compilers determine the circle of potential readers and those areas of word use that are most relevant to the intended readers. Dictionaries of difficulties include such cases that are described in spelling, grammatical and general philological dictionaries. The compilers of such dictionaries, naturally, rely on sources in which various spellings, pronunciations and word usage are recorded, and recommendations of a normative nature are given. An important role in the preparation of such reference books is played by the authors’ own research, supported by experience in observing the speech of educated people and experimental testing of “difficult” cases. This allows us to include in the dictionary words that, as a result of historical changes, exist in our speech in two versions: old and new, as well as new words, the pronunciation of which has not yet been established. As examples here we can point out such reference publications as: Kalenchuk M. L., Kasatkina R. F. Dictionary of Russian pronunciation difficulties: Ok. 15,000 words. M., 1997; Gorbachevich K. S. Dictionary of difficulties in pronunciation and stress in modern Russian: 1200 words. St. Petersburg, 2000; Verbitskaya L.A. and others. Let's speak correctly! Difficulties of modern Russian pronunciation and stress: A brief dictionary-reference book. M., 2003.
At the end of the 19th century, dictionaries were first published in Russia that included the characteristic “complete” in their names. As an example, we can point out the following publications: Orlov A.I. Complete philological dictionary of the Russian language with a detailed explanation of all the differences between spoken language and its written representation and indicating the meaning and replacement of all foreign words included in the Russian language with purely Russian words: In 2 volumes. M., 1884-1885; The most complete explanatory dictionary, which contains 200,000 foreign words included in the Russian language of our Russian literature / Comp. Kartashev, Velsky / Ed. Luchinsky. Ed. 9. - M., 1896-1897. - 208 p. In such cases, the word “complete” denoted a dictionary that presumably contains all the words found in Russian texts. Wondering what it actually means to compile a complete explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, Lev Uspensky wrote: “Try, by comparing ancient and newer lexicons of the all-Russian language, to find out where the countless new words and terms with which it has been replenished in recent years came from.” a hundred years. You will soon notice: the vast majority of them were not created at the desks of writers, nor through the inspiration of poets or linguists. They were born in the tense atmosphere of invention laboratories, in noisy factory workshops, in the fields where people work, simultaneously creating new things and new words needed to name them. (...) Who can say in advance which of the professional words - the word “prey”, different from the literary “prey” in the place of stress, or the expression “to the mountain”, used instead of the usual “to the mountain” or “up” - will firmly enter in it tomorrow? Obviously, we need a dictionary of professional, industrial, special words and expressions.” In scientific classifications of dictionaries, the term “complete” refers to the type of publication that contains an exhaustive composition of those layers and categories of vocabulary that serve as the object of description of this reference book. In this sense, the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed., can also be considered a full-type dictionary. V.V. Lopatin, and the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. S. A. Kuznetsova, and Dictionary of Pushkin’s language in 4 volumes, and Dictionary of modern Russian literary language in 17 volumes. By the nature of the selection of vocabulary, dictionaries of the full type are “Pskov Regional Dictionary”, “Dictionary of Bryansk Dialects”. They describe all the words (literary language and dialect) recorded in the speech of the indigenous inhabitants of a given territory. According to this criterion, reference publications such as “Systemic Dictionary of Subject-Based Vocabulary of the Talitsky District of the Sverdlovsk Region”, as well as “Complete Dictionary of the Siberian Dialect” or “Vershininsky Dictionary”, which describe the vocabulary of one village, can be classified as full-type dictionaries. Dictionaries of the full type are contrasted with dictionaries of the differential type. The vocabulary of such dictionaries is selected according to one differentiating parameter. This may be a sign of difficulty in verbal use of the word, limited scope of use of the word on a territorial, temporary, social, professional basis, etc.
Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words and phrases that appeared in a certain (described) period. Developed languages are actively replenished with new words. Research shows that the number of neologisms used in speech practice amounts to tens of thousands. With the advent of computer technologies that make it possible to process huge amounts of unstructured text information, there is a need for automatic analysis of word forms, including newly formed ones. This made the collection and description of new words especially relevant, which, in turn, led to the emergence of a new lexicographic branch of knowledge - neography. In the USSR, the first dictionary of this type “New words and meanings: Dictionary reference book (based on materials from the press and literature of the 60s)”, ed. N. Z. Kotelova, Yu. S. Sorokin was released in Leningrad in 1971. Since then, work on collecting and analyzing new vocabulary has been carried out on an ongoing basis. As an example, we can point out “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language of the Early 21st Century: Current Vocabulary”, ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya.
Grammar dictionaries are dictionaries that contain information about the formal (inflectional and syntactic) properties of a word. The order of words in such dictionaries can be either direct, when words are arranged in alphabetical order from the first letter that begins the word to the last letter of the word, or reverse, when words are arranged in alphabetical order, starting with the last letter of the word. The reverse order allows readers to imagine the word-formation properties of the word. The principles of selection and the amount of information about a word are different depending on the purpose and addressee of each grammatical dictionary. One of the best dictionaries of this type is “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Word change" by A. A. Zaliznyak. It contains about 100 thousand words, arranged in reverse alphabetical order. For a detailed description of the complex system of inflection, formation and stress, the dictionary uses a unique system of indices that assign a word to a specific category.
Phraseological dictionaries contain phrases as headings of dictionary entries that are reproduced in speech practice in their entirety, without rearrangements or changes in their parts. Phraseological units are one of the most conservative categories of vocabulary. The specific properties of these linguistic units are determined by a number of important distinctive features: semantic integrity, stability and superverbal reproducibility. There are many phraseological dictionaries. Among them is “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. A.I. Molotkova is by far the most complete dictionary. General educational dictionaries include “School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by V.P. Zhukov and A.V. Zhukov, Dictionary-Reference Book of Russian Phraseology” by R.I. Yarantsev. The most complete bilingual phraseological dictionary is the “French-Russian phraseological dictionary” by V. G. Gak et al.
