Teaching method- a certain orderly activity that ensures the teacher’s effective guidance of students’ work in acquiring knowledge. Teaching methods are determined by its goals and content.
Methods and forms of training
But what are methods anyway? Method translated from Greek means path, way of activity. A good method is the key to success in any sphere of human activity, material, spiritual, pedagogical.
Moreover, each type of activity has its own most effective method. Method, noted the great German philosopher G. Hegel(1776-1831), is not something external in relation to the subject under study, is not something brought in from the outside; on the contrary, the method is something already contained in itself, the method is the soul of the object. Therefore, a physicist uses some research methods, a biologist uses others, and a sociologist uses others, although they all also use general scientific methods of cognition.
The teacher also applies his own set of methods in the learning process. But since, as noted, the content of training is extremely complex, it is natural that the methods of mastering this content are extremely diverse. Classification of didactic methods is one of the complex problems of learning theory. Attempts have been made to classify these methods on the basis of a wide variety of criteria. Thus, based on the criterion in the form of a source of knowledge, teaching methods were divided into verbal, visual, electronic information, subject-practical, etc. Based on the criterion of the nature of the cognitive activity of students, didactic methods were divided into reproductive and productive, etc. However, all these classifications turned out to be of little use for teaching practice.
Therefore, recently, when characterizing general didactic methods, those that are used in the study of all academic disciplines, regardless of their specificity, are highlighted and are characterized by a certain originality, some of their own characteristics. The most productive general pedagogical methods are the following.
As the most important general didactic teaching method, it is used primarily in higher education, but with some adjustments it is also used in the senior classes of secondary-level educational institutions. A lecture differs from other types of training sessions in the abundance of information provided; it is devoted, as a rule, to the description of complex systems, connections, and cause-and-effect dependencies. Its duration is usually two academic hours. The conditions for the effectiveness of the lecture are:
- a message at the very beginning of the lecture not only of its topic, but also of its lethal plan;
- a consistent presentation of the content of all sections of the plan with conclusions for each of them;
- subordination of all sections of the plan to a single theme, the central idea of the lecture;
- establishing connections between each part of the lecture, using logical “bridges” and transitions between its sections;
- emotionality of presentation, which is achieved with the help of vivid facts, living language, elements of humor;
- the optimal pace of the lecture, allowing students to write down its main provisions and definitions;
- use of visual aids: diagrams, illustrations, video and audio materials;
- establishing connections between the lecture material and the problems of upcoming seminars and practical classes.
However, even the most qualified lecture still affects a limited range of human receptors. By activating the organs of hearing and vision, it leaves the motor-motor apparatus and speech abilities of students passive.
These shortcomings of the lecture must therefore be compensated for by using other teaching methods and, above all, by organizing various kinds of exercises, seminars, practical classes, and laboratory work.
Exercises They are precisely aimed at activating a person’s motor abilities, at learning, in the words of the outstanding American philosopher and teacher D. Dewey (1859-1952), “through doing.”
Without properly organized exercises, it is impossible to supplement the acquired knowledge with the necessary practical skills, experience of creative activity, and thus realize the educational objectives of education. Systematic exercises are therefore a reliable, proven method of successful educational work. It is here that the skills to use theory in practice are formed and thereby consolidate and deepen the knowledge gained in lectures and other verbal types of classes: conversations, discussions, etc.
When organizing training sessions in the form of an exercise, the following stages are usually distinguished.
- explanation from the teacher, including showing the main stages of the work to be done;
- trial stage - work performed by two or three trainees while the rest observe and, if necessary, make comments;
- frontal performance of work by all students, provision by the teacher of the necessary assistance to students who do not cope well with the task;
- control and evaluation of work results.
Let's look at the main types of practical forms of educational work.
Exercise - repeated performance of educational actions in order to develop skills and abilities.
It is carried out in a specialized laboratory (physics, chemistry, etc.) and consists of conducting experiments and calculations that reveal the essence of certain processes.
- performing tasks for processing materials, manufacturing objects, products, work in school areas, in workshops, pre-graduation practice, etc. This type of exercise helps develop organizational and business skills.
When organizing these types of classes, it is important to maintain optimal proportions between the amount of time spent on theoretical and practical types of training sessions. As experience, in particular American experience, shows, excessive enthusiasm for the method of “learning by doing”, the emphasis on narrow practicality in teaching leads to a general decline in the level of education.
Educational discussion - Another teaching method that is gradually becoming part of the practice of our school, although it has been successfully used in the West for a long time. The essence of the discussion method is to organize an exchange of views on a specific issue within a study group. The advantages of discussion are in stimulating the cognitive interest of students.
The discussion must be prepared primarily in terms of content. Without knowledge of the topic, the discussion will be unproductive. A well-prepared discussion takes on the character of a scientific debate, a “brainstorming session.”
Of course, one cannot expect that students, be they schoolchildren, students or even graduate students, will solve any eternal problem, for example, about the relationship between matter and consciousness, the origin of life on Earth or evidence for the existence of God, but, undoubtedly, the dispute will cause increased interest in the problem , a desire to understand it more deeply.
During the discussion, students will strengthen their ability to clearly and accurately express their thoughts and provide specific evidence. The educational significance of discussions is that they help to identify the character traits of its participants, correct shortcomings in their behavior, such as disrespect for the interlocutor, lack of restraint, etc. Of course, the use of the discussion method is possible only in universities, as well as in high school high school.
Working with a book primarily with the textbook, has become the most important method of teaching since books appeared. Together with them, the student had the opportunity to receive information not only directly from the teacher, but also indirectly, from books at a convenient time and in a convenient place - at home or in the library. With the advent of electronic textbooks, their role in the learning process has increased even more.
As noted, the textbook, being one of the main carriers of educational content, is designed to perform all the main functions of the educational process: teaching, educational, testing. Certainly, When working with any book, you should adhere to certain rules:
- You should start working with a book by finding out its output data: authors, time and place of publication; These data alone can say a lot about the advisability of using the book;
- Next, you should quickly review the contents of the book, using the table of contents, and on this basis once again make sure of the advisability of its use;
- the next stage is a detailed familiarization with the contents of the book, highlighting the most important parts and, if necessary, making extracts or photocopies of individual fragments of the book, primarily definitions, diagrams, tables, diagrams;
- At the end of working on the book, you should answer control questions, assignments, exercises, and tests.
Working with a book requires a lot of time. New methods of speed reading can be helpful here; mastering them can speed up the process of mastering the content of a book by two to three times.
Video method, which was formed in connection with the massive penetration into the practice of educational institutions of a variety of audiovisual technical means, including computers, as well as in connection with the possibility of accessing the Internet with its unlimited information capabilities. These tools can perform the entire range of didactic functions: knowledge communication, repetition, control. We are, in fact, talking about a new complex didactic technology.
The effectiveness of the video method is associated with the influence of visual images, the didactic role of which can only be realized if they are combined with exercises and tests, also presented in electronic form. Obviously, the effectiveness of the video method depends largely on the quality of the program material of video tutorials, the creation of which can only be the result of the joint efforts of teachers and computer technology specialists. Therefore, the use of vidsomstoda places increased demands on the teacher to master modern video and computer technology in order to collaborate with electronics specialists and be able to provide advisory assistance to students in the process of their independent work with the relevant equipment. At the same time, electronics specialists participating in the creation of software for the educational process must acquire knowledge of the basics of didactics.
Of course, both of them should not forget about the sanitary and hygienic requirements for organizing the educational process, in particular for the use of electronic equipment in it, guided by the well-known formula: do no harm!
The video method, with all its advantages, cannot be absolute. The experience of using it also revealed its disadvantages: the computer display does not stimulate the development of live speech skills, abstract thinking, creativity, and independent research. Therefore, its use becomes effective when combined with other traditional teaching methods.
Educational game method is based on a person’s special love for various kinds of games. It is therefore sometimes defined as Homoludens- man playing. According to the French philosopher J.-P. Sartre (1905-1980), “man must choose: to be nothing or to play.” The number of games invented by man is endlessly varied. Not only children, but also old people play. Along with entertainment and sports, games are also used as a method of mental development in the form of educational and business games.
The essence of the educational game is modeling, imitation of certain real situations. In a simplified form, the game reproduces and models reality, and the actions of the participants imitate real actions.
For example, students studying in the specialty “Management” are offered a description of a certain territory with settlements, natural conditions, mineral reserves, economic and cultural objects. And then the task is given to predict the location of new industrial and agricultural facilities in a given region.
The main purpose of the method is to stimulate the cognitive process by providing each of its participants with the role of an active transformer of reality in the game. Interest in the game method has increased in recent decades, when computers capable of simulating complex situations began to penetrate into schools. Computer gaming programs effectively solve the problems of maintaining interest in learning, creating conditions for exciting competition between man and machine, and controlling the quality of learning.
The choice of one or another of the considered teaching methods, of course, should not be random. However, in practice, the teacher often acts according to the patterns that are familiar to him, which have developed in his many years of practice.
The optimal choice of methods is one that is based on the requirements of the theory of learning about the correspondence of methods to the content of training, the characteristics of the student population, the amount of training time, etc. At the same time, guided by theory, we should not forget that teaching is a creative matter, in which much depends on the accumulated experience, personal abilities and inclinations of the teacher, as well as on the available teaching aids.
The success of training largely depends on both the correct definition of its goals and content, and on the ways to achieve these goals or teaching methods. Considering that teaching methods have been used for many centuries, since the very beginning of school, the development of a theory of teaching methods has brought many difficulties to educational scientists.
While observing the learning process at school, didactics and methodologists drew attention to the wide variety of activities of the teacher and his students in the classroom. These types of activities are called teaching methods: the teacher tells new material - he teaches using the story method; children study material from a book - a method of working with a book; the teacher, in the process of telling a story, shows an object - a method of demonstration, etc. The number of such methods among various authors turned out to be so large that even the names of the same methods were very different. There was an urgent need to organize this vast variety of teaching methods according to some principle. A necessary condition for this was the identification of essential features by which it would be possible to determine whether this type of activity of a teacher and student is worthy of being called a teaching method. But even when determining the essence of methods, the opinions of teachers differed. Some understood the method as a set of methods of educational work, others - as the road along which the teacher leads children from ignorance to knowledge, others - as a form of educational content, and fourth - as a way of activity between teacher and student to achieve common goals.
It is easy to notice that in all these methods there is a certain pattern: they characterize cognitive activity, which, on the one hand, is carried out by students, and on the other hand, is organized by the teacher. But it is the cognitive activity of students that is the main condition for their assimilation of the material being studied.
To summarize all of the above, we can say that from the point of view of didactics teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a student and a teacher aimed at solving educational problems. The teaching method organizes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, which ensure effective assimilation of the material being studied. The method determines how the learning process should proceed, what actions and in what sequence the teacher and his students should perform.
Reception of training It is customary to name the components of the method that lead to the achievement of particular objectives. In a simpler form, we can say that a set of techniques makes up a teaching method. Or, in turn, a teaching method can be divided into many specific teaching techniques. For example: with the problem-search method of teaching, students search for the necessary information from various literary sources, set specific goals for the task, and also work out ways to complete it together with the teacher. The given examples allow us to solve problems of narrow didactics in the educational process.
One of the acute problems of modern didactics is the problem of classifying teaching methods. The question arises: what to take as the basis for classification? Currently there is no single point of view on this issue. Much controversy has also arisen around the issue of the dependence of teaching methods on the goals and content of training, on the age characteristics of students, and on the subjective characteristics of the teacher.
In recent years, attempts have increasingly been made to approach teaching methods not only from the external forms and means of student activity, but also to identify their most important features related to the specifics of individual types of learning content and the patterns of mastering this content. Below we present the results of precisely this approach to the study of teaching methods, but at the same time, everything valuable that was achieved at the previous stages of development is preserved and used. With regard to any of these traditional methods, it can be said that they played an important role in the development of the Russian school.
Due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different criteria, there are a number of classifications. Most early classification is the division of teaching methods into teacher's working methods(story, explanation, conversation) and student work methods(exercises, independent work). According to the nature of the educational activities of students and the mastery of the material being studied, methods are distinguished (classification M. N. Skatkina, I. Ya. Lerner): explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, problem presentation, partially search, or heuristic, research. The basis classifications M. A. Danilova And B. P. Esipova set goals and objectives that are implemented at a specific stage of study. Depending on this, all methods are divided into: methods for acquiring new knowledge, methods for developing skills, applying skills in practice, methods for testing and assessing knowledge, skills and abilities.
Using a holistic approach when classifying methods, Yu. K. Babansky singled out three groups of teaching methods.
1. Organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities.
2. Stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activities.
3. Monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.
A number of research scientists (E. Ya. Golant, D. O. Lorkipanidze, E. I. Perovskaya) noted that the sources from which students draw their knowledge have a significant impact on the learning process. In this regard, the most common is the classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge. In accordance with this approach, the following are distinguished:
1) verbal methods (the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word);
2) visual methods (the source of knowledge is observed objects, phenomena, visual aids);
3) practical methods (students gain knowledge and develop skills by performing practical actions).
Let's look at this classification in more detail.
Verbal methods occupy first place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods in the history of pedagogy when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Progressive teachers, among whom were Ya. A. Komensky, K. D. Ushinsky and others, opposed the absolutization of their meaning and argued that it was necessary to supplement them with visual and practical methods.
Currently, verbal methods are often called outdated, “inactive.” The evaluation of this group of methods must be approached objectively. Verbal methods They allow you to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and show ways to solve them. With the help of words, a teacher can evoke in children’s minds vivid and completely convincing pictures of the past, present and future of humanity. The word activates and stimulates the imagination, memory and feelings of students. Verbal methods are of the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.
Story. The story method involves an oral, sequential presentation of the content of educational material. This method is used at all stages of school education. Only the nature of the story, its volume, content, and duration changes.
A story, as well as any method of presenting new knowledge, is usually subject to a number of pedagogical requirements:
1) the story must presuppose the ideological and moral orientation of teaching;
3) include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples, instructive facts proving the correctness of the proposed provisions;
4) have an accurate and clear logic of presentation;
5) be moderately emotional;
6) presented in simple and accessible language;
Explanation. By explanation we mean the verbal interpretation of patterns, the most essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, and phenomena. An explanation is a monologue form of presentation. Explanation is used when studying theoretical material, solving chemical, physical, and mathematical problems, proving theorems, and revealing causes and consequences in natural phenomena and social life. Using the explanation method involves:
1) precise and clear formulation of the task, the essence of the problem, the issue;
2) consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;
3) the use of comparison, juxtaposition, analogy;
4) necessarily attracting vivid examples;
5) unmistakable logic of presentation.
Conversation is a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking pre-thought-out questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what they have already learned. Depending on the tasks set, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, the place of conversation in the didactic process, the following types of conversations are distinguished: heuristic conversation, informative conversation, reinforcing conversation, individual conversation, frontal conversation, etc.
Visual teaching methods– these are methods in which the assimilation of educational material is directly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods. Visual teaching methods are divided into two large groups: the illustration method and the demonstration method.
Illustration method consists of showing students illustrative aids: posters, tables, paintings, maps, drawings and drawings on the board, etc.
Demonstration Method is usually in close connection with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, slides, etc.
However, it should be clearly understood that such a division of visual aids into illustrative and demonstrative is purely conditional. It does not exclude the possibility that certain visual aids can be classified as both illustrative and demonstrative. For example: illustrations can also be shown through an epidiascope or overhead projector. The introduction of the latest technical means into the educational process (television, VCRs, computers) expands the possibilities of visual teaching methods. When using visual methods in teaching, it is necessary to take into account a number of the following conditions:
1) the visualization used by the teacher must exactly correspond to the age of the students;
2) visualization should be used in moderation and demonstrated gradually and only at a moment appropriate to the content of the lesson;
3) observation should be organized in such a way that all students can clearly see the demonstrated object from their workplaces;
4) it is necessary to clearly and clearly highlight the main or most significant when showing illustrations;
5) one should think through in advance in detail the explanations that accompany the demonstration of phenomena;
6) the clarity demonstrated by the teacher must exactly correspond to the content of the material;
7) involve the students themselves in finding the desired information when compiling a visual aid or in a demonstration device.
Practical methods.
Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills. Practical methods include exercises, laboratory and practical work. Exercises are understood as repeated performance of mental or practical actions in order to master knowledge or improve its quality. The use of exercises occurs in the study of all subjects and at various stages of the educational process.
Laboratory work consists of students conducting experiments on the instructions of the teacher using special devices, instruments and other technical devices, thus, this is the study by students of any phenomena using special equipment. Practical work is often carried out after studying large sections of the subject and is of a generalizing nature. They can be carried out both in the classroom and outside the educational institution.
2. Classification of teaching methods
Classification of methods according to the nature of students’ cognitive activity and the nature of the teacher’s activity (or the method of mastering types of content).
IN didactics method training is a method of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems. The teaching method establishes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, ensuring the effective assimilation of the material being studied. One of the acute problems of modern didactics is the problem of classifying teaching methods.
Currently there is no single point of view on this issue. Due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different criteria, there are a number of classifications. Let us dwell in detail on the classification of methods according to the nature of the cognitive activity of students and students. Let us list and describe them.
1. Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. There were periods when they were almost the only way to transfer knowledge. Despite the fact that many teachers oppose the use of this group of methods and consider them outdated, they cannot be completely discounted. Verbal methods make it possible to convey a large amount of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems to students and indicate ways to solve them. With the help of words, a teacher can evoke in the minds of children vivid pictures of the past, present and future of humanity. The word activates the imagination, memory, and feelings of students. Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.
2. Visual methods. Visual teaching methods are understood as those methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods. As a separate type, the visual teaching method simply loses its meaning. The use of visual methods makes the material offered for study more accessible to understanding. Visualization is especially important and even necessary when teaching in the lower grades. Visual teaching methods can be divided into two large groups: the illustration method and the demonstration method. And at the same time, the second method is more preferable, since it is more real and reliable.
3. Practical methods training is based on the practical activities of students. These methods form practical skills. The importance of practical methods cannot be overestimated. After all, it is in practical classes that students realize the importance of previously acquired knowledge and the possibility of their practical application in everyday life and in further studies. Also, the use of practical methods increases the motivation of the learning process. After all, a schoolchild is always interested in trying his hand at performing some educational tasks, showing independence, ingenuity, and initiative. Practical methods include exercises, laboratory and practical work.
Classification of teaching methods according to the nature of the type of activity that dominates over others.
Method is a sequence of actions taken by the teacher and student in the learning process. There are a huge variety of methods in pedagogy, some of which are similar, and some of which are radically different. Therefore, to facilitate the teacher’s work, it is necessary to systematize this set. In didactics, there are a number of ways to classify teaching methods. Let us consider in detail the classification according to the nature of the dominant cognitive activity. This type of division of teaching methods is adopted because doctrine- this is, first of all, cognitive activity that takes place along with practical, labor, and motor activity. All his actions pass through consciousness and determine cognitive activity. So, using this classification, we can distinguish two groups of methods that are radically different from each other.
1. Reproductive, in which the student assimilates ready-made knowledge and reproduces (reproduces) methods of activity already known to him (these include explanatory-illustrative, information-receptive, reproductive methods).
2. Productive, characterized by the fact that the student obtains subjectively new knowledge as a result of creative activity (partial search, heuristic, research methods). Problem presentation belongs to the intermediate group, because it equally involves both the assimilation of ready-made information and elements of creative activity. However, in the real learning process, all teaching methods are interconnected and are implemented in combination parallel to each other. And the very division of methods into reproductive and productive is very relative. After all, any act of creative activity is impossible without reproductive activity.
When solving any problem, a person updates and mentally reproduces knowledge already known to him. At the same time, the act of reproducing knowledge when its purpose changes contains an element of creativity in the field of constructing the logic of presentation. The identified and characterized methods allow us to evaluate the course of the lesson, the entire logic of the educational process from the point of view of their coverage of all types of activities. So, if a teacher conducted a survey on previously studied materials, told new ones, gave exercises, and then presented a creative task, then he sequentially applied methods: reproductive, explanatory-illustrative, reproductive, research. If he posed a problem and conducted a heuristic conversation on it, showed a film, and then gave creative work on it, then he used partially search, explanatory-illustrative and research methods.
Methods can change frequently during the lesson and alternate several times - it all depends on the content of the topic, the goals of its study, the level of development and preparation of students. Moreover, the monotony of methods and methods used in the lesson can make the learning process boring and uninteresting.
Classification of teaching methods by activity components.
Teaching method is a systematically functioning system, a structure of activity for teachers and students, consciously implemented with the aim of implementing programmed changes in the student’s personality.
Exist four groups of teaching methods, in each of these groups, the actions of the teacher and students are different, there is a peculiar preponderance of a certain type of activity over other types, from which it follows that this classification is not strict. They are:
1) methods of acquiring knowledge based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature;
2) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative, cognitive activity in the process of solving problems;
3) methods, also called exhibiting, with an emphasis on emotional and artistic activity;
4) practical methods, characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us, creating its new forms.
Methods of knowledge acquisition– this group of methods is widely used both in school and in the media, or in public life in general.
In the course of teaching, all art comes down, first of all, to the selection of content and the method of its transmission, and the level of assimilation of knowledge by students and the strength of their memorization depend on the nature of the content and its “presentation”.
methods:
1) conversation;
2) discussion;
3) lecture;
4) working with a book;
5) programmed training in its linear, branched and mixed versions.
Methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, i.e. problem-based methods.
Essence problematic methods boils down to the fact that they do not allow students to be indifferent to a situation that they cannot explain or resolve, but, by arousing interest, force them to analyze it, identify known and unknown data in it, put forward proposals for solving the problem and checking the correctness of these assumptions .
This group includes the following methods:
1) method of chance (considering any number of cases);
2) situational method (similar to the random method, but here one complex situation is considered);
3) didactic games (the basis of the lesson is a game).
Exposure (evaluative) methods. A person not only cognizes reality, but also experiences it emotionally, and also evaluates it. These experiences of evaluation are related to intellectual cognition, but are not identical to it. Their significance is based on the fact that they ultimately determine life goals and loyalty to ideals. From this point of view, the sphere of emotional cognition, as well as assessments, value systems and life ideals that largely depend on it, have important educational significance.
This group includes the following methods:
1) impressive methods (impression, experience, feeling);
2) expressive methods (expressing oneself in something);
3) practical methods (a person himself forms his own perception and behavior;
4) educational methods (solving any creative problems).
Practical methods. In practice, students realize their creative goals. In this case, both the theory is repeated and it is confirmed in practice.
3. Rational application of various teaching methods
Under teaching methods implies a consistent alternation of methods of interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a specific goal through the study of educational material.
Each method should be selected and applied in conjunction with other teaching methods. When working through a certain section of educational material, the teacher is faced with more than one method. There is no universal method. According to different requirements and situations, a whole variety of methods is used in training, one method replaces another. There are various possibilities for combining methods that meet the goals and objectives of training, as well as the peculiarities of the content of educational material and specific learning conditions, which ensures an interesting, varied, active organization of this process.
The use of a certain method makes certain demands on the teacher’s activities, having a specific impact on the activities of students. The value of methods is determined by the quality of the learning process, especially the quality of its results. High efficiency of application of methods is achieved provided that they are an integral part of a certain system, are correctly selected, are most appropriately combined and skillfully used in the teacher’s work. This increases the level of educational work, ensuring activity and effectiveness of learning. In the process of teaching, the individual “methodological style” of the teacher is formed.
Methods of presenting knowledge are used in cases where students need to be introduced to educational material, present it, explain it, and ensure its understanding. These methods are especially important when communicating new material.
Methods of oral presentation must be used when consolidating, exercising, systematizing and repeating, when deepening educational material. The most common method of oral presentation is story (lecture) teachers. This method is the most rational way of communicating new knowledge. With the help of words, you can express vivid ideas, using selected facts and skillfully combining them, and also emphasize the most important things. In high school, the teacher’s presentation takes on the character of a lecture, in which extensive material is presented, and students take notes, which serves as the basis for their further work on the educational material.
The material studied must be repeated and consolidated. Students can be involved in the presentation of the material, and here the student’s educational report especially justifies itself. A report is an excellent tool for promoting the development of well-performing students; it also helps less prepared students test themselves.
If the teacher is going to check the degree of preparation of students for a lesson, then the method of test and examination conversation is used, that is, in the form of a survey, the teacher asks questions to the students, which they must answer. But there are also negative aspects: with such a survey, the teacher is not able to survey the entire class; to solve this problem, another method is used - independent work. Methods of independent work provide ample opportunities for the individual development of schoolchildren.
The teaching method establishes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, ensuring the effective assimilation of the material being studied. It determines how the learning process should proceed, what actions and in what sequence the teacher and students should perform. Even an activity that is interesting for students will not force the entire class to work actively for a long time if there is no correct change of actions and a logically correct change of methods and techniques is not provided. Teachers are constantly trying to find a universal, most effective method.
When choosing teaching methods and methods of their implementation, one should take into account such issues as requirements for teaching methods, criteria for choosing methods and methods for their implementation in the planned lesson. The teacher is free to choose the means and methods of teaching - the main thing is that the requirements for teaching methods must be met.
Currently, all teaching methods have two mandatory requirements: they must promote student activity in the learning process and ensure their deep understanding of the material being studied. Both requirements are closely related: students cannot be active in the classroom if they do not understand the material being studied, but they will not be able to accept it without active participation in the learning process. These requirements play an important role not only in teaching, but also in the education and development of students’ cognitive abilities. The choice of methods and methods of implementation is largely determined by the goals of the lesson. When choosing, it is advisable to take into account through which sense organs students will perceive the material being studied. That is, it is necessary to know the physical features of the development of sense organs in children depending on age and use methods that affect precisely those senses that are most developed. For example, it is known that younger schoolchildren perceive information more if it is as visual as possible.
Teaching methods and methods of their implementation should contribute to the inclusion in the educational process in the classroom of not only thinking, but also the imagination of schoolchildren, which relates to the active inner life of students.
Imagination is the force that makes learning interesting and exciting. In order for students’ imagination to be included in the learning process, ordinary activities in the lesson should be combined with unusual, special ones. Choosing methods and methods of their implementation that will be used in the lesson is a difficult and responsible task that requires an in-depth analysis of many facts.
In addition to those already listed, it is necessary to take into account the abilities of students, their knowledge, abilities, skills on the issue under study, attitude to the subject, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the teacher himself.
Teaching method– joint activity of the teacher and students aimed at achieving a specific learning goal. Didactic methods can be divided into three components: pedagogical and student, teaching methods. Pedagogical methods refer to the actions of the teacher (teacher), student methods reflect the ways of learning from the point of view of students. Teaching methods that involve determining the joint work of the teacher and students deserve special attention. Teaching methods have objective and subjective sides. The objective side reflects the general basic essence of the method, and the subjective side reflects the manifestation of the skill and creative approach of the teacher within the framework of the method and in accordance with its basic principles.
In modern didactics there are a huge number of very diverse teaching methods. In this regard, the need arose to classify them.
The most common of them is the classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge. This classification distinguishes five methods.
1. Practical method based on acquiring knowledge through laboratory experimental activities. The teacher’s tasks include setting the task and providing assistance in students’ practical activities. An important stage of such training is the systematization and analysis of information obtained during classes.
2. Visual method. The main role in applying this method is given to the teacher. His tasks include explaining the material using illustrations, diagrams, tables, experiments, conducting experiments and various visual aids. In this method, students are assigned a passive role of perceiving and recording the information received.
3. Verbal method also involves active teaching. The functions of the teacher include oral presentation of the material, according to a pre-thought-out scheme, which must include: posing a question, research and analysis of the content of this question, summing up and conclusions.
Students must not only perceive and assimilate information, they can ask questions, express their point of view, put forward hypotheses, debate, discuss certain opinions regarding the issue being studied;
1) working with a book reflects the method of independent work of students, including reading, viewing, note-taking, analysis, systematization and other types of educational activities possible when working with educational literature.
2) video method - an innovative teaching method using video material and an electronic teacher, used mainly as an additional method to strengthen knowledge or expand it. This method requires the student to have a high level of ability and motivation for self-learning.
Another type of classification proposed by M. N. Skatkin and I. Ya. Lerner is based on the division of teaching methods depending on the nature of the student’s cognitive activity in mastering the material being studied.
This classification identifies the following methods.
1. Explanatory and illustrative. One of the ways to transfer a system of “ready-made” knowledge to students through any type of didactic material. Students, in turn, must record the information received in memory and on paper with immediate or subsequent comprehension, memorization and consolidation of the latter;
2. Reproductive method In addition to the perception of information, it involves its practical use. The teacher offers various tasks and exercises, and also artificially creates situations that require the practical application of the acquired knowledge.
3. Method of problem presentation consists of active activity on the part of the teacher. The teacher artificially creates a problem and clearly and in detail explains to the students the ways and means of solving it. The solution occurs in stages: awareness of the problem, putting forward a hypothesis for its solution, practical experiment, analysis of the results. Students are assigned the role of observers who must trace the logic and interconnectedness of all the teacher’s actions, assimilate the basic principles and stages of problem solving.
4. Partial search (heuristic) method learning is based on the independent activity of students aimed at processing information in order to identify contradictions and problems arising in accordance with them, as well as finding ways to solve these problems and analyzing the results in order to identify the degree of their truth. The teacher in this case plays the role of an assistant and mentor; he is obliged to teach students to competently go through all the stages on the path to identifying and solving problems, as well as to provide assistance when students encounter difficulties of various kinds.
5. The research method is the most effective in terms of knowledge acquisition, but its implementation requires highly qualified teachers. The teacher, together with the students, forms the problem and manages the independent research activities of the students. Students choose their own research methods; they gain knowledge in the process of research and solving problems related to research activities. Knowledge obtained in this way is deeply and firmly lodged in a person’s memory. The creative activity inherent in this method helps to increase interest and motivation in the learning process.
Another classification of teaching methods, which has become widespread recently, was developed by Yu. K. Babansky. He identified three main groups:
Methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities, methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activities, methods of monitoring and self-monitoring the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.
The methods included in the group of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities are numerous and quite diverse. They use all types of information sources: textbooks, lectures, visual aids, practical activities. Preference is given to a reasonable combination of theory and practice; knowledge is acquired both through the perception and comprehension of the proposed material, and in the process of research activity and analysis of its results. Independent work, supervised by the teacher, plays an important role.
Methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity are aimed mainly at awakening students' interest in the learning process. Activities developed using these methods are usually varied and emotional. Students are offered tasks in the form of situational forms, close to real life, the solution of which requires a certain theoretical basis, thereby creating an idea of the applicability of the acquired knowledge in everyday or professional life. Students are convinced of the benefits of acquiring such knowledge and skills, which awakens interest and creates incentives for learning. A good effect is achieved by tasks of a competitive nature, where, trying to prove oneself, a person strives to master the knowledge and skills necessary for this as best and thoroughly as possible.
Methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities are aimed at developing the student’s consciousness and are based on assessing the final result of learning. The learning process includes various types of control and self-control, according to which a conclusion is made about the effectiveness of the lessons conducted for each individual student and for the entire educational group as a whole. Assessment plays a significant role in these methods as a stimulus for acquiring knowledge. Often, students are asked to evaluate the work they have done themselves, and then compare this assessment with the teacher’s assessment; in this case, students are instilled with the ability to most objectively assess their level of knowledge and skills.
Existing classifications of teaching methods are not without shortcomings. In any educational process, a combination of elements of several methods is actually used, and when speaking about the use of a particular method in a particular case, we mean its dominant position in relation to the others. Currently, in modern pedagogical science, several relatively independent teaching methods are distinguished: story, conversation, lecture, discussion, work with a book, demonstration, illustration, video method, exercises, laboratory and practical methods, cognitive game, programmed teaching methods, educational control, situational method.
In this case, independence means the presence of significant differences between the method and steel ones, features and properties inherent only to this method.
1. The concept of teaching methods and their classification.
Method (literally the path to something) means a way to achieve a goal, a certain ordered activity.
Method of teaching call a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, activities aimed at solving the problems of education, upbringing and development in the learning process.
They are one of the most important components of the educational process. Without appropriate methods of activity, it is impossible to realize the goals and objectives of training, to achieve the assimilation by students of a certain content of educational material.
Main groups of methods.
