Professors or professors? You don't know the answer to the question posed? You can find it in the presented article.
general information
The Russian language has a huge number of nouns, which are quite problematic to put in the plural. For example, not everyone knows which is correct: professors or professors. Someone claims that the first option is correct, while others use only the second in written and oral speech.
Background
The word “professor” and other nouns with the stressed ending -я, -ы or -а represents the remainder. Surely many people know that previously there were three forms of number in the Russian language, namely:
- plural;
- the only thing;
- dual.
The latter was applied only to paired objects. Let's give a clear example: “eyes” - two, “eye” - one, and “hair” - many. Now the following lexical units belong to the form of the dual number: “eyes”, “sides”, “horns”.
One cannot ignore the fact that even during the time of M.V. Lomonosov called these words the only nouns in the plural, where the last syllable was in the stressed position. Moreover, about “centuries” they said “veki”, about “evenings” - “evenings”, etc. Subsequently, such a model with a stressed ending began to quickly spread. As a result, by the middle of the 19th century there were already several dozen such words. Now there are more than 600 of them.
How to determine the correct spelling of a word?
Before understanding how to correctly pronounce and write - professors or professors, it should be noted that there is no specific rule on this matter in the Russian language. In this regard, if you need to use this word in the text, it is recommended to consult a spelling dictionary or reference book. After all, this is the only way to quickly and easily determine which is correct: professors or professors. If the reference book is not at hand, we recommend that you remember the note below.
What is the plural of "professor"?
The plural of such a noun is as follows: “professorA”. As for the lexical unit ending in -ы, this is already an obsolete word. It was used in this form about a century ago. Although many modern people often use it in written and spoken speech. It should be noted that there is nothing criminal in this. But if you need to write the text as competently as possible and in modern Russian, then you should use the word “professorA”. Otherwise it will be considered a spelling error.
Clue
We found out how to speak correctly - professors or professors - a little higher. As you may have noticed, there is no specific rule in the Russian language regarding this matter. You just need to remember that in writing and in oral speech it is recommended to use only the first option. But if you are constantly confused about such lexical units, we recommend using the hint below.
In 99% of 100 singular nouns ending in -or and denoting any inanimate objects, form the plural form in -y. Let us give illustrative examples: contract - contracts, detector - detectors, refrigerator - refrigerators, inductor - inductors, etc.
As for nouns ending in -or, which denote animate objects, in some cases they may end in -a, and in others -s. Let's give a clear example: director - directorA, professor - professorA, but designer - designers. Thus, if you are dealing with animate objects, then to determine their spelling, it is recommended to consult a spelling dictionary or reference book.
Forecast for the future
The model on -а/-ы, as well as on -я/-а, spreads quite quickly in the Russian language. Many linguists are in horror awaiting the arrival of “experienced accountants”, “fresh cakes”, and so on. However, it should be noted that there are still certain factors that independently regulate normative formation and do not allow “chauffeurs” to become “chauffeurs”.
As for other similar words, it is best to check the plural for their accent and correct endings in a dictionary. If this is problematic for you, it is recommended to remember them, for example, using such simple rhyming tips as contracts - thieves, directorA - masterA, etc.
Spelling other words
As mentioned above, in the Russian language there are quite a few words that are problematic to put in the plural because of their duality. That is why we decided to present to your attention only the correct and most preferred options: editors, contracts, children's camps, passes (ID), conductor, sectors, tractors, boats, etc.
Continuing the topic raised in the article “Profession, specialty, specialization... Let’s figure it out!”, I propose to touch on academic degrees and titles, as well as positions associated with them, in order to better understand these familiar, at first glance, concepts.
Academic degree
An academic degree is a title that is assigned to an applicant by the scientific community and certifies his competence in a certain scientific field. Most CIS countries inherited the system of academic degrees from the USSR (Ukraine is one of them), so today a representative of domestic science can become:
- candidate of sciences
- Doctor of Science
The academic degree is awarded to the applicant by an authorized state body. In the USSR it was called the Higher Attestation Commission (VAK). As a rule, in the CIS countries the name of this body has not changed. The decision to award the academic degree of a candidate or doctor of sciences is made by the Higher Attestation Commission based on the results of defending a dissertation (candidate's or doctoral dissertation, respectively).