Reference publications, distinguished by industry (i.e., professional) based on the limited scope of a word’s use, include dictionaries that interpret the meanings of words, and encyclopedic reference books that describe our knowledge about the world. As a dictionary of the first type, you can point to the “Explanatory Dictionary of Selected Medical Terms. Eponyms and figurative expressions” / Ed. L. P. Churilov, A. V. Kolobov, Yu. I. Stroev. There are many more examples of the second type, for example: “Naval Dictionary” / Ch. ed. V. N. Chernavin. - M.: Voenizdat, 1990; Encyclopedic publication “Political Science. Lexicon” /Editor A.I. Solovyov. M.: Russian Political Encyclopedia; Geography. Concepts and terms = Geography. Concepts and Terms: five-language academic dictionary: Russian, English, French, Spanish, German V. M. Kotlyakov, A. I. Komarova. M.: Nauka, 2007, etc.
The purpose of language reference books of this type is to indicate the standard spelling of a word that corresponds to the spelling rules. One of the first dictionaries of this type was published in 1813 under the title “Dictionary of Russian Orthography or Spelling.” Since then, many different general, industrial, and school dictionaries of this type have been published. The most complete general dictionary today is the “Russian Spelling Dictionary: about 180 thousand words, resp. ed. V.V. Lopatin. This is an academic dictionary that reflects Russian vocabulary in its state that developed by the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. Heading words are given in their standard spelling, indicating stress and necessary grammatical information.
Dictionaries of this type contain information about the morphemic division of a word and its word-formation structure. Such reference books provide information about the structure of a word and the elements that make up the word. In word-formation dictionaries, words are collected both by root sockets and in alphabetical order. Some school dictionaries of this type provide characteristics of both the morphemic and word-formation structure of head words. This helps students better understand the questions that appear on the state final exam in the Russian language.
The concept of lexicography
Topic plan
1. The concept of lexicography.
2. Main types of dictionaries:
Encyclopedic;
Philological (linguistic):
Explanatory dictionaries (“Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language” by V.I. Dahl; Academic explanatory dictionaries of the modern Russian literary language of the pre-war and post-war periods (edited by D.N. Ushakov and A.P. Evgenieva); Big Academic “Dictionary of modern Russian literary language"; One-volume explanatory "Dictionary of the Russian Language" by Prof. S.I. Ozhegov;
Spelling, spelling, phraseological dictionaries of the Russian language, necessary for the daily work of a journalist;
Other dictionaries of the Russian language (historical, etymological, grammatical dictionaries; dictionaries of the language of writers, epithets, dialectal (regional), derivational, reverse, frequency; dictionaries of abbreviations, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, foreign words, correctness).
The science that deals with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries is called lexicography (from the Greek lexikos - dictionary + graphо - I write).
The greatest contribution to the development of the general theory of lexicography and the theory of Russian lexicography, in particular, was made, first of all, by such famous Russian philologists as academicians L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov, as well as Professor D.N. Ushakov, S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. N.M. Shansky et al.
Back in 1940, the fundamental work of Academician L.V. was published. Shcherba “Experience in the general theory of lexicography”, in which the first classification of dictionary types in Russian lexicography was given. This work has not lost its scientific significance to this day.
Based on the classification of Academician L.V. Shcherby, lexicographers distinguish two main types of dictionaries:
1) encyclopedic dictionaries (or encyclopedias): (for example, Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Small Soviet Encyclopedia, Literary Encyclopedia, Children's Encyclopedia, philosophical encyclopedic dictionary, etc.);
2) philological (linguistic) dictionaries.
The main difference between these dictionaries is that the encyclopedic dictionary describes itself thing(i.e. any object, phenomenon, historical fact, etc.). And in the linguistic dictionary it is described and explained, first of all, word, those. a linguistic unit that names this thing. (We will show this using the example of the word “ capital" If in encyclopedic dictionaries only its lexical meaning is given, then in explanatory dictionaries, first of all, the grammatical characteristics of this word are given, that it is a noun, feminine, etc., and then its lexical meaning is given).
The most famous pre-revolutionary encyclopedic dictionaries in Russia were:
1) multi-volume “Encyclopedic Dictionary” of two publishers - Brockhaus and Efron, totaling 86 volumes;
2) the multi-volume “Encyclopedic Dictionary”, which was published by the Garnet brothers (58 volumes).
During the Soviet period of our history, the multi-volume “Great Soviet Encyclopedia” - in 30 volumes (TSE), as well as the Small Soviet Encyclopedia - in 10 volumes (ITU) received the widest popularity both in the former USSR and in other countries of the world.
In 1981, the one-volume “Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary” (SES) was published under the editorship of Academician A.M. Prokhorova. The second edition of this dictionary, revised and expanded, was published in 1997, also edited by academician A.M. Prokhorov entitled “Big Encyclopedic Dictionary” (BED).
There are also industry encyclopedias and encyclopedic dictionaries. For example: “Literary Encyclopedia”, “Medical Encyclopedia”, “Legal Encyclopedia”, etc.
In 1979, the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, edited by Professor F.P. Filin, a one-volume encyclopedia “Russian Language” was published. The 2nd edition of this encyclopedia was published in 1998, edited by Professor Yu.N. Karaulova, and the third edition – in 2003.
Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types: multilingual dictionaries (most often bilingual, which we use when studying a foreign language, working on translation, etc.) and monolingual, in which words are explained using words of the same language.