Of these, three main groups can be distinguishedteaching methods : 1) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; 2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational activities; 3) methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.
1 group of methods
| According to the source of transmission and perception of educational activities | According to the logic of transmission and perception of information | According to the degree of independent thinking | By degree of educational work management |
| Verbal | Inductive | Reproductive | Under the guidance of a teacher |
| Visual | Deductive | Problem-search | Independent work of students |
| Practical |
2nd group of methods
3 group of teaching methods
| Methods of oral control and self-control | Methods of written control and self-control | Methods of practical control and self-control |
| Individual survey | Written tests | Machine control |
| Frontal survey | Written tests | Laboratory control |
| Oral tests | Written exams | |
| Oral exams | Written works |
Before moving on to the characteristics of individual teaching methods, it should be noted that each method can be imagined as consisting of a set of methodological techniques. On this basis, methods are sometimes defined as a set of methodological techniques that provide solutions to learning problems.
Let's move on to a more detailed description of all the main groups of teaching methods in education.
Verbal teaching methods
To verbal teaching methods include a story, a lecture, a conversation, etc. In the process of explaining them, the teacher presents and explains the educational material through words, and the students actively perceive and assimilate it through listening, memorizing and comprehension.
Story.
This teaching method involves an oral narrative presentation of educational material, uninterrupted by questions to the students. This method involves an oral narrative presentation of educational material, uninterrupted by questions to students.
Several types of stories are possible - an introduction story, an exposition story, a conclusion story. The purpose of the first is to prepare students to perceive new educational material, which can be carried out by other methods, for example, conversation. This type of story is characterized by relative brevity, vividness, and emotional presentation, which allows one to arouse interest in a new topic and arouse the need for its active assimilation. During such a story, the tasks of the students’ activities are communicated in an accessible form.
During the narrative presentation, the teacher reveals the content of a new topic, carries out the presentation according to a certain logical developmental plan, in a clear sequence, highlighting the main, essential, using illustrations and convincing examples.
A conclusion story is usually given at the end of the lesson. The teacher summarizes the main ideas, draws conclusions and generalizations, and gives assignments for further independent work on this topic.
When applying the story method, such methodological techniques are used as: presentation of information, activation of attention, techniques for accelerating memorization (mnemonic, associative), logical techniques of comparison, juxtaposition, highlighting the main thing, summarizing.
For teaching in the distance learning model, this is a fairly effective method, although not very advanced computer speech data can affect the quality of the educational process, which can more than be replaced by audio cassettes. Which is very effective for the educational process.
The conditions for effective use of the story are careful thought through the topic, a successful selection of examples and illustrations, and maintaining the proper emotional tone of the presentation.
Educational lecture.
As one of the verbal teaching methods, an educational lecture involves an oral presentation of educational material, which is distinguished by a greater capacity than a story and a greater complexity of logical constructions, images, evidence and generalizations. The lecture usually takes up the entire lesson, while the story takes up only part of it. As one of the verbal teaching methods, an educational lecture involves an oral presentation of educational material, which is distinguished by a greater capacity than a story and a greater complexity of logical constructions, images, evidence and generalizations. The lecture usually takes up the entire lesson, while the story takes up only part of it.
During the lecture, techniques are used for oral presentation of information, maintaining attention for a long time, activating the thinking of listeners, techniques for ensuring logical memorization, persuasion, argumentation, evidence, classification, systematization and generalization, etc.
The conditions for effectively conducting a lecture are a clear thinking through and communication of the lecture plan, a logically coherent and consistent presentation of all points of the plan one after another with a summary and conclusions after each of them and logical connections when moving to the next section. It is equally important to ensure accessibility, clarity of presentation, explain terms, select examples and illustrations, and select visual aids. The lecture is read at such a pace that students can take the necessary notes. Teachers therefore clearly highlight what should be written down and clearly repeat it if necessary to make notes easier.
This method is easiest to use with the help of audio cassettes, as well as with the help of video equipment, as well as satellite television, but you can also attach a lecture using notes, a book and a computer package.
Conversation.
The conversation method involves a conversation between the teacher and students. The conversation is organized using a carefully thought-out system of questions, gradually leading students to master a system of facts, a new concept or pattern. The conversation method involves a conversation between the teacher and students. The conversation is organized using a carefully thought-out system of questions, gradually leading students to master a system of facts, a new concept or pattern.
When applying the conversation method, methods of asking questions (basic, additional, leading, etc.), methods of discussing answers and opinions of students, methods of correcting answers, methods of formulating conclusions from a conversation are used.
Questions for the conversation should be sufficiently comprehensive for a holistic perception. Too much fragmentation of a topic into questions destroys its logical integrity, and too large questions become inaccessible for discussion by students. Questions should not require monosyllabic answers from students. The teacher can use auxiliary, guiding questions to continue the discussion of the problem being studied.
Conversations are possible during which students recall, systematize, generalize what they have previously learned, draw conclusions, and look for new examples of using a previously studied phenomenon in life. Such conversations are mainly explanatory in nature and are designed mainly to operate on what was previously learned and to activate the students’ memory.
At the same time, if the students are sufficiently prepared, conversations are possible and highly desirable, during which they, under the guidance of the teacher, themselves find possible answers to problematic problems. Such teaching methods in this case can only represent fairly active correspondence between the teacher and students. Otherwise, this method is possible with distance learning only for the duration of the session. But it should be taken into account that some students simply need suchteaching methods
.
Visual teaching methods
Visual methods are quite important for students who have a visual perception of reality. Modern didactics requires the most rational options for using visual aids, allowing to achieve a greater educational and educational, as well as developmental effect. It guides teachers towards the use of visual teaching methods in such a way as to simultaneously be able to develop students’ abstract thinking.
The peculiarity of visual teaching methods is that they are necessarily offered, to one degree or another, combined with verbal methods. The close relationship between words and visualization follows from the fact that the dialectical path of cognition of objective reality presupposes the use of living contemplation, abstract thinking and practice in unity. Teaching of I.P. Pavlova about the first and second signal systems shows that when understanding the phenomena of reality, they must be used in conjunction. Perception through the first signal system must organically merge with the manipulation of words, with the active functioning of the second signal system.
L.V. Zankov studied several basic forms of combining words and visuals, which should be taken into account during distance learning:
Through the word, the teacher directs the observation, which is carried out by the students, and the students extract knowledge about the appearance of the object, its directly perceived properties and relationships from the visual object itself in the process of observation;
Through the medium of words, the teacher, based on the students’ observations of visual objects and on the basis of their existing knowledge, leads students to understand connections in phenomena that cannot be seen in the process of perception;
Students receive information about the appearance of an object, its directly perceived properties and relationships from the teacher’s verbal messages, and visual aids serve as confirmation or concretization of verbal messages;
Starting from the student’s observation of a visual object, the teacher reports on connections between phenomena that are not directly perceived by students, or draws a conclusion, combines, and generalizes individual data.
Thus, there are various forms of connection between words and visuals. It would be a mistake to give any of them complete preference, since depending on the characteristics of the learning objectives, the content of the topic, the nature of the available visual aids, as well as the level of preparedness of the students, it is necessary in each specific case to choose the most rational combination.
Practical teaching methods
Practical teaching methodscover a very wide range of different types of activities of students. When using practical teaching methods, the following techniques are used: setting a task, planning its implementation, operational stimulation, regulation and control, analyzing the results of practical work, identifying the causes of shortcomings, and adjusting training to fully achieve the goal. . When using practical teaching methods, the following techniques are used: setting a task, planning its implementation, operational stimulation, regulation and control, analyzing the results of practical work, identifying the causes of shortcomings, and adjusting training to fully achieve the goal.
Practical teaching methods include written exercises, where during the exercise the student puts into practice the knowledge he has acquired.
Practical methods also include exercises performed by students with sound recording and sound reproducing equipment, which also includes computers.
Practical teaching methods are used in close combination with verbal and visual teaching methods, since practical work on performing practical work must be preceded by an instructive explanation from the teacher. Verbal explanations and the display of illustrations usually accompany the process of performing the work itself, as well as an analysis of the work performed, which is most favorable to do during personal contact with the student.
Inductive and deductive teaching methods.
Inductive and deductiveteaching methodscharacterize an extremely important feature of the methods - the ability to reveal the logic of movement of the content of educational material. The use of inductive and deductive methods means choosing a certain logic for revealing the content of the topic being studied - from particular to general and from general to particular
Inductive teaching method.
When using inductiveteaching methodThe activities of the teacher and students proceed as follows: When using the inductive teaching method, the activities of the teacher and students proceed as follows:
| Teacher | Student |
| 1 option | Option 2 |
| First he sets out the facts, demonstrates experiments, visual aids, organizes exercises, gradually leading students to generalizations, definitions of concepts, and formulation of laws. | They first assimilate particular facts, then draw conclusions and generalizations of a particular nature. |
| 2 options | Option 2 |
| Sets before students problematic tasks that require independent reasoning from particular provisions to more general ones, to conclusions and generalizations. | They independently reflect on the facts and make accessible conclusions and generalizations. |
Inductive study of a topic is especially useful in cases where the material is primarily factual in nature or associated with the formation of concepts, the meaning of which can only become clear through inductive reasoning. Inductive methods are widely used for studying technical devices and performing practical tasks. Many mathematical problems are solved using the inductive method, especially when the teacher considers it necessary to independently lead students to master some more generalized formula.
The weakness of inductive teaching methods is that they require more time to learn new material than deductive ones. They contribute to the development of abstract thinking to a lesser extent, since they are based on concrete facts, experiences and other data.
Deductive teaching method.
When using the deductive teaching method, the activities of the teacher and students are of the following nature:
The deductive method promotes rapid passage of educational material and more actively develops abstract thinking. Its use is especially useful when studying theoretical material, when solving problems that require identifying consequences from some more general provisions.
Thus, for mathematical concepts, the general basis is the general relations of magnitude; for grammar, the role of such a universal basis is played by the relations of the form and meaning of the word. Since these general principles of communication can be expressed in the form of models (diagrams, formulas, laws, rules), students are taught to use these models. This approach allows students to acquire knowledge of a general and abstract nature earlier and then derive more specific and specific knowledge from it. But this does not mean that it is necessary to proceed to a deductive study of all material. Its rational combination with an inductive approach must be found, since without an inductive approach, it is impossible to successfully prepare students for solving more complex problems.
As can be seen from the characteristics of the activities of the teacher and students, when using deductive or inductive teaching methods, the previously described verbal, visual and practical methods are used. But at the same time, the content of the educational material is revealed in a certain logical way - inductively or deductively. Therefore, we can talk about an inductively or deductively constructed conversation, a deductive and problem-based story, or a reproductive or exploratory constructed practical work. Teaching method is a multidimensional concept. The system of teaching methods actually used at the moment combines several conventionally distinguished methods in the classification. And what we are talking about using a deductive or inductive method in a given situation is determined by the leading didactic task set by the teacher at this stage of training. If, for example, a teacher decides to focus on the development of deductive thinking of a generalized nature, then he uses the deductive method, combining it with a problem-search method, implemented through a specially structured conversation.
In this work, the list of logical teaching methods is limited to two types - deductive and inductive. This was done only to make the holistic classification of teaching methods more accessible. In principle, this subgroup of teaching organization methods also includes methods of educational analysis, investigative synthesis, educational analogy, and identification of cause-and-effect relationships.
Reproductive and problem-based learning methods
Reproductive and problem-search methods of teaching are identified, first of all, on the basis of assessing the degree of creative activity of students in learning new concepts, phenomena and laws.
The reproductive nature of thinking involves the active perception and memorization of information communicated by a teacher or other source. The use of these methods is impossible without the use of verbal, visual and practical teaching methods and techniques, which are, as it were, the material basis of these methods.
A lecture is structured in a similar way, in which certain scientific information is presented to the listeners, and appropriate notes are made, recorded by the listeners in the form of short notes.
A reproductively organized conversation is conducted in such a way that the teacher during it relies on facts known to the students, on previously acquired knowledge. The purpose of discussing any hypotheses or assumptions is not set.
Visualization in the reproductive method of teaching is also used for the purpose of better and more active assimilation and memorization of information. An example of clarity, for example, is used in the experience of teacher V.F. Shatalov supporting notes. They consistently display especially bright numbers, words and sketches that activate the memorization of the material.
Practical work of a reproductive nature is distinguished by the fact that during the course of it, students apply previously or just acquired knowledge according to a model. At the same time, during practical work, students do not independently increase their knowledge. Reproductive exercises are especially effective in facilitating the development of practical skills and abilities, since turning into a skill requires repeated actions according to the model.
Reproductive methods are used especially effectively in cases where the content of educational material is primarily informative in nature, is a description of methods of practical action, is very complex and fundamentally new so that students can search for knowledge.
Programmed training is most often carried out on the basis of reproductive methods.
In general, reproductive teaching methods do not allow adequate development of thinking, and especially independence and flexibility of thinking; to develop search skills in students. When used excessively, these methods contribute to the formalization of the process of knowledge acquisition. It is impossible to successfully develop personality traits using reproductive methods alone, just as it is impossible to develop personality traits such as a creative approach to business and independence. All this requires the use, along with them, of teaching methods that ensure active search activity of students.
Problem-based learning methods
Problem-search methods are used during problem-based learning. When using problem-search methods of teaching, the teacher uses the following techniques: creates a problem situation (poses questions, proposes a task, an experimental task), organizes a collective discussion of possible approaches to solving a problem situation, confirms the correctness of the conclusions, puts forward a ready-made problem task. Students, based on previous experience and knowledge, make assumptions about ways to solve a problem situation, generalize previously acquired knowledge, identify the causes of phenomena, explain their origin, and choose the most rational option for solving a problem situation.
Problem-based learning methods are very effective for distance learning because they are often used in practice using visual, verbal and practical methods. In this regard, it is customary to talk about methods of problem-based presentation of educational material, about problem-based and heuristic conversations, about the use of visual methods of problem-search type, about carrying out problem-search practical work of a research type. According to I.Ya. Lerner, this type of methods includes such special cases as the method of problem presentation, partial search, or heuristic, research teaching methods. Special cases of the problem-search method are those proposed by M.I. Makhmutov binary methods: explanatory-motivating and partially searching, motivating and searching. All these are specific levels of manifestation of the problem-search method in its broad sense, as well as a combination of various methods with a gradual increase in the search element in the teaching.
The presentation of educational material by the method of a problem story and a problem-based lecture assumes that the teacher, in the course of presentation, reflects, proves, generalizes, analyzes facts and leads the thinking of listeners, making it more active and creative.
One of the methods of problem-based learning is heuristic and problem-search conversation. During the course, the teacher poses a series of consistent and interrelated questions to the students, in response to which they must make some proposals and then try to independently prove their validity, thereby making some independent progress in mastering new knowledge. If during a heuristic conversation such assumptions usually concern only one of the main elements of a new topic, then during a problem-search conversation students solve a whole series of problem situations.
Visual aids in problem-search methods of teaching are no longer used for the purpose of activating memorization, but for setting experimental tasks that create problematic situations in the classroom.
Problem-search exercises are used in the case when students can independently, on the instructions of the teacher, perform certain types of actions that lead him to mastering new knowledge. Problem-search exercises can be used not only when approaching the assimilation of a new topic, but also when consolidating it on a new basis, that is, when performing exercises that deepen knowledge.
Valuable types, especially for distance learning, are research laboratory work, during which students, for example, independently determine the laws of melting bodies or any other laws. Such laboratory work is carried out before studying theoretical material and confronts students with the need to make some educational discoveries.
Problem-based search methods in distance learning are used primarily for the purpose of developing skills in creative educational and cognitive activities; they contribute to a more meaningful and independent acquisition of knowledge. These methods are used especially effectively in cases where it is necessary to achieve the formation of concepts, laws and theories in the relevant field of science, rather than the communication of factual information. The share of distance learning is much better if problem-search methods are combined with reproductive ones for greater efficiency.
2. Methods of stimulating educational activity during the learning process.
The role of motivation in learning.
Various studies of the structure of human activity invariably emphasize the need for a motivation component in it. Any activity proceeds more effectively and produces high-quality results if the individual has strong, vibrant, deep motives that evoke a desire to act actively, with full dedication, to overcome inevitable difficulties, unfavorable conditions and other circumstances, persistently moving towards the intended goal. All this is directly related to educational activities, which are more successful if students have formed a positive attitude towards educational activities, if they have cognitive interest, the need to acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities, if they have developed a sense of duty, responsibility and other teaching motives.
The stimulating role of all teaching methods.
In order to formulate such motives for educational activities, the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and implementing educational activities is used - verbal, visual and practical methods, reproductive and search methods, deductive and inductive methods.
Thus, each of the methods of organizing educational activities at the same time has not only an informative and educational, but also a motivational effect. In this sense, we can talk about the stimulating-motivational function of any teaching method. However, the experience of teachers and science has accumulated a large arsenal of methods that are specifically aimed at creating positive motives for learning, stimulating cognitive activity, while simultaneously helping to enrich teachers with educational information. The stimulation function in this case seems to come to the fore, facilitating the implementation of the educational function of all other methods.
As noted above and in the works, the group of stimulation and motivation methods can be divided into two large subgroups. In the first of them, we present methods for forming cognitive interests among students. The second contains methods primarily aimed at developing a sense of duty and responsibility in learning. Let us describe in more detail each of these subgroups of methods of stimulating and motivating learning.
Methods of forming cognitive interest.
Special studies devoted to the problem of the formation of cognitive interest show that interest in all its types and at all stages of development is characterized by three mandatory points: 1) positive emotion in relation to the activity; 2) the presence of the cognitive side of this emotion; 3) The presence of a direct motive coming from the activity itself.
It follows that in the learning process it is important to ensure the emergence of positive emotions in relation to the learning activity, its content, forms and methods of implementation. The emotional state is always associated with the experience of emotional excitement: response, sympathy, joy, anger, surprise. That is why deep internal experiences of the individual are connected to the processes of attention, memorization, and comprehension in this state, which make these processes intense and therefore more effective in terms of achieved goals.
One of the techniques included in the method of emotional stimulation of learning is the technique of creating entertaining situations in the classroom - introducing entertaining examples, experiments, and paradoxical facts into the learning process. To increase interest in learning, many teachers use analysis of excerpts from fiction devoted to the life and work of outstanding scientists and public figures. Such methods of making learning more entertaining as stories about the application in modern conditions of certain predictions of science fiction writers and showing entertaining experiments are also successfully used.
Entertaining analogies also play a role in the methods of developing interest in learning. For example, analogies in a physics course based on the principles of bionics evoke a very positive response from students. When studying location phenomena, analogies are drawn with the methods of orientation of bats. When considering the lifting force of an airplane wing, analogies are drawn with the shape of the wings of a bird or dragonfly.
Emotional experiences are evoked by using the technique of surprise, for example, Pascal's paradox; when these examples are convincing, they invariably cause deep emotional experiences in students.
One of the stimulation methods is to compare scientific and everyday interpretations of individual natural phenomena. For example, students are asked to compare everyday and scientific explanations of the phenomenon of weightlessness, the laws of falling, and the laws of swimming.
All the above examples show how the techniques of artistry, imagery, brightness, entertainment, and surprise included in the methods of forming interest cause emotional elation, which in turn arouses a positive attitude towards learning activities and serves as the first step towards the formation of cognitive interest. At the same time, among the main points characterizing interest, it was emphasized not just the excitement of emotionality, but the presence of these emotions actually having an indicative side, which manifests itself in the joy of knowledge.
The main source of interest in the educational activity itself is, first of all, its content. In order for the content to have a particularly strong stimulating effect, it must meet a number of requirements formulated in the principles of education (scientific nature, connection with life, systematicity and consistency, comprehensive educational, nurturing and developmental influence). However, there are also some special techniques aimed at increasing the stimulating influence of the teaching content. These primarily include the creation of a situation of novelty, relevance, bringing the content closer to the most important discoveries in science and technology, to the phenomena of socio-political domestic and international life.
Educational games.
A valuable method of stimulating interest in learning can be called the method of cognitive games, which is based on the creation of game situations in the educational process. Play has long been used as a means of arousing interest in learning. In the practice of teachers, board and training games are used, with the help of which history, wildlife, types of aircraft and ships are studied. A valuable method of stimulating interest in learning can be called the method of cognitive games, which is based on the creation of game situations in the educational process. Play has long been used as a means of arousing interest in learning. In the practice of teachers, board and training games are used, with the help of which history, wildlife, types of aircraft and ships are studied.
Educational discussions.
Methods of stimulating and motivating learning also include the method of creating a situation of cognitive dispute. It is known that the truth is born in a dispute. But the controversy also generates increased interest in the topic. Some teachers skillfully use this method of enhancing learning. Firstly, they skillfully use the historical facts of the struggle between scientific points of view on a particular issue. However, the teacher can create a situation of dispute at any moment by asking the most trivial question: “Who thinks differently?” And if such a technique causes controversy, then the students themselves are divided into supporters and opponents of one or another explanation and wait with interest for the teacher’s reasoned conclusion. Thus, educational dispute acts as a method of stimulating interest in learning. Great results in this area are achieved through electronic discussions.
Stimulation through analysis of life situations
Analysis of life situations is often used as a stimulation technique. This teaching method directly stimulates learning through maximum specification of knowledge.
Creating a situation for success in learning
One of the effective methods of stimulating interest in learning is to create a situation of success for students who experience certain difficulties in learning. It is known that without experiencing the joy of success it is impossible to truly count on further success in overcoming educational difficulties. Therefore, teachers should ensure that some students who need stimulation are given a task accessible to them at the appropriate stage, which would give them self-confidence so that they can continue their learning activities at a more favorable pace. Situations of success are also created by differentiating assistance to students in completing educational tasks of the same complexity. Situations of success are created by the teacher by encouraging intermediate actions of the student, that is, by specially encouraging him to make new efforts. An important role in creating a situation of success is played by providing a favorable moral and psychological atmosphere during the implementation of certain educational tasks. A favorable microclimate during training reduces feelings of uncertainty and fear. The state of anxiety is replaced by a state of confidence.
3. Methods of control and self-control in learning.
Oral control methods.
Oral control is carried out through individual and frontal questioning in the classroom, which can be said to be quite difficult in the conditions of distance learning. During an individual survey, the teacher asks the student several questions, answering which he shows the level of mastery of the educational material. With a frontal survey, the teacher selects a series of logically interconnected ones and puts them in front of the entire audience, calling on certain students for a brief answer.
Machine inspection methods
The most common control method in distance learning. Programs for monitoring can be of several types: monitoring, training and training-controlling. Control programs are usually drawn up according to the method of control programmed exercises. Answers are typed either in numbers, or in the form of formulas, or using a pointer. Each program maintains a high degree of objectivity of control. Also, using a computer network, you can solve many issues using correspondence or modems. The most common control method in distance learning. Programs for monitoring can be of several types: monitoring, training and training-controlling. Control programs are usually drawn up according to the method of control programmed exercises. Answers are typed either in numbers, or in the form of formulas, or using a pointer. Each program maintains a high degree of objectivity of control. Also, using a computer network, you can solve many issues using correspondence or modems.
Written control methods
During the learning process, these methods involve tests, essays, and written tests. Such work can be both long-term and short-term.
4. Selecting the optimal combination of teaching methods.
Criteria for selecting teaching methods
Most of the researchers of the problem of teaching methods come to the conclusion that since the concept of “method” is multidimensional, multifaceted, the teaching method in each specific case should be constructed by the teacher. In any act of educational activity, several methods are always combined. Methods always seem to mutually penetrate each other, characterizing from different sides the same interaction between teachers and students. And if we are talking about the use of a particular method at a given moment, this means that it dominates at this stage, making a particularly large contribution to the solution of the main didactic task. , comes to the conclusion that since the concept of “method” is multidimensional, multifaceted, the teaching method in each specific case should be constructed by the teacher. In any act of educational activity, several methods are always combined. Methods always seem to mutually penetrate each other, characterizing from different sides the same interaction between teachers and students. And if we are talking about the use of a particular method at a given moment, this means that it dominates at this stage, making a particularly large contribution to the solution of the main didactic task.
The following pattern has been established in didactics. The more aspects the teacher justified the choice of teaching methods (in perceptual, gnostic, logical, motivational, control-evaluative, etc.), the higher and lasting educational results will be achieved in the learning process, and in less time.
When choosing and combining teaching methods, you must be guided by the following criteria:
| Compliance of methods with teaching principles. | |
| Compliance with learning goals and objectives. | |
| Compliance with the content of this topic. | |
| Compliance with the educational capabilities of the students: age, psychological; level of preparedness (education, upbringing and development). | |
| Compliance with the available conditions and allotted training time. | |
| Compliance with the capabilities of learning aids. | |
| Compliance with the capabilities of the teachers themselves. These opportunities are determined by their previous experience, level of perseverance, specific features of power dominance, teaching abilities, as well as the personal qualities of teachers. |
Levels of decision-making on the choice of teaching methods
Conventionally, we can distinguish several decisions made by teachers about the choice of teaching methods:
| Solution name | Characteristics of this level of decision making |
| Stereotypical solutions | The teacher invariably gives preference to a certain stereotype of using teaching methods, regardless of the specifics of the content tasks and the characteristics of the students. |
| Trial and error solutions | The teacher tries to change the choice of methods taking into account specific conditions, but does this through spontaneous trials, making mistakes, choosing a new option and again without scientific justification for the choice. |
| Optimized Solutions | Decisions that are made by scientifically based selection of the most rational methods for given conditions in terms of some specified criteria. |
This is why it is so important to master the ability to make the best decisions when choosing teaching methods.
| Verbal methods | Visual methods. | Practical methods | |
| When forming theoretical and factual knowledge | To develop observation skills and increase attention to the issues being studied. | To develop practical skills. | |
| When the material is predominantly information-theoretic in nature. | When the content of educational material can be presented in a visual form. | When the content of the topic includes practical exercises and experiments. | |
| When students are ready to assimilate information using the appropriate verbal method. | When the interface is designed correctly. | When students are ready to complete practical tasks. | |
| When the teacher is fluent in this type of verbal methods. | When the teacher is prepared in the most thorough manner and uses an individual approach to each student. | When the teacher has the necessary material to conduct experiments and exercises. |
| Reproductive methods | Search methods | |
| When solving what problems is this method particularly successful? | To develop knowledge, skills and abilities. | To develop independent thinking, research skills, and a creative approach. |
| For what content of educational material is it especially rational to use this method? | When the content of the topic is too complex or very simple. | When the material has an average level of difficulty. |
| Under what characteristics of students is it rational to use this method? | When students are not yet ready for a problem-based study of this topic. | When students are prepared for a problem-based study of a given topic. |
| What capabilities should a teacher have to use this method? | Here, problematic methods can be used selectively by students. | When the teacher has time for problem-based study of a topic and is good at searching teaching methods. |
| Inductive methods | Deductive methods | |
| When solving what problems is this method particularly successful? | To develop the ability to generalize, to draw conclusions from the particular to the general. | To develop the ability to make inferences from the general to the specific, to develop the ability to analyze phenomena. |
| For what content of educational material is it especially rational to use this method? | When the content is stated inductively or should be stated so. | When the content of the topic is presented deductively or should be stated as such. |
| Under what characteristics of students is it rational to use this method? | When students are prepared for inductive reasoning or have difficulty in deductive reasoning. | When learners are prepared for deductive reasoning. |
| What capabilities should a teacher have to use this method? | When the teacher masters inductive methods | When the teacher masters deductive methods and has appropriate didactic developments. |
Teaching methods(from ancient Greek μέθοδος - path) - the process of interaction between the teacher and students, as a result of which the transfer and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the content of training occurs. Teaching technique (teaching technique)- short-term interaction between the teacher and students, aimed at the transfer and assimilation of specific knowledge, skills, abilities.
According to the established tradition in domestic pedagogy, METHODS of teaching are divided into three groups:
- Methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities:
1. Verbal, visual, practical (According to the source of presentation of educational material).
2. Reproductive, explanatory and illustrative, search, research, problem, etc. (according to the nature of educational and cognitive activity).
3. Inductive and deductive (according to the logic of presentation and perception of educational material);
- Control methods for the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: Oral, written checking and self-testing the effectiveness of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities;
- Stimulation methods educational and cognitive activity: Certain incentives in the formation of motivation, a sense of responsibility, obligation, interests in mastering knowledge, skills and abilities.
In teaching practice, there are other approaches to determining teaching methods that are based on the degree of awareness of the perception of educational material: passive, active, interactive, heuristic and others. These definitions require further clarification, because the learning process cannot be passive and is not always a discovery (eureka) for students.
Passive method
Passive learning methodPassive method(Diagram 1) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher is the main actor and manager of the lesson, and students act as passive listeners, subject to the teacher’s directives. Communication between the teacher and students in passive lessons is carried out through surveys, independent work, tests, tests, etc. From the point of view of modern pedagogical technologies and the effectiveness of students’ assimilation of educational material, the passive method is considered the most ineffective, but despite this, it also has some pros. This is a relatively easy preparation for the lesson on the part of the teacher and an opportunity to present a relatively larger amount of educational material in the limited time frame of the lesson. Given these advantages, many teachers prefer the passive method to other methods. It must be said that in some cases this approach works successfully in the hands of an experienced teacher, especially if students have clear goals aimed at thoroughly studying the subject. Lecture is the most common type of passive lesson. This type of lesson is widespread in universities, where adults, fully formed people, who have clear goals to deeply study the subject, study.
Active method
Active learning method Active method(Diagram 2) is a form of interaction between students and teachers, in which the teacher and students interact with each other during the lesson and students here are not passive listeners, but active participants in the lesson. If in a passive lesson the main character and manager of the lesson was the teacher, then here the teacher and students are on equal terms. If passive methods presupposed an authoritarian style of interaction, then active ones presuppose a more democratic style. Many equate active and interactive methods; however, despite their commonality, they have differences. Interactive methods can be considered as the most modern form of active methods.
Interactive method
Interactive teaching method Interactive method(Scheme 3). Interactive (“Inter” is mutual, “act” is to act) - means to interact, to be in the mode of conversation, dialogue with someone. In other words, unlike active methods, interactive ones are focused on broader interaction of students not only with the teacher, but also with each other and on the dominance of student activity in the learning process. The teacher's place in interactive lessons comes down to directing the students' activities to achieve the lesson's goals. The teacher also develops a lesson plan (usually, these are interactive exercises and assignments during which the student learns the material).
Therefore, the main components of interactive lessons are interactive exercises and tasks that students complete. An important difference between interactive exercises and assignments and ordinary ones is that by completing them, students not only and not so much consolidate the material they have already learned, but rather learn new ones.
Literature
- Alekhin A.N. General teaching methods at school. - K.: Radyanskaya school, 1983. - 244 p.
- Davydov V.V. Theory of developmental training. - M.: INTOR, 1996. - 544 p.
- Zagvyazinsky V.I. Theory of learning: Modern interpretation: Textbook for universities. 3rd ed., rev. - M.: Academy, 2006. - 192 p.
- Kraevsky V.V., Khutorskoy A.V. Fundamentals of teaching: Didactics and methodology. Textbook aid for students higher textbook establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2007. - 352 p.
- Lyaudis V. Ya. Methods of teaching psychology: Textbook. 3rd ed., rev. and additional - M.: Publishing house URAO, 2000. - 128 p.
- Mikhailichenko O.V. Methods of teaching social disciplines in higher education: a textbook. – Sumy: SumDPU, 2009. – 122 p.
- Pedagogy: Textbook. manual for pedagogical students. Institute / Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. - 2nd ed., add. and processed - M.: Education, 1988. - P.385-409.