Among the monolingual dictionaries, the following stand out: types of linguistic dictionaries of the Russian language:
1. Explanatory dictionaries.
2. Spelling dictionaries.
3. Orthoepic dictionaries.
4. Phraseological dictionaries.
5. Morphemic and word-formation dictionaries.
6. Grammar dictionaries.
7. Dictionaries of homonyms.
8. Dictionaries of synonyms.
9. Dictionaries of antonyms.
10. Dictionaries of paronyms.
11. Historical dictionaries.
12. Etymological dictionaries.
13. Dialect dictionaries.
14. Dictionaries of the writer’s language.
15. Dictionaries of abbreviations.
16. Frequency dictionaries.
17. Reverse dictionaries.
18. Complex dictionaries.
The first Russian dictionaries, which appeared at the end of the 13th century, were small lists of incomprehensible words (with their interpretation) found in the monuments of ancient Russian writing in the 16th century. Such dictionaries began to be compiled in alphabetical order, as a result of which they received the name “alphabet books.”
The first printed dictionary, already containing 1061 words, appeared in 1596 as an appendix to the grammar of the famous philologist of that time, priest Laurence Zizanius. Mostly book Slavic words and a small number of foreign words were interpreted.
The next printed dictionary was compiled in 1627 by the Ukrainian philologist Pamva Berynda. As the title of the book (“Slavonic Russian Lexicon”) shows, the author set as his goal to explain book Old Church Slavonic words. Both in the number of words (6982), and in the accuracy of their explanations based on the material of living colloquial vocabulary, and in the critical attitude towards sources, this dictionary stood out for its high philological level.
The preparatory stage for the creation of a dictionary of the modern Russian language (modern for a certain era) were bilingual and multilingual dictionaries. In 1704, the Trilingual Lexicon by Fyodor Polikarpov-Orlov was published in Moscow with an interpretation of Russian words in Greek and Latin. In the same era of Peter the Great, the first dictionary of foreign terms, “Lexicon of New Vocabularies in Alphabet,” was compiled, containing 503 words.
In the 18th century interest arises in questions of the origin and formation of individual words, etymological notes by Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Tatishchev and other writers and scientists appear. At the end of the century, a number of dictionaries of the Church Slavonic language were published (“Church Dictionary” and “Addition” to it contained an explanation of more than 20 thousand words).
On the basis of previous lexicographic work, it became possible to begin work on the creation of a standard dictionary of the Russian language. It could be based, in particular, on the handwritten materials of Lomonosov and other researchers.
dictionary language
Kenarskaya L.S.
There are hundreds of dictionaries of various types: encyclopedic (they present information on different fields of knowledge, explain not the meaning of words, but concepts, terms), explanatory and translational, terminological and difficulty dictionaries, dictionaries of foreign words and etymological, synonym and spelling dictionaries. Most often you have to turn to bilingual translation dictionaries, without which it is not possible to study any language. Immersion in any professional field requires familiarity with the terms of this science and reference to terminological dictionaries (often small terminological reference books accompany books on various branches of knowledge).
A dictionary of dictionaries is rightly considered an explanatory dictionary. It is the explanatory dictionary that puts at the disposal of the writer the words that may be necessary in a given situation; It is the explanatory dictionary that can inspire confidence in the correctness of a particular speech act. Every educated person knows a special explanatory dictionary, which today can hardly be used as a regular reference guide, but reference to which awakens thoughts, sharpens the perception of the native language, and the ability to extract the deep meaning of words. Of course, this is “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl. It was first published in 1863 - 1866 and since then has been reprinted several times, becoming part of the cultural baggage of Russians.
A dictionary of foreign words is a type of explanatory dictionary that explains the meanings of words of foreign origin that are perceived by native speakers as borrowings from other languages. In addition to the actual interpretation, dictionaries of this type include information about what language the word came from and its foreign language equivalent. One of the most famous dictionaries of foreign words is the dictionary edited by I.V. Lyokhina, S.M. Lokshina, F.N. Petrova and L.S. Shaumyan, which contains about 23 thousand units (6th edition 1964; later reprinted in a stereotypical manner).
Etymological dictionaries contain the richest material for knowledge and reflection. From them we learn how the word was formed, what its morphemic composition is, and what other words in Russian and other languages it is associated with. And if the word is borrowed, then when and from what language did it come to us. A large scientific dictionary in terms of meaning and volume is the “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” compiled by Honored Teacher of the 4th Moscow Gymnasium A.G. Preobrazhensky (1850-1918).
Among the various dictionaries of the Russian language, semononymic dictionaries form a special group. Semonymic (Greek sema - sign, entanglement - name) are those dictionaries where not individual words are collected and interpreted, but two or more, when combined, the relationship between their sound and (or) meaning is taken into account. These associations may consist of words that are similar or close in meaning, but different in sound (synonyms); having opposite meanings (antonyms); similar in sound, but different in meaning (homonyms) or not completely similar in sound, having different meanings and mistakenly used one instead of the other (paronyms).
There are several dictionaries of synonyms. In 1956, “A Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language” was published, compiled by V.N. Klyuevoy. N. Abramov’s dictionary of Russian synonyms and similar expressions was first published in 1890 and has been reprinted several times since then. The dictionary contains simple lists of words arranged in groups.
In Russian lexicography, which has made considerable progress in creating various linguistic dictionaries, until recently there were no attempts to compile a dictionary of antonyms in the Russian language. In 1971, the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language”, compiled by JLA, Vvedenskaya (Rostov n/D), and the “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” by N.P. were published. Kolesnikova (Tbilisi). There is also a “Dictionary of Antonyms of the Russian Language” (M., 1978) by M.R. Lvov.