- Educational technologies
- Heuristic learning
- Interactive approaches
- Multimedia training
- Schechter method
- Flask model
- van Hiele model of geometry learning
- Flask model in class
- Active learning
- Teacher
- Business game
- Contour map
- Lerner, Isaac Yakovlevich
Links
Teaching methods and their classification
An essential component of pedagogical technologies are teaching methods - ways of orderly interconnected activities of the teacher and students. In the pedagogical literature there is no consensus regarding the role and definition of the concept of “teaching method”. So, Yu.K. Babansky believes that “a teaching method is a method of orderly interconnected activity of a teacher and students, aimed at solving educational problems.” T.A. Ilyina understands teaching method as “a way of organizing students’ cognitive activity.” In the history of didactics, various classifications of teaching methods have developed, the most common of which are:
briefing;
demonstration;
exercises;
problem solving;
working with a book;
verbal;
visual:
demonstration of posters, diagrams, tables, diagrams, models;
use of technical means;
watching films and television programs;
practical tasks;
trainings;
business games;
analysis and resolution of conflict situations, etc.;
explanatory;
illustrative;
problem;
partial search;
research;
inductive;
deductive;
analytical;
synthetic.
by external signs of the activity of the teacher and students:
by source of knowledge:
practical:
according to the degree of activity of students’ cognitive activity:
according to the logic of the approach:
Close to this classification is the classification of teaching methods, compiled according to the criterion of the degree of independence and creativity in the activities of students. Since the success of training depends to a decisive extent on the orientation and internal activity of the students, on the nature of their activity, it is the nature of the activity, the degree of independence and creativity that should serve as an important criterion for choosing a method. In this classification, it is proposed to distinguish five teaching methods:
explanatory and illustrative method;
reproductive method;
problem presentation method;
partial search, or heuristic, method;
research method.
In each of the subsequent methods, the degree of activity and independence in the activities of students increases. Explanatory and illustrative teaching method - a method in which students gain knowledge at a lecture, from educational or methodological literature, through an on-screen manual in a “ready” form. Perceiving and comprehending facts, assessments, conclusions, students remain within the framework of reproductive (reproducing) thinking. At universities, this method is widely used for transmitting a large amount of information. Reproductive teaching method - a method where the application of what has been learned is carried out on the basis of a sample or rule. Here, the activities of the students are algorithmic in nature, i.e. is carried out according to instructions, regulations, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example. Method of problem presentation in teaching - a method in which, using a variety of sources and means, the teacher, before presenting the material, poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, revealing a system of evidence, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve the problem. Students become witnesses and participants in scientific research. This approach has been widely used both in the past and in the present. Partial search , or heuristic, teaching method consists in organizing an active search for solutions to cognitive tasks put forward in training (or independently formulated) either under the guidance of a teacher or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. The thinking process becomes productive, but at the same time it is gradually directed and controlled by the teacher or the students themselves based on work on programs (including computer ones) and textbooks. - a method in which, after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and brief oral or written instructions, students independently study literature, sources, make observations and measurements, and perform other search activities. Initiative, independence, and creative search are most fully manifested in research activities. Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research. Techniques and teaching aids
In the learning process, the method acts as an orderly way of interconnected activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals, as a way of organizing the educational and cognitive activities of students. The application of each teaching method is usually accompanied by techniques and tools. Wherein reception of training acts only as an element, an integral part of the teaching method, and teaching aids (pedagogical aids) are all those materials with the help of which the teacher carries out the teaching impact (educational process).
Pedagogical tools did not immediately become an obligatory component of the pedagogical process. For a long time, traditional teaching methods were based on the word, but “the era of chalk and conversation is over,” due to the growth of information and the technologization of society, there is a need to use other means of teaching, for example technical ones. Pedagogical means include:
educational and laboratory equipment;
training and production equipment;
didactic technology;
educational visual aids;
technical training aids and automated training systems;
computer classes;
organizational and pedagogical means (curricula, exam papers, task cards, teaching aids, etc.).
In world and domestic practice, many efforts have been made to classify teaching methods. Since the category method is universal, “multidimensional formation”, has many characteristics, they act as the basis for classifications. Different authors use different bases for classifying teaching methods. Many classifications have been proposed, based on one or more characteristics. Each of the authors provides arguments to justify their classification model. Let's look at some of them. 1. Classification of methods according to the source of transmission and the nature of information perception (E.Ya. Golant, E.I. Perovsky). The following features and methods are distinguished: a) passive perception - listen and watch (story, lecture, explanation; demonstration); b) active perception - working with a book, visual sources; laboratory method. 2. Classification of methods based on didactic tasks (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov.). The classification is based on the sequence of knowledge acquisition at a specific stage (lesson): a) knowledge acquisition; b) formation of skills and abilities; c) application of acquired knowledge; d) creative activity; e) fastening; f) testing knowledge, skills and abilities. 3. Classification of methods according to sources of information transfer and knowledge acquisition (N.M. Verzilin, D.O. Lordkinanidze, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.). The methods of this classification are: a) verbal - the living word of the teacher, working with a book; b) practical - studying the surrounding reality (observation, experiment, exercises). 4. Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (M.N. Skatkin, I.Ya. Lerner). The nature of cognitive activity reflects the level of independent activity of students. This classification is characterized by the following methods: a) explanatory and illustrative (information and reproductive); b) reproductive (boundaries of skill and creativity); c) problematic presentation of knowledge; d) partially search (heuristic); d) research. 5. Classification of methods, combining teaching methods and corresponding teaching methods or binary ones (M.I. Makhmutov). This classification is represented by the following methods: a) teaching methods: informational - informative, explanatory, instructive-practical, explanatory-stimulating, stimulating; b) teaching methods: executive, reproductive, productive-practical, partially exploratory, search. 6. Classification of methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities; methods of its stimulation and motivation; methods of control and self-control (Yu. K. Babansky). This classification is represented by three groups of methods: a) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities: verbal (story, lecture, seminar, conversation), visual (illustration, demonstration, etc.), practical (exercises, laboratory experiments, work activities, etc.) .r.), reproductive and problem-search (from particular to general, from general to particular), methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher; b) methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity: methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning (the entire arsenal of methods for organizing and carrying out educational activities is used for the purpose of psychological adjustment, motivation to learn), methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning; c) methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities: methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control. 7. Classification of teaching methods, which combines sources of knowledge, the level of cognitive activity and independence of students, as well as the logical path of educational modeling (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk). 8. The classification of methods in combination with forms of cooperation in teaching was proposed by the German didactician L. Klingberg. a) Monologue methods: - lecture; - story; - demonstration. b) Forms of cooperation: - individual; - group; - frontal; - collective. c) Dialogical methods: – conversations. 9. Classification of methods by K. Sosnicki (Poland) assumes the existence of two teaching methods: a) artificial (school); b) natural (occasional). These methods correspond to two teaching methods: a) presenting; b) search. 10. The classification (typology) of teaching methods, set out in “Introduction to General Didactics” by V. Okon (Poland), is represented by four groups: a) methods of acquiring knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature (conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book); b) methods of independent acquisition of knowledge, called problem-based, based on creative cognitive activity in the process of solving problems: - the classic problem-based method (according to Dewey), modified for the Polish education system, it contains four important points: the creation of a problem situation; formation of problems and hypotheses for their solution; organizing and applying the results obtained in new problems of a theoretical and practical nature; - the chance method (England and the USA) is relatively simple and is based on the consideration by a small group of students of a description of a case: students formulate questions to explain this case, search for an answer, a number of possible solutions, compare solutions, detect errors in reasoning, etc. ; - the situational method is based on introducing students into a difficult situation, the task is to understand and make the right decision, anticipate the consequences of this decision, and find other possible solutions; - a bank of ideas is a brainstorming method; based on the group formation of ideas for solving a problem, testing, evaluation and selection of the right ideas; - micro-teaching - a method of creative teaching of complex practical activities, used mainly in pedagogical universities; For example, a fragment of a school lesson is recorded on a video recorder, and then a group analysis and evaluation of this fragment is carried out; - didactic games - the use of game moments in the educational process serves the process of cognition, teaches respect for accepted norms, promotes cooperation, accustoms both winning and losing. These include: staged fun, i.e. games, simulation games, business games (they are not widely used in Polish schools); c) evaluative methods, also called exhibiting methods with the dominance of emotional and artistic activity: - impressive methods; - expressive methods; - practical methods; - teaching methods; d) practical methods (methods for implementing creative tasks), characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the world around us and create new forms: they are associated with the performance of various types of work (for example, woodworking, glass, growing plants and animals, making fabrics and etc.), development of work models (drawings), formation of approaches to solutions and selection of the best options, construction of a model and testing of its functioning, design of specified parameters, individual and group assessment of task completion. The basis for this typology of methods is V. Okon’s idea of the constant development of the creative foundations of the individual through the structuring of the taught knowledge and teaching methods. “The information that a person needs is always intended for some purpose, namely to understand the structure of reality, the way of the natural world around us, society, and culture. Structural thinking is the kind of thinking that combines the elements of this world known to us. If, thanks to a successful teaching method, these structures fit into the consciousness of a young person, then each of the elements in these structures has its own place and is connected with other structures. Thus, a kind of hierarchy is formed in the student’s mind - from the simplest structures of the most general nature to complex ones. Understanding the basic structures that take place in living and inanimate nature, in society, in technology and art, can contribute to creative activity based on the knowledge of new structures, the selection of elements and the establishment of connections between them.” 11. Based on the fact that the holistic pedagogical process is ensured by a unified classification of methods, which in a generalized form includes all other classification characteristics of B.T. Likhachev calls a number of classifications as if constituting a classification as a classification. He takes the following as its basis: - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the logic of socio-historical development. - Classification according to the correspondence of teaching methods to the specifics of the material being studied and forms of thinking. - Classification of teaching methods according to their role and significance in the development of essential forces, mental processes, spiritual and creative activity. - Classification of teaching methods according to their compliance with the age characteristics of children. - Classification of teaching methods according to methods of transmitting and receiving information. - Classification of teaching methods according to the degree of effectiveness of their ideological and educational impact, “influence on the formation of children’s consciousness, internal motives” and behavioral incentives. - Classification of teaching methods according to the main stages of the educational-cognitive process (methods of the perception stage - primary assimilation; methods of the assimilation-reproduction stage; methods of the stage of educational and creative expression). In the classifications identified by B.T. Likhachev, preference is given to the latter as scientific and practical, synthesizing in a generalized form the characteristics of teaching methods of all other classifications. To the number of named classifications of teaching methods one could add two or three more. All of them are not without shortcomings, and at the same time have many positive aspects. There are no universal classifications and there cannot be. The learning process is a dynamic construct, this should be understood. In the living pedagogical process, methods develop and take on new properties. Uniting them into groups according to a rigid scheme is not justified, since this hinders the improvement of the educational process. Apparently, one should follow the path of their universal combination and application in order to achieve a high degree of adequacy to the educational tasks being solved. At each stage of the educational process, some methods occupy a dominant position, while others occupy a subordinate position. Some methods provide solutions to educational problems to a greater extent, others to a lesser extent. We also note that failure to include at least one of the methods, even in its subordinate position, in solving the problems of the lesson significantly reduces its effectiveness. Perhaps this is comparable to the absence of at least one of the components, even in a very small dose, in the composition of the drug (this reduces or completely changes its medicinal properties). The methods used in the educational process also perform their functions. These include: teaching, developing, nurturing, stimulating (motivational), control and correction functions. Knowledge of the functionality of certain methods allows you to consciously apply them.
Concepts of method, technique and teaching aid. Classification of teaching methods. Selection of teaching methods
The success of the educational process largely depends on the teaching methods used.
Teaching methods These are ways of joint activity between the teacher and students, aimed at achieving their educational goals. There are other definitions of teaching methods.
Teaching methods are ways of working for teachers and students, with the help of which the latter acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the formation of their worldview and the development of cognitive powers (M. A. Danilov, B. P. Esipov).
Teaching methods are ways of interrelated activities of teachers and students to implement the tasks of education, upbringing and development ( Yu. K. Babansky).
Teaching methods are ways of teaching the teacher and organizing educational and cognitive activities of students to solve various didactic tasks aimed at mastering the material being studied ( I. F. Kharlamov).
Teaching methods are a system of consistent, interconnected actions of the teacher and students, ensuring the assimilation of the content of education, the development of mental strength and abilities of students, and their mastery of the means of self-education and self-study (G. M. Kodzhaspirova).
Despite the various definitions given to this concept by didactics, the common thing is that most authors tend to consider the teaching method as a way of collaboration between the teacher and students in organizing educational activities. If we are talking only about the activities of the teacher, then it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods, if only about the activities of students, then about teaching methods.
Reflecting the dual nature of the learning process, methods are one of the mechanisms, ways of implementing pedagogically appropriate interaction between the teacher and students. The essence of teaching methods is considered as an integral system of methods that collectively provide a pedagogically appropriate organization of educational and cognitive activity of students.
Thus, the concept of a teaching method reflects in the interrelation the methods and specifics of the teaching work of the teacher and the educational activities of students to achieve learning goals.
Widely used concepts in didactics are also the concepts of “learning method” and “learning rule”.
Reception training This component or separate aspect of a teaching method, i.e. a particular concept in relation to the general concept of “method”. The boundaries between the concepts of “method” and “technique” are very fluid and changeable. Each teaching method consists of individual elements (parts, techniques). With the help of a technique, a pedagogical or educational task is not completely solved, but only its stage, some part of it.
Teaching methods and methodological techniques can change places and replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.
In some situations, the method acts as an independent way to solve a pedagogical problem, in others as a technique that has a particular purpose. For example, if a teacher conveys new knowledge using a verbal method (explanation, story, conversation), during which he sometimes demonstrates visual aids, then their demonstration acts as a technique. If a visual aid is the object of study, students receive basic knowledge based on its consideration, then verbal explanations act as a technique, and demonstration as a teaching method.
Thus, the method includes a number of techniques, but it itself is not their simple sum. Techniques determine the uniqueness of the methods of work of the teacher and students and give an individual character to their activities.
Learning Rule This normative prescription or indication of how one should optimally act in order to carry out an activity corresponding to the method. In other words, learning rule (didactic rule) this is a specific instruction on how to act in a typical pedagogical situation of the learning process.
A rule acts as a descriptive, normative model of a technique, and a system of rules for solving a specific problem is already a normative-descriptive model of a method.
The teaching method is a historical category. The level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations influence the goals, content, and means of the pedagogical process. As they change, so do teaching methods.
In the early stages of social development, the transfer of social experience to younger generations was carried out spontaneously in the process of joint activities of children and adults. By observing and repeating certain actions, mainly labor ones, with adults, children mastered them through direct participation in the life of the social group of which they were members.
Teaching methods based on imitation prevailed. Imitating adults, children mastered the methods and techniques of obtaining food, making fire, making clothes, etc. It was based on reproductive method training (“do as I do”). This is the most ancient teaching method , from which all others developed.
As the volume of accumulated knowledge expanded and the actions mastered by man became more complex, simple imitation could not provide a sufficient level of assimilation of cultural experience. Since the organization of schools there have appeared verbal methods training. The teacher, using words, conveyed ready-made information to the children, who assimilated it. With the advent of writing and then printing, it became possible to express, accumulate and transmit knowledge in symbolic form. The word becomes the main carrier of information, and learning from books becomes a massive way of interaction between teacher and student.
Books were used in different ways. In medieval school, students mechanically memorized texts, mainly of religious content. This is how it arose dogmatic, or catechism, method training. Its more advanced form is associated with posing questions and presenting ready-made answers.
In the era of great discoveries and inventions, verbal methods are gradually losing their importance as the only way to transfer knowledge to students. Society needed people who not only knew the laws of nature, but also knew how to use them in their activities. The learning process organically included such methods as observation, experiment, independent work, exercise aimed at developing independence, activity, consciousness, and initiative of the child. Development is received visual methods training, as well as methods that help to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. began to occupy an important place heuristic method as a verbal option, which more fully took into account the needs and interests of the child, the development of his independence. “Book” methods of study were contrasted with “natural” methods, that is, learning through direct contact with reality. The concept of “learning through activity” using practical methods training. The main place in the learning process was given to manual labor, various kinds of practical exercises, as well as students’ work with literature, during which children developed the skills of independent work and the use of their own experience. Approved partially search, research methods.
Over time, they are becoming more widespread methods problem-based learning, based on posing a problem and on students’ independent movement towards knowledge. Gradually, society is increasingly beginning to realize that a child needs not only education, the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, but also the development of his abilities and individual characteristics. Getting distribution methods developmental education. The widespread introduction of technology into the educational process, computerization of teaching leads to the emergence of new methods.
American educator K. Kerr identifies four “revolutions in the field of teaching methods.” In the early stages of human society, parents were the main teachers of children. The first revolution occurred when they were replaced by professional teachers. The second revolution is associated with the replacement of the spoken word with the written word. The third revolution led to the introduction of the printed word into learning, and the fourth is aimed at partial automation and computerization of learning.
The search for methods to improve the learning process remains constant. However, regardless of the role assigned to one or another teaching method at different periods in the development of education, none of them, when used exclusively on its own, provides the desired results. No teaching method is universal. A variety of teaching methods should be used in the educational process.
- Characteristics of teaching methods, their pedagogical capabilities. Conditions for using teaching methods and tools. Methods and means of developmental education.
In modern pedagogical practice, a large number of teaching methods are used. When selecting them, the teacher faces significant difficulties. In this regard, there is a need for a classification that helps to identify the general and the special, the essential and the accidental in teaching methods, and thereby contributes to their expedient and more effective use.
Unified classification teaching methods does not exist. This is due to the fact that different authors base the division of teaching methods into groups and subgroups on different characteristics and individual aspects of the learning process.
Let's look at the most common classification of teaching methods.
Classification of teaching methods by student activity level (Golant E. Ya.). This is one of the earliest classifications of teaching methods. According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into passive and active, depending on the degree of student involvement in learning activities. TO passive include methods in which students only listen and watch ( story, lecture, explanation, excursion, demonstration, observation), To active methods that organize independent work of students ( laboratory method, practical method, working with a book).
Classification of teaching methods by source of knowledge (Verzilin N. M., Perovsky E. I., Lordkipanidze D. O.)
There are three sources of knowledge: word, visualization, practice. Accordingly, they allocate verbal methods(the source of knowledge is the spoken or printed word); visual methods(sources of knowledge are observed objects, phenomena, visual aids); practical methods(knowledge and skills are formed in the process of performing practical actions).
Verbal methods occupy a central place in the system of teaching methods. These include story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, working with a book.
The second group according to this classification consists of visual teaching methods, in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids, diagrams, tables, drawings, models, devices, and technical means used. Visual methods are conventionally divided into two groups: demonstration method and illustration method.
Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. The main purpose of this group of methods is the formation of practical skills. Practical methods include exercises, practical And laboratory works.
This classification has become quite widespread, which is obviously due to its simplicity.
Classification of teaching methods for didactic purposes (Danilov M. A., Esipov B. P.).
This classification identifies the following teaching methods:
- methods of acquiring new knowledge;
- methods of developing skills and abilities;
- methods of applying knowledge;
- methods of consolidating and testing knowledge, abilities, skills.
The criterion for dividing methods into groups according to this classification are learning objectives. This criterion better reflects the teacher’s activities to achieve the teaching goal. For example, if the goal is to introduce students to something, then to achieve it, the teacher will obviously use the verbal, visual and other methods available to him, and to consolidate, he will ask students to complete oral or written tasks.
With this classification of methods, the gap between their individual groups is eliminated to a certain extent; The teacher’s activities are aimed at solving didactic problems.
Classification of teaching methods by the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.).
According to this classification, teaching methods are divided depending on the nature of the cognitive activity of students when mastering the material being studied. The nature of cognitive activity is the level of mental activity of students.
The following methods are distinguished:
- explanatory and illustrative (information-receptive);
- reproductive;
- problematic presentation;
- partially search engines (heuristic);
- research.
Essence explanatory-illustrative method consists in the fact that the teacher communicates ready-made information using various means, and students perceive it, understand it and record it in memory. The teacher conveys information using the spoken word (story, conversation, explanation, lecture), the printed word (textbook, additional manuals), visual aids (tables, diagrams, pictures, films and filmstrips), practical demonstration of methods of activity (showing experience, work on a machine, a method for solving a problem, etc.).
The cognitive activity of students comes down to memorizing (which may be unconscious) ready-made knowledge. There is a fairly low level of mental activity here.
Reproductive method assumes that the teacher communicates and explains knowledge in a ready-made form, and students assimilate it and can reproduce and repeat the method of activity on the instructions of the teacher. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge.
The main advantage of this method, as well as the explanatory and illustrative method discussed above, is cost-effectiveness. This method provides the opportunity to transfer a significant amount of knowledge and skills in a minimally short time and with little effort. The durability of knowledge due to the possibility of its repeated repetition can be significant.
Both of these methods are characterized by the fact that they enrich knowledge and skills, form special mental operations, but do not guarantee the development of students’ creative abilities. This goal is achieved by other methods, in particular the method of problem presentation.
Method of problem presentation is a transition from performing to creative activity. The essence of the problem presentation method is that the teacher poses a problem and solves it himself, thereby showing the train of thought in the process of cognition. At the same time, students follow the logic of presentation, mastering the stages of solving holistic problems.
At the same time, they not only perceive, realize and remember ready-made knowledge and conclusions, but also follow the logic of evidence, the movement of thought of the teacher or a substitute medium (cinema, television, books, etc.). And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but merely observers of the process of thinking, they learn to resolve cognitive difficulties.
A higher level of cognitive activity carries with it partially search engine (heuristic) method.
The method was called partially search because students independently solve a complex educational problem not from beginning to end, but only partially. The teacher involves students in performing individual search steps. Some of the knowledge is imparted by the teacher, and some of the knowledge is acquired by students on their own, answering questions or solving problematic tasks. Educational activities develops according to the scheme: teacher - students - teacher - students, etc.
Thus, the essence of the partially search method of teaching comes down to the fact that:
Not all knowledge is offered to students in a ready-made form; some of it needs to be acquired on their own;
The teacher’s activity consists of operational management of the process of solving problematic problems.
One of the modifications of this method is heuristic conversation.
Research method of teaching provides for creative learning by students.
Its essence is as follows:
The teacher, together with the students, formulates the problem;
Students resolve it independently;
The teacher provides assistance only when difficulties arise in solving the problem.
Thus, the research method is used not only to generalize knowledge, but mainly so that the student learns to acquire knowledge, investigate an object or phenomenon, draw conclusions and apply the acquired knowledge and skills in life. Its essence comes down to organizing the search and creative activities of students to solve problems that are new to them.
The main disadvantage of this teaching method is that it requires a significant amount of time and a high level of pedagogical qualifications of the teacher.
Classification of teaching methods based on a holistic approach to the learning process (Babansky Yu. K.).
According to this classification, teaching methods are divided into three groups:
1) methods of organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities;
2) methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;
3) methods of monitoring and self-monitoring of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.
First group includes the following methods:
Perceptual (transmission and perception of educational information through the senses);
Verbal (lecture, story, conversation, etc.);
Visual (demonstration, illustration);
Practical (experiments, exercises, completing assignments);
Logical, i.e. organization and implementation of logical operations (inductive, deductive, analogies, etc.);
Gnostic (research, problem-search, reproductive);
Self-management of educational activities (independent work with a book, equipment, etc.).
To the second group methods include:
Methods of developing interest in learning (cognitive games, educational discussions, creating problem situations, etc.);
Methods of forming duty and responsibility in teaching (encouragement, approval, censure, etc.).
To the third group various methods of oral, written and machine testing of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as methods of self-monitoring of the effectiveness of one’s own educational and cognitive activity are included.
Binary classification of teaching methods based on on combination of methods of activity of the teacher and students (Makhmutov M. I.).
The basis binary And polynar Classifications of teaching methods are based on two or more general characteristics.
The binary classification of teaching methods by M. I. Makhmutov includes two groups of methods:
1) teaching methods (information-reporting; explanatory; instructive-practical; explanatory-motivating; stimulating);
2) teaching methods (executive; reproductive; productive-practical; partially exploratory; search).
Classification, based on four signs (logical-substantive, source, procedural and organizational-managerial), suggested by S. G. Shapovalenko.
There are other classifications of teaching methods.
As we can see, at present there is no single view on the problem of classifying teaching methods, and any of the classifications considered has both advantages and disadvantages that must be taken into account at the selection stage and in the process of implementing specific teaching methods. The presence of different points of view on the problem of classifying teaching methods reflects the objective, real versatility of teaching methods, the natural process of differentiation and integration of knowledge about them.
Let us dwell in more detail on individual teaching methods included in various classifications.
Story. This is a monologue, sequential presentation of material in a descriptive or narrative form. The story is used to convey factual information that requires imagery and consistency of presentation. The story is used at all stages of learning, only the objectives of the presentation, style and volume of the story change.
The greatest developmental effect comes from storytelling when teaching younger schoolchildren who are prone to imaginative thinking. The developing meaning of the story is that it brings mental processes into a state of activity: imagination, thinking, memory, emotional experiences. By influencing a person’s feelings, the story helps to understand and assimilate the meaning of the moral assessments and norms of behavior contained in it.
The goals are distinguished:
- story-introduction, the purpose of which is to prepare students to learn new material;
- story-narration used to present intended content;
- story-conclusion summarizes the material studied.
There are certain requirements for the story as a teaching method: the story must ensure the achievement of didactic goals; contain reliable facts; have clear logic; the presentation must be evidential, figurative, emotional, taking into account the age characteristics of the students.
In its pure form, the story is used relatively rarely. More often it is used in combination with other teaching methods illustration, discussion, conversation.
If with the help of a story it is not possible to provide a clear and precise understanding of certain provisions, then the method of explanation is used.
Explanation this is the interpretation of patterns, essential properties of the object being studied, individual concepts, phenomena. The explanation is characterized by an evidential form of presentation, based on the use of logically related inferences that establish the basis for the truth of a given judgment. Explanation is most often resorted to when studying the theoretical material of various sciences. As a teaching method, explanation is widely used in working with people of different age groups.
There are certain requirements for explanation: precise and clear formulation of the essence of the problem; consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, reasoning, and evidence; use of comparison, analogy, juxtaposition; impeccable logic of presentation.
In many cases, the explanation is combined with observations, with questions asked by both the trainer and the learner, and can develop into a conversation.
Conversation a dialogical teaching method in which the teacher, by asking a system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their understanding of what has already been learned. Conversation as a teaching method can be used to solve any didactic problem. Distinguish individual conversations(questions addressed to one student) , group conversations(questions are addressed to a specific group) and frontal(questions are addressed to everyone).
Depending on the tasks set by the teacher in the learning process, the content of the educational material, the level of creative cognitive activity of students, and the place of conversation in the didactic process, different types of conversations are distinguished:
- introductory or introductory conversations. Conducted before learning new material for updating previously acquired knowledge and determining the degree of readiness of students for knowledge and inclusion in upcoming educational and cognitive activities;
- conversations communication of new knowledge. There are catechetical(reproduction of answers in the wording given in the textbook or by the teacher); Socratic(involving reflection) and heuristic(involving students in the process of actively searching for new knowledge and formulating conclusions);
- synthesizing, or consolidating conversations. Serve to generalize and systematize students’ existing knowledge and ways of applying it in non-standard situations;
- control and correction conversations. They are used for diagnostic purposes, as well as to clarify and supplement students’ existing knowledge with new information.
One type of conversation is interview, which can be carried out with an individual or a group of people.
When conducting a conversation, it is important to formulate and ask questions correctly. They should be short, clear, meaningful; have a logical connection with each other; reveal in aggregate the essence of the issue being studied; promote the assimilation of knowledge in the system.
In terms of content and form, questions must correspond to the level of development of students (questions that are too easy and very difficult do not stimulate active cognitive activity or a serious attitude towards knowledge). You should not ask double, suggestive questions containing ready-made answers; formulate alternative questions that allow “yes” or “no” answers.
Conversation as a teaching method has undoubted dignity:
Activates the educational and cognitive activity of students;
Develops them speech, memory, thinking;
Has great educational power;
It is a good diagnostic tool and helps to monitor students' knowledge.
At the same time, this method also has flaws:
Requires a lot of time;
If students do not have a certain stock of ideas and concepts, then the conversation turns out to be ineffective.
In addition, the conversation does not provide practical skills; contains an element of risk (the student may give an incorrect answer, which is perceived by others and recorded in their memory).
Lecture This is a monologue way of presenting voluminous material. It differs from other verbal methods of presenting material in its more strict structure; abundance of information provided; logic of presentation of the material; the systematic nature of knowledge coverage.
Distinguish popular science And academic lectures. Popular science lectures are used to popularize knowledge. Academic lectures are used in senior secondary schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions. Lectures are devoted to large and fundamentally important sections of the curriculum. They differ in their structure and methods of presenting the material. The lecture can be used to summarize and repeat the material covered.
The logical center of the lecture is some theoretical generalization related to the sphere of scientific knowledge. Specific facts forming the basis conversations or story, here serve only as an illustration or as a starting point.
The relevance of using lectures in modern conditions is increasing due to the use of block study of new material on topics or large sections.
Educational discussion as a teaching method is based on the exchange of views on a particular issue. Moreover, these views either reflect the participants’ own opinions or are based on the opinions of others. The main function of educational discussion is to stimulate cognitive interest. With the help of the discussion, its participants acquire new knowledge, strengthen their own opinions, learn to defend their position, and take into account the views of others.
This method is advisable to use if students have the necessary knowledge on the topic of the upcoming discussion, have a significant degree of maturity and independence of thinking, and are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare students for the discussion in advance, both in content and in formal terms.
Working with a textbook and book one of the most important teaching methods. The main advantage of this method is the ability for the student to repeatedly access educational information at a pace that is accessible to him and at a convenient time. When using programmed educational books, which, in addition to educational information, also contain control information, issues of control, correction, and diagnostics of knowledge and skills are effectively resolved.
Work with the book can be organized under the direct supervision of the teacher (teacher) and in the form of independent work by the student with the text. This method accomplishes two tasks: students learn educational material and accumulate experience working with texts, and master various techniques for working with printed sources.
Let's look at some techniques for working independently with texts.
Note taking a short note, a summary of the content of what was read. There are continuous, selective, complete, and short notes. You can take notes on the material in the first (yourself) or third person. It is preferable to take notes in the first person, since in this case independence develops better thinking.
Testing a summary of the main ideas in a specific sequence.
Abstracting review of a number of sources on the topic with your own assessment of their content and form.
Drawing up a text plan After reading the text, you need to break it into parts and title each of them. The plan can be simple or complex.
Citation verbatim excerpt from the text.
When quoting, the following conditions must be met:
a) the quotation should be correct, without distorting the meaning;
b) an accurate record of the output data is required (author, title of work, place of publication, publisher, year of publication, page).
Annotation a brief, condensed summary of the content of what was read without losing the essential meaning.
Review writing a review, i.e. a short review expressing your attitude about what you read.
Drawing up a certificate. Help information about something obtained after searching. Certificates can be biographical, statistical, geographical, terminological, etc.
Drawing up a formal logical model verbal-schematic representation of what was read.
Compiling a thematic thesaurus an ordered set of basic concepts on a topic, section, or entire discipline.
Drawing up a matrix of ideas (grid of ideas, repertoire grid) compilation in the form of a table of comparative characteristics of similar objects and phenomena in the works of different authors.
Pictographic recording wordless image.
These are the basic techniques for working independently with printed sources. It has been established that mastery of a variety of techniques for working with texts increases the productivity of cognitive work and allows you to save time on mastering the content of the material. The transition from one method of working with text to another changes the mode of operation of the brain, which prevents its rapid fatigue.
Demonstration as a teaching method, it involves the display of experiments, technical installations, television programs, videos, filmstrips, code positives, computer programs, etc. The demonstration method serves primarily to reveal the dynamics of the phenomena being studied, but is also used to familiarize oneself with the appearance of an object and its internal structure. This method is most effective when students themselves study objects, processes and phenomena, carry out the necessary measurements, establish dependencies, due to which an active cognitive process is carried out, their horizons broaden, and a sensory-empirical basis for knowledge is created.
The demonstration of real objects, phenomena or processes occurring in natural conditions has didactic value. But such a demonstration is not always possible. In this case, they use either a demonstration of natural objects in an artificial environment (animals in a zoo), or a demonstration of artificially created objects in a natural environment (small copies of mechanisms).
Three-dimensional models play an important role in the study of all subjects, as they allow one to become familiar with the design and principles of operation of mechanisms (the operation of an internal combustion engine, a blast furnace). Many modern models make it possible to carry out direct measurements and determine technical or technological characteristics. At the same time, it is important to correctly select objects for demonstration and skillfully direct students’ attention to the essential aspects of the phenomena being demonstrated.
Closely related to method demonstrations method illustrations . Sometimes these methods are identified and not distinguished as independent.