In the "Dictionary of Homonyms of the Russian Language", compiled by O.S. Akhmanova (M., 1974), over 2000 dictionary entries containing pairs or groups of homonyms are presented. Each homonym is translated into English, French, and German. The most complete dictionary of homonyms is “Dictionary of Homonyms” by N.P. Kolesnikov, published in Rostov-on-Don in 1995.
The first phraseological dictionary was published in 1967, this is the “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, edited by A.I. Molotov. It describes over 4 thousand phraseological units. All of them are explained, their possible variants are given, the use of phraseological units in speech is illustrated with examples from fiction and journalistic literature. If a phraseological unit has synonyms and antonyms, then they are given. In some cases, information about the origin of a phraseological unit is provided. Among the dictionaries published in the last decade, one can name “Phraseologisms in Russian Speech” (M., 1997). Its authors are A. M. Melerovich, V. M. Mokienko. This is the first experience in world lexicographic practice of describing idioms and proverbs in their variety of variants.
In domestic lexicography there are several dictionaries, which are called dictionaries of difficulties. Getting to know them allows you not only to understand what the complexity of the Russian language is, what causes difficulty in expressing thoughts verbally, but also to understand how to avoid making a mistake and not violating one or another norm of the literary language. Such dictionaries should be reference books for everyone who is responsible for their speech. One of them is the Difficulties of the Russian Language Dictionary-Reference Book. Compiled by: V.N. Vakurov, L.I. Rakhmanova, N.V. Tolstoy, N.I. Formanovskaya (M., 1993-1994). Dictionary entries explain difficult cases of distinguishing between words with similar meanings; new word usage, often found in the newspaper, as well as difficulties caused by the presence of variant grammatical forms and syntactic compatibility.
The most important and necessary dictionary for every student is a spelling dictionary. Russian spelling dictionary V.V. Lopatin, the largest in volume of existing spelling dictionaries of the Russian language, contains about 180,000 words. This is an academic dictionary that reflects Russian vocabulary in its state that developed by the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century. Vocabulary units are given in their standard spelling, indicating stress and the necessary grammatical information. The innovation that distinguishes this dictionary from the previous one, which was published from 1950 to 1998 (the latest, 33rd edition), is the inclusion of words written with a capital letter and combinations with such words, including words written with different meanings and uses with both capital and lowercase letters. This is a normative, generally binding reference manual.
Since the fast pace of modern life corresponds to constant changes in language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently republished dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Equally important are completeness and thoroughness. The most comprehensive are unabridged dictionaries, defined in the English lexicographic tradition as unabridged. For the English language, for example, such dictionaries contain more than 400 thousand words. There are also medium (semi-abridged or desk size dictionaries - from 40,000 to 100,000 units), small and very small dictionaries (abridged or pocket size dictionaries - from 10,000 to 40,000 units). Depending on the type of lexical units presented in the dictionary, and, above all, on the method of their description, all dictionaries are divided into two large groups: encyclopedic (encyclopedias) and linguistic (philological). Linguistic dictionaries describe words (their meanings, features of use, compatibility, etc.). Encyclopedic dictionaries do not explain words as such, but objects, things, events, and phenomena. The object of their description is the area of concepts, facts, and realities. Therefore, the dictionaries of encyclopedic dictionaries do not include pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, and only occasionally can verbs, adjectives, and adverbs be found in them. Linguistic dictionaries include all parts of speech. In linguistic dictionaries, a word is described from the point of view of its linguistic and speech characteristics (interpretation, etymological data, etc. are given), and in an encyclopedia, a dictionary entry can include a wide variety of information transmitted in text and visual form (in the form of drawings, photographs, kart).
Encyclopedic dictionaries are of two types: general and special. The most famous general encyclopedias in English are: The Encyclopaedia Britannica ("British Encyclopedia") in 24 volumes and The Encyclopedia Americana ("American Encyclopedia") in 30 volumes. Special encyclopedias published by Oxford University are justifiably popular in English-speaking countries: The Oxford Companion to English Literature, The Oxford Companion to American Literature, The Oxford Companion to Theater.
All linguistic dictionaries can be divided into three types depending on the number of languages represented in them: monolingual, bilingual and multilingual. The last two types are often also called translation dictionaries. An example of a monolingual linguistic dictionary is the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. As an example of a multilingual dictionary - Ouseg H.S. 21 Language Dictionary.
Etymological dictionaries have the goal of explaining the origin of a word, establishing its original form and original meaning. One of the most authoritative etymological dictionaries in the English language is The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Data on the history of words and their etymology are also provided in such large explanatory dictionaries as The Oxford English Dictionary.
A wide field of work for lexicographers is the creation of bilingual or translated dictionaries, the practical significance and prevalence of which can hardly be overestimated. The main task of dictionaries of this type is to ensure the understanding of text in a foreign language and its translation into the native language. Russian lexicography (like the lexicography of most developed countries that actively participate in various forms of international exchange) has a rich tradition of compiling bilingual dictionaries. Among the English-Russian dictionaries, two are most famous. This:
- 1)English-Russian dictionary V.K. Muller, the first edition of which was published in 1943; Subsequently, the dictionary was revised twice, and its last, 24th edition was published in 1993. Then it was radically revised by a team led by E.B. Cherkasskaya and has already gone through several editions under the title New English-Russian Dictionary.
- 2) A more complete dictionary is the Big English-Russian Dictionary in 2 volumes, ed. I.R. Galperin; its third edition in 1979 contains about 150 thousand dictionary entries. Subsequently, an addition to this dictionary was published, and then it was greatly revised and significantly expanded, resulting in the appearance in 1993 of the New Large English-Russian Dictionary, ed. Yu.D. Apresyan, containing about 250 thousand dictionary entries.