The illustration method involves showing objects, processes and phenomena in their symbolic representation using posters, maps, portraits, photographs, drawings, diagrams, reproductions, flat models, etc. Recently, the practice of visualization has been enriched with a number of new means (multicolor maps with plastic covering, albums, atlases, etc.).
The methods of demonstration and illustration are closely interrelated. Demonstration, as a rule, is used when students must perceive a process or phenomenon as a whole. When it is necessary to understand the essence of a phenomenon, the relationships between its components, they resort to illustrations.
When using these methods, certain requirements must be met:
Use clarity in moderation;
Coordinate the demonstrated clarity with the content of the material;
The visualization used must be appropriate for the age of the students;
The item on display must be clearly visible to all students;
It is necessary to clearly highlight the main, essential in the demonstrated object.
A special group consists of teaching methods, the main purpose of which is the formation of practical skills. This group of methods includes exercises, practical And laboratory methods.
Exercise repeated (repeated) performance of educational actions (mental or practical) in order to master them or improve their quality.
Distinguish oral, written, graphic And educational and labor exercises.
Oral exercises contribute to the development of speech culture, logical thinking, memory, attention, and cognitive abilities of students.
Main purpose writing exercises consists of consolidating knowledge, developing the necessary skills and abilities to apply them.
Closely related to written graphic exercises. Their use helps to better perceive, comprehend and remember educational material; promotes the development of spatial imagination. Graphic exercises include work on drawing up graphs, drawings, diagrams, technological maps, sketches, etc.
A special group consists of training exercises, the purpose of which is to apply theoretical knowledge in work. They promote mastery of skills in handling tools, laboratory equipment (instruments, measuring equipment), and develop design and technical skills.
Any exercises, depending on the degree of independence of students, can be worn reproductive, training or creative in nature.
To activate the educational process and consciously complete educational tasks, they are used commented exercises. Their essence lies in the fact that students comment on the actions being performed, as a result of which they are better understood and assimilated.
For exercises to be effective, they must meet a number of requirements. These include students' conscious approach to performing exercises; knowledge of the rules for performing actions; compliance with the didactic sequence in performing the exercises; taking into account the results achieved; distribution of repetitions over time.
Laboratory method is based on independent conduct by students experiments, experiments using instruments, tools, i.e. using special equipment. Work can be done individually or in groups. Students are required to be more active and independent than during a demonstration, where they act as passive observers rather than participants and performers of research.
The laboratory method not only ensures that students acquire knowledge, but also contributes to the formation of practical skills, which, of course, is its advantage. But the laboratory method requires special, often expensive equipment; its use is associated with significant energy and time expenditures.
Practical methods These are teaching methods aimed at applying acquired knowledge to solving practical problems. They perform the functions of deepening knowledge, skills, control and correction, stimulate cognitive activity, contribute to the formation of such qualities as thrift, economy, organizational skills, etc.
Some authors include in a special group active And intensive teaching methods . Scientists and practitioners began to pay close attention to these teaching methods in the 60s. twentieth century, and this was connected with the search for ways to activate students in the learning process. The cognitive activity of students is expressed in a stable interest in knowledge and in a variety of independent learning activities. Traditional teaching technology, aimed at ensuring that the student listens, remembers, and reproduces what the teacher says, poorly develops the student’s cognitive activity.
Active learning methods These are teaching methods in which the student’s activity is productive, creative, and exploratory in nature. Active learning methods include didactic games, analysis of specific situations, problem solving, learning using an algorithm, brainstorming, out-of-context operations with concepts and etc.
Intensive teaching methods are used to organize training in a short time with long one-time sessions (“immersion method”). These methods are used in teaching business, marketing, foreign languages, practical psychology and pedagogy.
Let's look at some of these methods.
Method of didactic games. Didactic (educational) games as a teaching method became very popular in the second half of the twentieth century. Some scientists classify them as practical teaching methods, while others place them in a special group. There are reasons for classifying didactic games into a separate group: firstly, they, absorbing elements of visual, verbal, and practical methods, go beyond them; secondly, they have peculiarities unique to them.
Didactic game This is a collective, purposeful educational activity when each participant and the team as a whole are united in solving the main problem and focus their behavior on winning.
The purpose of didactic games is training, development and education of students. A didactic game is an active educational activity involving simulation of the phenomena, processes, and systems being studied. The game reproduces and simulates reality and the operations of participants in a simplified form, simulating real actions.
Didactic games as a teaching method contain great potential for activation learning process.
Brain attack (brainstorming) a teaching method aimed at activating thought processes through a joint search for a solution to a difficult problem. This method was proposed by the American psychologist A. Osborne. Its essence is that participants put forward their ideas and proposals on the problem. All ideas, even the most unexpected ones, are accepted and undergo group examination and discussion. This method teaches a culture of joint discussion of ideas, overcoming stereotypes and patterns in thinking; reveals a person's creative potential.
Algorithm training as a teaching method used in programmed learning technology. An algorithm in pedagogy is understood as instructions for performing strictly sequential actions with educational material, which guarantees the solution of educational problems at a high level. (For more details, see the lecture “Teaching Technologies”.)
Currently, directions in pedagogy are being actively developed that use the hidden capabilities of students: suggestopedia And cyberneticosuggestopedia (G. Lazanov, V.V. Petrusinsky) teaching by means of suggestion; hypnopaedia sleep learning; pharmacopedia training with pharmaceuticals. Certain results have been achieved in their application in the process of studying foreign languages and some special disciplines.
Teaching methods are used in conjunction with specific teaching aids.
Means of education ( didactic aids) These are sources of acquiring knowledge and developing skills.
The concept of “learning tools” is used in wide And in the narrow sense. When using this concept in in the narrow sense Teaching aids are understood as educational and visual aids, demonstration devices, technical means, etc. Broad meaning assumes that by means of teaching we understand everything that contributes to the achievement of the goals of education, i.e. the entire set of methods, forms, content, as well as special teaching aids.
Teaching aids are designed to facilitate direct and indirect knowledge of the world. They, like methods, perform teaching, educational and developmental functions, and also serve to motivate, manage and control the educational and cognitive activity of students.
In science there is no strict classification of teaching aids. Some scientists divide teaching aids into means used by the teacher to effectively achieve educational goals (visual aids, technical aids) and individual means of students (school textbooks, notebooks, writing materials, etc.). The number of didactic means also includes those with which both the activities of the teacher and the students are connected (sports equipment, classrooms, computers, etc.).
Sensory modality is often used as a basis for classifying didactic means.
In this case, didactic tools are divided into:
- visual (visual), which include tables, maps, natural objects, etc.;
- auditory (auditory) radios, tape recorders, musical instruments, etc.;
- audiovisual (visual-auditory) sound film, television, etc.
Polish didactic V. Okon proposed a classification in which teaching aids are arranged in order of increasing ability to replace the actions of the teacher and automate the actions of the student. He identified simple and complex means.
Simple remedies:
Verbal (textbooks and other texts);
Visual (real objects, models, paintings, etc.).
Complex means:
Mechanical visual instruments (diascope, microscope, overhead projector, etc.);
Auditory aids (player, tape recorder, radio);
Audiovisual (sound film, television, video);
Tools that automate the learning process (language labs, computers, information systems, telecommunication networks).
Didactic tools become a valuable element of the learning process if they are used in close connection with the other components of this process.
The choice of educational methods and teaching aids depends on many objective and subjective reasons, namely:
Patterns and principles of learning arising from them;
General goals of training, education and human development;
Specific educational tasks;
Level of learning motivation;
Features of the teaching methodology of a specific academic discipline;
The time allocated for studying this or that material;
Quantity and complexity of educational material;
Level of preparedness of students;
Age and individual characteristics of students;
Students' educational skills are developed;
Type and structure of the lesson;
Number of students;
Student interest;
The relationship between the teacher and students that developed in the process of educational work (cooperation or authoritarianism);
Logistics, availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;
Peculiarities of the teacher's personality and qualifications.
Taking into account the complex of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher makes a decision on choosing a specific teaching method or their combination for conducting a lesson.
Control questions:
1. Define methods, techniques and teaching aids
2. List the main classifications of teaching methods
3. Expand the classification of teaching methods according to the nature of students’ cognitive activity (Lerner I. Ya., Skatkin M. N.)
4. What are the conditions for using teaching methods and tools?
3. Pedagogical methods
Like any science, pedagogy is characterized not only by its own subject, but also by a specific set of methods. It is necessary to distinguish, firstly, methods of training and education , with the help of which the pedagogical process is managed, pedagogical goals are realized, and secondly, actual research methods, those. methods of obtaining pedagogical knowledge itself, which allows us to develop these goals and means of achieving them.
Methods of scientific and pedagogical research – these are ways of obtaining information in order to establish patterns, relationships, dependencies and build scientific theories.
Empirical research methods aimed at accumulating pedagogical facts, their selection, analysis, synthesis, quantitative processing: these are observation, survey methods, studying the products and processes of the activities of students and teachers, documentation and archival materials; compilation of monographic characteristics.
Theoretical level methods: selection and classification of material, study, analysis and synthesis of scientific literature on the topic of research, modeling, content analysis, etc.
Observation – this is a purposeful, relatively long-term, organized according to a special program perception of the pedagogical process, its individual types, aspects in natural conditions.
Observation can be continuous or selective. Selectivity can be determined in relation to the subjects of the activity (when observation in a lesson is not carried out for all students in the class, but only, for example, for “excellent students”) or in relation to the content of the activity and the forms of its organization (for example, explaining new material or exercising control) .
Based on observations, an expert assessment can be given. Their results are necessarily recorded. They are recorded in special protocols or observation diaries, where the names of the observed (observed), date, time and purpose are noted. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing.
The main specific feature of observation is that it does not influence the object of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to it, but waits for their natural expression. This, on the one hand, is an advantage of the observation method (since it allows one to record natural human behavior), and on the other hand, it creates certain difficulties for the researcher (since he is forced to wait until he can observe the phenomenon of interest to him, and therefore must remain indefinitely In standby"). Another disadvantage of this method is that its results are influenced by the personal characteristics (attitudes, interests, mental states) of the researcher.
Observation requires a special, pre-planned plan, which includes the following steps:
determining the purpose and objectives of observation (why observe);
choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe);
choosing an observation method (how to observe);
choosing registration methods (how to keep records);
processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result).
Types of observation: direct And indirect.
Direct observation characterized by direct observation of the process and, in turn, is divided into two types (included and non-included).
During participant observation, the researcher acts as the direct organizer of educational or educational work, activities and communication of students, which allows him to penetrate deeper into the essence of the phenomena being studied.
In non-participant observation, the researcher is outside the object being studied. With the help of non-participant observation, facts of overt behavior are recorded.
At indirect observation the researcher learns about the characteristics of the subject being studied through other persons.
To obtain the most objective data, observation must be carried out in compliance with certain rules: have a goal, a program, be carried out systematically and over a long period of time. Recording the process and results of observation must be continuous, thorough and detailed.
Survey methods : interviewing and questioning.
An interview is a method of oral conversation according to a program compiled by the researcher.
Types of interviews:
1) non-standardized (informal), in which the researcher, thinking through the questions in advance, can change them and clarify them during the conversation, depending on the circumstances;
2) a standardized interview, when the researcher asks the subject to precisely formulate answers in a certain sequence. The results of such an interview are quite accurate and easier to record. However, this type of interview does not sufficiently take into account the diversity of life situations;
3) a semi-standardized interview includes precisely formulated questions that can be changed.
Questionnaire – a method that is widely used in pedagogy.
A questionnaire is a written survey that is a set of precisely selected questions.
The method has age restrictions, as it cannot be applied to those who do not have reading and writing skills. Therefore, questioning in the practice of the educational process is used starting from the middle level of secondary schools.
One of its main advantages is the massive nature of information collection. An open questionnaire contains questions without accompanying ready-made answers. The closed-type questionnaire is structured in such a way that for each question the respondent is asked to choose one of the answer options (often the choice is “yes” or “no”). A mixed questionnaire contains elements of both types.
In pedagogical practice, up to 30-40 minutes are allotted for questioning. The order of questions is most often determined by the random number method. The obtained data is subjected to quantitative and qualitative processing. However, when processing closed questionnaires, qualitative analysis is practically impossible, since while the choices (“yes” or “no”) are similar among different people, the reasons for such choices remain unclear and cannot be compared.
The main requirements that a survey must meet are representativeness and homogeneity of the sample.
Representativeness of the sample – this property of a sample population to represent the main characteristics of the general population totality.
General population – it is the entire population or that part of it that the sociologist intends to study.
Sample population (sample) is a part of the population being studied or a set of people whom a sociologist interviews.
The survey method assumes the possibility of using the principle of anonymity, which can influence the degree of frankness in answers (for example, a questionnaire revealing students’ attitudes towards academic subjects and teachers).
The questionnaire can also be designed to obtain material concerning other individuals (for example, a survey of teachers or parents about the characteristics of children’s learning).
Sociometry – a method of scientific research that allows, based on surveys or recording behavior, to identify the structure of relationships; used to study the structure of groups and teams, organizational and communicative properties of the individual.
Based on the sociometric diagnostic procedure, the founder of which is J. Moreno, in educational practice it is possible to determine the informal leader of a group, class, teaching staff, status hierarchy in the group, group cohesion, etc.
Each individual in the group has his own sociometric status, which can be determined by analyzing the sum of preferences and rejections received from other members.
The totality of all statuses specifies status hierarchy in Group:
Sociometric stars - the highest status members of the group, having the maximum number of positive choices with a small number of negative choices. These are the people to whom the sympathies of the majority, or at least many, members of the group are directed.
High status, average status and low status members of a group defined by the number of positive choices and not having a large number of negative choices. There are groups in which there are no sociometric stars, but only high-, medium-, and low-status members.
Isolated – subjects who lack any choices, both positive and negative. The position of an isolated person in a group is one of the most unfavorable, since it indicates that other group members are completely indifferent to this individual.
Les Misérables – those group members who have a large number of negative choices and a small number of preferences.
Neglected or outcasts – members of a group who do not have a single positive choice while having negative ones.
An example of a sociometric technique . Each group member is given a group list and a questionnaire with instructions and two criteria for emotional content such as:
Who from the group do you communicate with or would like to communicate with in your free time?
Which member of the group do you communicate with least often or would least like to communicate with in your free time?
Processing the results:
Based on the questionnaire data, a sociometric matrix is filled out according to the criterion of emotional gravity.
The number of positive (“+”) choices for each group member is counted. It is equal to the number of “+” choices in each column of the matrix.
The number of positive (“+”) points for each participant is calculated. For the first choice the subject is assigned 2 points, for the second - 1 point, for all subsequent choices - 0.5 points.
The number of rejections (“-” choices) for each participant is counted.
The number of points for rejections (“-” points) is calculated for each participant (points are assigned in the same way as points for positive choices only with a “-” sign).
If the application of the five listed criteria for an unambiguous determination of status is not enough, then the participant’s serial number in the alphabetical list is used as an additional one. So, for example, if two or more participants have the same values, then the higher place is taken by the participant who has a lower place in the group list.
A sociogram is being constructed. It is a graphic representation of the (usually) emotional connections between group members. In the diagram, the group members are symbolically designated (by codes), their choices and the direction of these choices are indicated (by arrows).
the value of the indicator of emotional cohesion of the group is determined: C = N B /(N(N – 1)), where C is the emotional cohesion of the group; N B – number of mutual elections in the group; N – number of group members; N(N – 1) – the total possible number of mutual elections in the group.
Pedagogical experiment – scientifically conducted experience in the field of educational or educational work with the aim of identifying the interdependence between the phenomena under study.
The main difference between an experiment and an observation is that the experimenter influences the object under study in accordance with the research hypothesis.
The study of pedagogical phenomena is carried out in specially created controlled conditions. A pedagogical experiment offers active intervention in the educational process.
Types of experiment:
1) laboratory, which is carried out in specially created conditions and allows you to accurately record the nature of the impact on the subjects and their responses;
2) a natural experiment conducted under normal educational conditions, when the subjects do not know that they are taking part in an experiment.
The introduction of an experiment makes it possible to test the effectiveness of curricula, programs for educational work, forms and methods of education and training, etc.