In addition to bilingual dictionaries, monolingual dictionaries (explanatory dictionaries) are widely used. In such an English dictionary there is no translation into the native language. But instead, each lexical unit is explained, i.e. its interpretation (definition) is given. Such a dictionary is very useful when the level of English proficiency tends to be intermediate and above. At any time you can find out what a particular word means by reading the description provided for it.
Currently, there are several types of online dictionaries presented on various websites. Among them, the most popular are Multitran, Multilex, etc. The Multitran dictionary covers 900 topics, 7 languages, 8,000,000 terms, and it is possible to expand the dictionary by site users. You need to enter the desired word into the search bar and, by pressing one button, get translation options. The undoubted advantage of these resources is the presence of a large number of thematic sections in dictionary entries, which allows you to choose the best translation option.
The Yandex search system offers users not only dictionaries with a detailed description of the meanings of words and their shades, but also explanatory dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that give an interpretation of a word in the original language. Explanatory dictionaries of the English language online Webster, Oxford, Cambridge, Bartleby, Onelook will certainly be necessary for students to work at more advanced stages of study.
Online English dictionary from Oxford University. This printed dictionary occupies 20 volumes and contains a huge amount of information on the development of the English language over the past 100 years. More than 500 thousand words with spelling rules and detailed interpretation of each word, more than 2 million quotes from various sources, as well as a detailed explanation of the differences in the spelling of words in different varieties of the English language.
You can also install an electronic English dictionary from a well-known manufacturer. Products from ABBYY Lingvo or PROMT are in great demand. The volume of their dictionaries is quite large (several million dictionary entries), in addition, it is possible to use thematic dictionaries, choosing the area that is needed. More modern electronic dictionaries of the English language from this manufacturer also include additional options, such as a grammar reference book, word pronunciation, phrase books, and others. Lingvo is the most complete electronic dictionary that contains modern vocabulary from different subject areas, both universal and special More than a hundred dictionaries included in Lingvo (80% of them were published in 2003-2006) allow you to obtain detailed information about each word with variant meanings and examples of use. This means that with the help of Lingvo you can always determine the only translation option that is suitable in a given case, and eliminate the possibility of an annoying mistake.
You can also purchase an electronic dictionary-translator of the English language. This is a fairly voluminous dictionary that is quite light and compact. It is worth paying attention to the models of the Partner and Language Teacher series, which is a product of Ectaco Inc., USA. These devices are now sold in almost all electronic stores. There are websites of official distributors of these electronic English dictionaries on the Internet. You can order products without even leaving your home. As practice shows, this electronic English dictionary becomes an irreplaceable thing over time. After all, it can be used not only by students, but also by businessmen, travelers, teachers and simply anyone who studies English.
Scientific and technological progress does not stand still. Electronic dictionaries appeared on our market relatively recently, but every day they become more and more popular. An electronic English dictionary is not a luxury, it is a necessity in our rapidly developing society. English is one of the languages of world communication, therefore the choice of means for actively studying it is huge.
Dictionaries reflecting the origin of words include, first of all, etymological dictionaries. From 1950 to 1958, the three-volume “Russiche Etymologisches Wörterbuch”, compiled by M. Vasmer, was published in Heidelberg. Translated into Russian and supplemented by O.N. Trubachev, "Russian Etymological Dictionary" by M. Vasmer was then published in four volumes in 1964 - 1973. In addition to modern common nouns (original Russian, many borrowed, obsolete and dialectal), this dictionary contains many proper names - personal names and geographical names. The explanation of the etymology of native Russian words in it is usually limited to an indication of words related to the interpreted one or a reference to the corresponding root, and the explanation of the etymology of borrowings is an indication of the source language.
In the “Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” N.M. Shansky, V.V. Ivanova, T.V. Shanskaya, ed. S.G. Barkhudarov (1961; 3rd ed. - 1975) interprets mainly commonly used words, and from foreign languages, as a rule, those that are not in the “Dictionary of Foreign Words” (see about it below), i.e. those that are not recognized by many as strangers. In cases where the authors had the opportunity to provide an explanation of the real origin of this word, the dictionary entry of the dictionary tells whether this word is original or borrowed, when, on the basis of what and how exactly it arose, i.e. sequence of word formation process and method of formation. The volume of the publication ("A Brief... Dictionary") explains the absence of parallels from related languages and the replacement of this information with the labels "Common Slavic", "East Slavic", etc. For words of foreign origin, the time of their appearance in the Russian language and their first fixation in written monuments are indicated.
Since 1963, the multi-volume “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” began to be published, providing a possibly complete coverage of vocabulary. The dictionary contains critical and bibliographic data, parallels for native Russian words and comparative material for borrowings.
The “Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language” by A.G. has not lost its meaning. Preobrazhensky (published from 1910 to 1914; the end of the dictionary, remaining in the manuscript, was published in 1949 and republished in 1958 and 1959).
Information about which language the word was borrowed from is given in the “Dictionary of Foreign Words” (1941; 7th ed. Edited by A.T. Spirkin, I.A. Akchurin, R.S. Karpinskaya - 1979), containing vocabulary, predominantly perceived to one degree or another as foreign language.
"A short toponymic dictionary" by V.A. Nikonova indicates the origin of about 4000 names of the largest geographical objects (states, seas, rivers, islands, mountains, etc.), “Dictionary of Russian personal names” by N.A. Petrovsky (1966) contains information about the origin of names.
Finally, you can also find out from which language this or that foreign word (perceived as foreign) came from temporary explanatory dictionaries (such information is not found only in S.I. Ozhegov’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language”).
Anthroponymic dictionaries- dictionaries about people’s proper names, as well as nicknames and pseudonyms.
For reference:
Anthroponymy (from the Greek antropos - person and onyma - name) is a section of onomastics that studies anthroponyms, i.e. proper names of people.
Anthroponymics is a section of onomastics that studies anthroponyms - names of people (taking various forms, for example: Pyotr Nikolaevich Amekhin, Ivan Kalita, Igor Kio, Pele) and their individual components (personal names, patronymics, surnames, nicknames, pseudonyms, etc.) ; their origin, evolution, patterns of their functioning.
Anthroponymy was isolated from onomastics in the 60-70s of the 20th century. Until the 60s of the 20th century, the term “onomastics” was used instead of the term “anthroponymy”. This science studies the information that a name can carry: characteristics of human qualities, a person’s connection with his father, clan, family, information about nationality, occupation, origin from a particular locality, class, caste. Anthroponymy studies the functions of an anthroponym in speech - nomination, identification, differentiation, change of names, which is associated with age, changes in social or marital status, life among people of a different nationality, joining secret societies, converting to another faith, taboo, etc.
Dialect (regional) dictionaries- a type of explanatory dictionary that describes the vocabulary of one or a group of dialects (dialects). Differential dictionaries include specific dialect words and so-called semantic dialectisms, which differ in meaning from general Russian words.
Complete dialect dictionaries contain all the vocabulary of the dialect, and also include words common to the dialect and the literary language.
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Dialect (from the Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, adverb) is a variety of a given language used as a means of communication by persons connected by a close territorial, social or professional community.
A dialect is a type of language that is used as a means of communication between people connected by the same territory.
A dialect is a complete system of speech communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar.
Traditionally, dialects were understood primarily as rural territorial dialects. Recently, many works have appeared on urban dialects; in particular, they include the speech of the black urban population of the United States, whose English is significantly different from other varieties of American English. French linguists, along with the term “dialecte”, use the term “patois”, which also denotes the locally limited speech of certain groups of the population, mainly rural.
Grammar dictionaries- these are dictionaries that contain information about the morphological and syntactic properties of a word. Grammar dictionaries include words arranged in direct or reverse alphabetical order. The principles of selection and the amount of information about a word are different depending on the purpose and addressee of each grammatical dictionary.
One of the best grammatical dictionaries is “Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Word Change" by A. A. Zaliznyak (M., 1977). It contains about 100,000 words, arranged in reverse alphabetical order, for which a unique system of indexes has been developed, assigning words to a specific category, type within it, type of stress, etc.
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Morphology (from ancient Greek - “form” and “teaching”) is a section of grammar that studies the parts of speech, their categories and forms of words. This is a branch of linguistics, the main object of which is the words of natural languages and their significant parts (morphemes). The tasks of morphology, therefore, include defining a word as a special linguistic object and describing its internal structure.
Syntax (from ancient Greek - “construction, order, composition”) is a branch of linguistics that studies the structure of phrases (linguistics) and sentences.
Dictionaries of word combinations- how to choose words correctly to ensure their correspondence to each other in semantic and stylistic terms.
For example:
Denisov P. N., Morkovkin V. V., Novikov L. A. Prospectus for an educational dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language. M., 1971.
Ideographic, semantic and associative dictionaries. Ideographic dictionaries (they are also called thesauri) are linguistic dictionaries in which the lexical composition of a language is presented in the form of systematized groups of words that are more or less close in meaning. Ideographic dictionaries represent and explain the semantic content of lexical units, but in solving this problem they go not from a single word, but from a concept to the expression of this concept in words. The main task of such dictionaries is to describe collections of words united by a common concept; this makes it easier for the reader to choose the most appropriate means for adequately expressing thoughts and promotes active language proficiency.
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Thesaurus (from Greek - treasure), in a general sense - special terminology, more strictly and specifically - a dictionary, collection of information, corpus or code, fully covering concepts, definitions and terms of a special field of knowledge or field of activity, which should contribute to the correct lexical, corporate communication (understanding in communication and interaction of persons related to the same discipline or profession); in modern linguistics, a special type of dictionary that indicates semantic relationships (synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, hyponyms, hyperonyms, etc.) between lexical units. Thesauri are one of the most effective tools for describing individual subject areas.
Unlike an explanatory dictionary, a thesaurus allows you to identify the meaning not only through a definition, but also by correlating a word with other concepts and their groups, due to which it can be used to fill the knowledge bases of artificial intelligence systems.
In the past, the term thesaurus primarily denoted dictionaries that presented the vocabulary of a language with maximum completeness with examples of its use in texts.
Linguistic, cultural and cultural dictionaries- “Linguoculturology (from Latin lingua - language, cultura - culture, logos - teaching) is a scientific discipline of a synthesizing type, studying the relationship and interaction of culture and language in its functioning and reflecting this process as an integral structure of units in the unity of their linguistic and extra-linguistic content . The object of linguoculturology is the study of the relationship and interaction of culture and language in the process of their functioning, and the subject is material and spiritual culture created by man, i.e. everything that makes up the “linguistic picture of the world.” Located in the circle of related sciences: sociolinguistics, ethnolinguistics, psycholinguistics, regional linguistics, cultural studies.”
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Culturology (from Latin cultura - cultivation, agriculture, education; from ancient Greek - thought as a cause) is a set of studies of culture as a structural integrity, identifying the patterns of its development. The tasks of cultural studies include understanding the general characteristics of its existence and a systematic analysis of its development. Cultural studies emerged as an independent field in modern times.