The following stages are usually distinguished in an experiment:
1) theoretical– formulation of the problem, definition of the goal, object, subject, tasks and hypothesis, which can be tested experimentally;
2) methodical– development of research methodology for the plan, program, methods of processing the received data;
3) the experiment itself– creation of experimental situations, observation, management and correction of experimental effects;
4) analytical– quantitative and qualitative analysis, interpretation of the data obtained, formulation of conclusions and practical recommendations.
To establish general patterns of development, the experiment is carried out on large samples. And then it becomes extremely important to comply with the general, identical conditions for its implementation (wording of instructions, appearance and placement of stimulus material, time to complete buildings, etc.).
The results of the experiment, as well as during observation, are recorded in special protocols, where, in addition to information about each subject (last name, first name, age, etc.), his reactions (emotional and behavioral), verbatim speech statements, and time for completing tasks are recorded.
A properly designed experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships and relationships, without limiting yourself to stating correlations between variables.
There are traditional and factorial types of experimental designs. The traditional one assumes changes in only one independent variable, while the factorial one assumes changes in several. In the second option, it becomes possible to assess the interaction of factors - changes in the nature of the influence of one of the variables depending on the value of the other. In this case, analysis of variance is used to statistically process the experimental results.
If the area under study is relatively unknown and there is no system of hypotheses, then a pilot experiment is used, the results of which can help clarify the direction of further analysis.
When planning and conducting an experiment, it is necessary to take into account the socio-psychological effects that influence its course and results. The most noticeable effects include:
trust in the source of information has been undermined;
the transmitted information for a long time has a monotonous character that does not correspond to the changed conditions;
the subject transmitting information causes hostility among those who perceive it.
Audience effect . It is determined by the fact that the presence of an audience, even a passive one, in itself affects the rate of learning of the subject or his performance of the proposed task. Typically, the presence of spectators at the initial stages of training rather confuses the subject, and at the stage of performing an already mastered action (or an action that requires physical effort), on the contrary, it facilitates its implementation. This effect must be taken into account in psychological and pedagogical research and in pedagogical practice, since training, as a rule, takes place in a group form.
Boomerang effect. It consists in the fact that with some influences of a source of information on individuals or a group, a result opposite to the expected one is obtained. As a rule, this is observed if:
In pedagogical practice, this effect can be observed in the “teacher-student” relationship and negatively affect students’ assimilation of educational material.
3. First impression effect . It is expressed in the fact that often when perceiving a person, his appearance and character, the greatest importance is attached to the first impression and subsequent information about this person, if it contradicts it, can be ignored, and observed manifestations that do not fit into the created image are considered random and uncharacteristic. The first impression effect is very close in content to the halo effect.
4. Halo effect . Acts as a dissemination of the general evaluative impression of a person on the perception of his actions and personal qualities. It is observed, as a rule, in conditions of a lack of information about a person. In other words, the first impression of a person determines his subsequent perception and assessment, allowing into the consciousness of the perceiver only that which corresponds to the first impression, and filtering out what is contradictory. When forming a first impression, the halo effect can act as:
"positive halo"- positive evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is generally favorable, then all his behavior is overestimated in a positive direction, positive aspects are exaggerated, and negative ones are underestimated or ignored;
"negative halo"- negative evaluative bias, i.e. if the first impression of a person is unfavorable, then even his positive qualities and actions are later not noticed or underestimated against the background of hypertrophied attention to shortcomings.
The effect of the first impression and the halo effect must be taken into account by the organizers of experimental studies and especially by teachers, since, due to the specifics of their professional activities, they must constantly assess the level of learning of students; a rigid assessment can be a psychologically traumatic factor. Overcoming these effects (as, indeed, many others) requires a certain amount of work from the teacher, primarily a constant reflexive analysis of his activities.
5. Hawthorne effect . It says that If subjects know the hypothesis accepted by the experimenter, then it is likely that they will involuntarily or intentionally behave in accordance with the experimenter's expectations. In general, just participating in an experiment has such an impact on the subjects that they often perform as the experimenters expect them to. To reduce the Hawthorne effect, it is enough to keep subjects unaware of the accepted hypotheses and give them instructions in as emotionally neutral a tone as possible.
6. Pygmalion effect (Rosenthal effect). Associated with the experimenter's expectations. When he is deeply convinced that the reactions of the subjects will change, then, even with his desire to maintain objectivity, there is a high probability of involuntary transmission of these expectations to the subjects, and this can affect their behavior. American psychologist Rosenthal so called the phenomenon that an experimenter, firmly convinced of the validity of his assumptions, involuntarily acts in such a way that he receives confirmation of them.
Simulation method , which is based on the creation of models of the object of study.
A special role in the development of science is played by mathematical models, the importance of which in research is increasingly expanding. In pedagogical research, objective models of objects and subjects of scientific research are distinguished: models of the process of teaching and upbringing, school lessons, university forms and methods of teaching and upbringing, control and assessment of knowledge, skills, models of a student of a certain level of performance, etc.
Studying school documentation (personal files of students, medical records, class registers, student diaries, minutes of meetings) equips the researcher with some objective data characterizing the actual practice of organizing the educational process.
Theoretical methods are related to studying literature : works of classics on issues of human science in general and pedagogy in particular; general and special works on pedagogy; historical and pedagogical works and documents from periodical pedagogical press; fiction about school, education, teachers; reference pedagogical literature, textbooks and teaching aids on pedagogy and related sciences.
Studying the literature makes it possible to find out which aspects of the problem have already been sufficiently well studied, which scientific discussions are ongoing, what is outdated, and which issues have not yet been resolved.
Working with literature involves the use of methods such as:
compiling a bibliography - a list of sources selected for work in connection with the problem under study;
abstracting – a concise presentation of the main content of one or more works on a general topic;
note-taking – keeping more detailed records, the basis of which is highlighting the main ideas and provisions of the work;
annotation – a brief record of the general content of a book or article;
citation – a verbatim recording of expressions, factual and numerical data contained in a literary source.
Mathematical and statistical methods in pedagogy they are used to process the data obtained by survey and experiment methods, as well as to establish quantitative dependencies between the phenomena being studied. They help evaluate the results of an experiment, increase the reliability of conclusions, and provide grounds for theoretical generalizations.
Examples of such statistical methods are:
factor analysis;
cluster analysis;
analysis of variance;
regression analysis;
latent structural analysis;
multidimensional scaling, etc.
Factor analysis is to identify and interpret factors. A factor is a generalized variable that allows you to collapse part of the information, i.e. present it in a convenient form. For example, the factor theory of personality identifies a number of generalized characteristics of behavior, which in this case are called personality traits.
Cluster analysis allows you to identify the leading feature and the hierarchy of feature relationships.
Analysis of variance – a static method used to study one or more simultaneously acting and independent variables for the variability of an observed characteristic. Its peculiarity is that the observed feature can only be quantitative, while at the same time the explanatory features can be both quantitative and qualitative.
Regression analysis allows you to identify the quantitative (numerical) dependence of the average value of changes in the resulting characteristic (explained) on changes in one or more characteristics (explanatory variables). As a rule, this type of analysis is used when it is necessary to find out how much the average value of one characteristic changes when another characteristic changes by one unit.
Latent structure analysis is a set of analytical and statistical procedures for identifying hidden variables (signs), as well as the internal structure of connections between them. It makes it possible to explore the manifestations of complex relationships between directly unobservable characteristics of psychological and pedagogical phenomena. Latent analysis can become the basis for modeling these relationships.
Multidimensional scaling provides a visual assessment of the similarities or differences between certain objects described by a large number of different variables. These differences are represented as distances between the objects being assessed in multidimensional space.
The most common in pedagogy are also: grouping, ranking, scaling, etc.
Grouping – combining, according to essential characteristics, units of the object under study into homogeneous populations. The grouping procedure is preceded by a thorough analysis of the problem being studied. During this analysis, the basis of the grouping is determined, i.e. main features, semantic units, etc., according to which the studied population is divided into homogeneous groups. The selected groups can be easily compared, compared, which means it is possible to analyze more deeply this or that psychological and pedagogical statement.
The scientific validity of the grouping also depends on compliance with the basic principles of the grouping in the process of its implementation: the division of heterogeneous phenomena into homogeneous ones; finding common and similar phenomena; determining the characteristics by which types should be distinguished; determining the transition interval from one type to another.
In pedagogical research, the following types of grouping are used:
1) grouping using simple summation
homogeneous characteristics , due to which the absolute numbers of their manifestations in the studied population are determined;
2) ranging, i.e. groupings of the studied units of the population depending on the increase or decrease of the characteristic being studied;
3)scaling – grouping based on logically identified features using a pre-developed ordinal or interval scale. Scaling makes it possible to organize, quantify, and determine the lowest and highest levels of the phenomenon under study;
tabulation – construction of statistical tables.
The results of statistical work, in addition to tables, are often presented graphically in the form of diagrams, figures, etc. The main methods of graphically representing statistical quantities are: the method of points, the method of straight lines and the method of rectangles. They are simple and accessible to every researcher. The technique of using them is drawing coordinate axes, establishing a scale and writing out the designations of segments (points) on the horizontal and vertical axes.
Using statistical methods, the average values of the obtained indicators are determined: arithmetic mean; median - indicator of the middle of the series; degree of dispersion - dispersion, or standard deviation, coefficient of variation, etc. To carry out these calculations, there are corresponding formulas and reference tables are used. The results processed using these methods make it possible to show a quantitative relationship in the form of graphs, diagrams, and tables.
3. The relationship between the concepts of “pedagogical technology” and “methods of teaching and education”
When defining the concept of “pedagogical technology”, we used the terms: method, technique, method, means. The same terms are used when defining the methodology of teaching a certain subject or the methodology of educational work. However, these concepts are different.
Under methodology usually understood a set of methods and means of carrying out pedagogical activities in the process of teaching and upbringing. At the same time, methodology is a pedagogical science that studies 1) the patterns, content, methods and means of teaching a specific academic subject (private methodology); 2) features of the organization of the educational process in various educational institutions (methodology of educational work). However m methodology studies a variety of methods (techniques) and means of the pedagogical process, without arranging them in a certain logic, according to a certain algorithm.
Technology differs from the methodology precisely in its algorithmic and targeting a specific diagnosable result. In passing, we note that pedagogical technology is not reduced to an algorithm as an exact reproduction of actions, since it takes into account and allows for within certain limits creativity of teachers and students.
There are other approaches to distinguishing the concepts under consideration. The technique reveals to a greater extent teacher activity system in a lesson or in extracurricular educational work (what to present and in what sequence, what means to use, how to organize the various stages of the lesson, etc.). Technology, along with the activities of the teacher, describes the activities of the students themselves. In addition, the methods have a soft, recommendatory nature, while technologies more strictly prescribe a certain sequence of actions for students and the teacher, deviation from which may hinder the achievement of planned results. Technologies provide the opportunity to reproduce them, but methods are much more difficult to reproduce. They are largely based on intuition, tradition, and personal qualities of the teacher. The technology is always scientifically substantiated, based on certain philosophical, psychological or pedagogical theories that do not depend on the personality of the teacher.
The question of which of these concepts is broader - pedagogical technology or methodology - is debatable. We should agree with N.I. Zaprudsky is that this question cannot be answered unambiguously. Within the framework of technology, a teacher can use local proprietary methods and, conversely, within the framework of the author’s methodology, he can use elements of well-known technologies.
4. Classification of pedagogical technologies
Exist different reasons for classification of educational technologies. Thus, it is possible to group technologies according to the level of application, according to the philosophical basis, according to the leading factor of mental development, according to the concept of assimilation, according to organizational forms, according to the approach to the child, according to the predominant method, according to the category of students, according to the nature of the content and structure, according to the direction of modernization of the existing traditional systems (G.K. Selevko, G.D. Levites, etc.), by the degree of generalization, by the level of subjectivity of the performer (S.S. Kashlev), by the type of organization and management of cognitive activity (V.P. Bespalko). Let us name some of the most important classifications from the point of view of a practicing teacher.
By level of application There are general pedagogical, specific methodological and local technologies. General pedagogical technology characterize the holistic pedagogical process (pedagogical system) in a given region or educational institution. Private methodological(subject or educational) technology characterizes the totality of goals, content, methods and means of activity of the teacher and students within the framework of one subject or area of education. Local (narrow subject, modular) technology characterizes individual parts of the educational process, the process of solving individual didactic or educational problems.
By degree of generality distinguish macro-technologies, which determine the philosophy and strategy of the pedagogical process, and micro-technologies - the tactics of pedagogical interaction, its specific techniques. Examples of macro-technologies are the technology of collective creative activity, a system of developmental education, information technology, etc., micro-technologies - technology of discussion, travel game, etc.
By the nature of the content and structure technologies are: teaching and educational, secular and religious, general education and professionally oriented, humanitarian and technocratic, as well as monotechnologies, polytechnologies (complex) and penetrating technologies. For example, in monotechnologies the entire educational process is built on any one dominant, priority idea or concept. IN complex technologies use elements of various monotechnologies. Technologies whose elements are most often included in other technologies and at the same time play the role of catalysts are called penetrating.
According to the level of subjectivity of the performer Pedagogical technologies can be classified into production (reproductive), social (problematic) and humanitarian (creative). At the same time, under production or reproductive technology is understood as an algorithmic technology that can be fully reproduced, regardless of the user’s identity. These include, for example, technologies of programmed training, modular training, and university education. Social(problematic technology) involves taking into account the user’s identity. Social technologies are: project-based learning technology, cooperative learning technology, Dalton technology, etc. Humanitarian or creative technologies are the teacher’s own technologies created in the process of professional activity.
The basis of the classification by type of organization and management of cognitive activity the nature of the interaction between teacher and student is determined. This interaction, according to V.P. Fingerless, maybe open(uncontrolled and uncorrected activity of students); cyclical(with control, self-control and mutual control); absent-minded(front) or directed ( individual); manual(verbal) or automated(using educational tools). The combination of these features determines different types of technologies (learning systems):
1) classical lecture learning (open-ended, scattered, manual);
2) training with the help of audiovisual technical means (open-ended, scattered, automated);
3) “consultant” system (open-loop, directed, automated);
4) learning with the help of a textbook (open-ended, directed, automated);
5) system of “small groups” (cyclical, scattered, manual);
6) computer training (cyclical, scattered, automated);
7) “tutor” system (cyclical, directed, manual);
8) “programmed training” (cyclical, directed, automated).
In practice, various combinations of these monotechnologies are usually found: modern traditional training, programmed training, group and differentiated teaching methods, etc.
In the direction of modernizing the existing traditional system The following groups of technologies are distinguished:
A ) technologies based on humanization and democratization of pedagogical relations characterized by the priority of personal relationships, an individual approach, the democratic nature of management, the humanistic orientation of the content, and procedural orientation. These include: pedagogy (technology) of cooperation, humane-personal technology Sh.A. Amonashvili and others.
b) technologies based on the activation and intensification of student activities. These are, for example, gaming technologies, problem-based learning technology, learning technology based on circuit and symbolic models (reference signals) V.F. Shatalov, technology of project-based learning, etc.
V) technologies based on the effectiveness of organizing and managing the learning process. Examples are: technology of programmed learning, technology of differentiated learning, technology of individualization of learning, technology of advanced learning (S.N. Lysenkova), technology based on collective learning methods, information and computer technologies.
G) pedagogical technologies based on methodological improvement and didactic reconstruction of educational material: technology for enlarging didactic units (P.M. Erdniev), technology “Dialogue of Cultures” (V.S. Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov), pedagogical system “Ecology and Dialectics” (L.V. Tarasov), etc.;
d) p nature-conforming, using folk pedagogy methods based on the natural processes of child development: training system L.N. Tolstoy, the pedagogical system of M. Montessori, etc.
e) alternativetechnologies: Waldorf pedagogy, technology of free labor S. Frenet and others.
With all the variety of pedagogical technologies in each of them, the following classification characteristics can be distinguished:
Level of application;
Philosophical basis;
Targets and orientations;
The main factor in personality development
Scientific concept of knowledge acquisition;
The child’s position in the pedagogical process;
Features of the content of education (focus on personal structures, volume and character, etc.);
The predominant method of teaching or upbringing;
Forms of the pedagogical process;
Management of the pedagogical process (diagnosis, planning, etc.);
When analyzing pedagogical technology, you should pay attention to its software and methodological support: curricula and programs, teaching aids, didactic materials, visual aids and technical teaching aids; diagnostic tools.