Ethnolinguistics (from Greek - people, tribe), linguistic anthropology is a field of linguistics that studies language in its relationship with culture. Central to ethnolinguistics are the following two closely interrelated problems, which can be called “cognitive” (from the Latin cognitio - knowledge) and “communicative” (from the Latin communicatio - communication):
How, by what means and in what form are the cultural (everyday, religious, social, etc.) ideas of the people speaking this language about the world around them and about the place of man in this world reflected in the language?
What forms and means of communication - primarily linguistic communication - are specific to a given ethnic or social group?
Morphemic and word-formation dictionaries. Derivational dictionaries (derivative dictionaries) are dictionaries that show the division of words into their constituent morphemes, the word-formation structure of the word, as well as a set of words (word-formation nest) with a given morpheme - root or affix. Words in word-formation dictionaries are given with division into morphemes and with stress.
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Morpheme (from the Greek morphe - form) is the minimum significant part of a word.
In most concepts, a morpheme is considered an abstract linguistic unit. The specific implementation of a morpheme in a text is called a morph or (more often) a morph.
Moreover, morphs representing the same morpheme may have different phonetic appearance depending on their environment within the word form. A set of morphs of one morpheme that have the same phonemic composition is called an allomorph.
Reverse dictionaries. In reverse dictionaries, words are arranged alphabetically not by initial, but by final letters, and are aligned not to the left, but to the right.
For example: coat of arms
Serb
damage
hump
oak
Dictionaries of this type are a valuable tool for studying suffix word formation, features of the phonetic structure and morphological composition of the ends of words, for deciphering texts and creating programs for their machine processing.
Spelling dictionaries. A dictionary that you need to turn to if you don’t know how to spell a particular word. Dictionaries containing an alphabetical list of words in their standard spelling. Spelling dictionaries are divided into four types according to their focus: general, sectoral (for example, “Spelling Marine Dictionary” M., 1974), reference dictionaries for press workers, school. Let us also remind you that you should check the spelling of words using reputable dictionaries.
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Spelling is a branch of linguistics that studies the correct spelling of words when writing.
The uniformity of spelling smooths out individual and dialectal differences in pronunciation, which promotes mutual understanding when the opportunity to ask again is limited.
Spelling dictionaries- dictionaries reflecting the rules of literary pronunciation.
For reference:
Orthoepy (Greek orthoepia, from orthos - correct, epos - speech) is a set of literary language norms associated with the sound design of significant units: morphemes, words, sentences.
Orthoepy (from ancient Greek - “correct” and Greek - “speech”) is a science (a branch of phonetics) that deals with pronunciation standards, their justification and establishment.
In the history of the Russian literary language, the orthoepic norm had practically prevailed over local pronunciations by the beginning of the 20th century. Thus, the dialectal pronunciation on o has disappeared: “young”, “good” instead of the literary “maladoy”, “kharasho”, etc. Nevertheless, some dialectisms are stable, for example, the firm pronunciation of the sound “ch” in the west and in the east, the pronunciation “fields”, “sea” instead of “field”, “sea” - in the center, etc. But there are especially many cases when it is impossible to say with confidence which of the options for the literary language is “correct”. At the moment, Russian orthoepy has not yet been fully established and continues to develop.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Moscow pronunciation, preserved in old Moscow families, was considered the “correct” Russian pronunciation. However, by that time it became clear that this pronunciation in many ways lags behind life, and later, with the diffusion and migration of ethnic groups in Moscow, it became archaic for her. Therefore, every day new norms in orthoepy are created and old norms disappear and change; this process is influenced by life itself, a living language and a changing culture.
Synonymous dictionaries- Synonymous dictionaries describe words that are different in sound and spelling, but identical or similar in meaning. This definition of synonyms should be considered working, since it does not claim to comprehensively cover the essence of synonymy. Synonyms are defined in different ways. It is important to note that this multiplicity and differences in definitions are most likely explained by the characteristics of the subject matter itself, its diversity, and the existence of various types of semantic similarities, which, accordingly, is reflected in the unequal approach to the definition of synonyms. It is also clear that this diversity is evidence of rich synonymous means of expression, which is one of the remarkable properties of the Russian language.
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Synonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling (cf. homonyms), but having a similar lexical meaning (cf. antonyms).
Examples of synonyms in Russian: cavalry - cavalry, bold - brave, go - walk.
They serve to increase the expressiveness of speech and help avoid monotony.
It is necessary to distinguish between synonyms and nominal definitions - the latter represent complete identity.
Antonym dictionaries- linguistic reference dictionaries, which provide a description of antonyms (see below). The main tasks of antonym dictionaries:
- Systematized presentation of lexical units with opposite meanings (including phraseology).
- Analysis of the semantics of antonymic pairs (paradigms).
- Fixation and analysis of characteristic patterns of the use of correlative antonyms, their connection with synonyms.
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Antonyms (Greek - against + - name) are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: “truth” - “lie”, “good” - “evil”, “speak” - “be silent.”
Antonyms are possible for words whose meanings contain opposite qualitative shades, but the meanings are always based on a common feature (weight, height, feeling, time of day, etc.). Also, only words belonging to the same grammatical or stylistic category can be contrasted. Consequently, words belonging to different parts of speech or lexical levels cannot become linguistic antonyms.
Dictionaries of linguistic terms- this is a type of industry dictionary with decoding of the concepts of a particular area. For example, a maritime dictionary of terms is from maritime affairs.
The linguistic dictionary contains articles about units of language, their relationships, language laws, the functioning of language in society, philosophical problems of linguistics, theories of the origin of language, sections, methods and schools in linguistics, languages and groups of languages, and scripts.
A special place among dictionaries of linguistic terms is occupied by the dictionary of O. S. Akhmanova (1966; 7,000 terms). It represents not only a generalization of all previous terminological experience, but also a new type of dictionary that simultaneously combines the interpretation of the term, its translation into four languages, illustrations of the real functioning of the term, and the like. Mapping terms to terms in the following languages: English, French, German and Spanish.
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Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary (LES) is a one-volume encyclopedic dictionary published in 1990 by the publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia". It was called upon to “give a systematized body of knowledge about human language, the languages of the world, and linguistics as a science.” The team of authors of the dictionary included more than 300 scientists.
Dictionaries of resident names. When forming the names of residents from the names of settlements, difficulties often arise, which can be resolved with special dictionaries.
Dictionaries of neologisms- describe words, word meanings or combinations of words that appeared in a certain period of time or were used only once (occasionalisms). In developed languages, the number of neologisms recorded in newspapers and magazines during one year amounts to tens of thousands.
For reference:
Neologism (ancient Greek neo - new, logis - speech, word) - a word, the meaning of a word or a phrase that recently appeared in the language (newly formed, previously absent). The freshness and unusualness of such a word, phrase or turn of phrase is clearly felt by native speakers of the given language.
This term is used in the history of language to characterize the enrichment of vocabulary in certain historical periods - for example, we can talk about neologisms of the time of Peter the Great, neologisms of individual cultural figures (M.V. Lomonosov, N.M. Karamzin and his school), neologisms of the period of the Patriotic War wars, etc.
Tens of thousands of neologisms appear every year in developed languages. Most of them have a short life, but some are fixed in the language for a long time, entering not only its living everyday fabric, but also becoming an integral part of literature.
Homonym dictionaries- this is a type of dictionary that describes homonyms, words that coincide in their design (sound and/or spelling; in some or all forms) and differ in meaning.
Dictionaries of paronyms
Paronyms are words with the same root that belong to the same part of speech, have similarities in sound (due to a common root or base), but differ in their meanings.
Paronyms often become a source of speech errors: the similarity of words is often the reason for their confusion (for example: put on - put on).
Dictionaries of epithets, similes and metaphors
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An epithet (from the Greek epitheon - attached, added) is a figurative artistic definition of an object, concept, phenomenon. A word (or combination of words) performs the syntactic function of a definition or circumstance and is usually used in a figurative meaning.
An epithet is a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love dearly”), a noun (“fun noise”), and a numeral (second life).
An epithet is a word or an entire expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) gain color and richness. It is used both in poetry (more often) and in prose.
Metaphor (Greek metaphora - transfer) - a trope or figure of speech, the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, actions or signs to characterize or nominate another, similar class of objects or individual.
Metaphor is a trope, word or expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with some other based on their common characteristic. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially almost indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and likening. In all cases there is a transfer of meaning from one word to another.
Comparison is a stylistic device based on the figurative transformation of a grammatically formalized comparison.
Dictionaries of abbreviations
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An abbreviation (from Latin abbrevio - I shorten) is a noun consisting of truncated words or truncated components of the original compound word. The formation of abbreviations (abbreviation) as a special way of word formation became widespread in European languages in the 20th century. In the Russian language, abbreviations, along with other abbreviations, became especially active after the October Revolution of 1917.
Abbreviations (Italian abbreviatura from Latin brevis - short) are divided into compound words and initial abbreviations. A compound word is a word made up of abbreviated initial elements (morphemes) of a phrase. Initial types of compound words or acronyms are words formed by adding the initial letters of words or initial sounds; in turn, they are divided into letter, sound and letter-sound abbreviations
Dictionaries of social dialects: jargons, argot, slang
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Social dialect is the language of certain social groups. Such a language differs from literary language only in vocabulary. There are professional languages (hunters, shoemakers, fishermen); corporate or group jargon (students, soldiers, etc.); argo is a special language of a limited professional or social group (the language of hunters, fishermen, military men, thieves' argot), which is used to conceal the subject of communication. The vocabulary of social dialects does not have its own grammar, but is based on the system of the literary language.
Argo (from the French argot) is the language of a socially closed group of people, characterized by the specificity of the vocabulary used, the originality of its use, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system.
Jargon and argot should not be confused. Jargon usually has a professional attachment, but argot can be used regardless of profession. For example, in modern French, many argot words are used by both young people from poor neighborhoods and managers with higher education.
Dictionaries of the language of writers and individual works The dictionary of the writer's language contains a description of the words used in his writings. In this case, a complete selection of words is made from all literary works, including variant texts, as well as from letters, notes and official papers of the writer.
The most complete theoretically developed explanatory dictionary of the writer is the four-volume “Dictionary of the Pushkin Language” edited by V.V. Vinogradov (M., 1956-1961, 2nd ed. T. 1-2, M., 2000), which was created in Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences under the program of G. O. Vinokur. The dictionary contains and explains 21,191 words.
Dictionaries-reference books of difficulties of the Russian language
Directories of difficulties continue the tradition of “dictionaries of irregularities” that developed in Russian lexicography back in the 19th – early 20th centuries. Dictionaries of correctness (orthological dictionaries - from orthology, a section of linguistics, the object of which is the theory of correct literary speech; Greek orthos - correct and logos - word, concept, doctrine) - these are dictionaries of a normative-stylistic nature, by genre they relate to dictionaries devoted to problems codification and normalization of literary language. Dictionaries of this type answer the question of how best, how to say more correctly, which option to prefer in a given speech situation. - normative dictionaries that serve the tasks of improving language and speech, strengthening the current norms of the literary language.
Terminology dictionaries- dictionaries containing terminology of one or more special fields of knowledge or activity.
See above - the same example of a marine dictionary of terms or a dictionary of chemical terms.
Dictionaries- dictionaries, where the meaning of a particular word is deciphered. For example, Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary, etc.