The defense of the dissertation takes place in a specialized scientific council - a community of respected scientists who are engaged in science on a certain topic and can give a competent assessment of the applicant’s work. As a rule, specialized scientific councils are opened in universities or research institutes so that the personnel working in them can defend themselves “without leaving home.” If there is no advice on your specialty in your home institution, you can go to a neighboring one.
PhD
The graduate school is a starting "incubator" for the training of young scientific personnel. As a rule, full-time graduate students become students immediately after graduating from a university. You can become a part-time graduate student (or simply an applicant) without reference to the date of graduation, but having a diploma of higher education is almost a prerequisite for admission to graduate school.
With a successful combination of circumstances, the main one being the defense of a candidate's dissertation, the graduate student becomes a candidate of science. Although there are exceptions, and an academic degree is awarded without defending a dissertation, one can imagine how powerful the scientist’s contribution to science must be in this case.
Candidate of Sciences is the most common academic degree among the scientific and teaching staff of universities and employees of various research institutes. As a rule, a candidate's degree entitles you to a small increase in salary (in Ukraine - about 15%), and also opens up prospects for obtaining the position of associate professor (see below) or similar.
Ph.D
A candidate of sciences who has decided to finally conquer the scientific pedestal becomes a doctoral student. To do this, you can enroll in doctoral studies, which, theoretically, will allow you to free yourself from some job responsibilities (for example, reduce the teaching load at a university). But you can be a doctoral student “in absentia” - just write a doctoral dissertation without any changes in your work.
It is believed that a doctorate degree is the highest criterion of a scientist’s competence and viability, therefore the requirements for preparing a doctoral dissertation (and its defense) are significantly higher than for a candidate’s dissertation. Although in formal terms there are no significant differences between these processes.
Doctor of Science is a much less common academic degree, since not all candidates of science want (strive, can) become doctors. In terms of preferences, a doctoral degree allows a scientist to apply for the position of professor (subject to some other conditions), as well as count on a higher salary premium.
Positions for candidates and doctors of science
It is important to understand that an academic degree is not automatically associated with the position held by a scientist. Typically, the “layout” for positions that scientists occupy at a university (and for which they apply) is as follows.
No position
A graduate student may not have any position and engage only in scientific work at the department. The position is also not needed by a part-time student or applicant.
Assistant
The assistant can be a graduate student or even a candidate of science.
Senior Lecturer
Former graduate students (who have not become candidates, but have accumulated some experience) or candidates of science can work for senior lecturer positions. This position is considered somewhat “transitional”, when a person without an academic degree simply needs to be supported morally and promoted from assistant.
Assistant professor
As a rule, candidates of sciences hold the position of associate professor. Sometimes doctors.
Professor
The position of professor is usually awarded to a doctor of science. Candidates of Sciences work as professors very rarely (this position is for very respected scientists).
The real picture of the distribution of positions
It is worth saying that a candidate or doctor of sciences can apply for any position, but this position is not always “available”. In reality, the situation often develops in such a way that candidates work for a long time as assistants or senior teachers, and doctors of sciences work as associate professors, since the university does not allocate new staff positions in the departments. This process is highly bureaucratic, and the struggle for a “place in the sun” among scientific and pedagogical workers is a common occurrence.
It is a widespread practice that after defending a candidate's dissertation, the position of associate professor is automatically “opened” to a young scientist. This is usually the prerogative of the educational institution. But such a temporary position is not permanent, and in order to gain a foothold in this position, a young candidate of sciences should take care of obtaining the academic title of “Associate Professor”.
Academic title
Academic titles are similar to some positions in the higher education system, so they are often confused or considered the same thing. An academic title is awarded to a person with a certain academic degree some time after defending his dissertation if he has fulfilled a number of requirements (for example, published a series of scientific papers, written teaching aids, prepared textbooks, etc.).
Assistant professor
The academic title "Associate Professor" is not the position of Associate Professor. The academic title of "Associate Professor" is usually awarded to candidates of science. This title gives the scientist the right to heaven O a larger increase in salary (in Ukraine it is 15...25%).
Professor
The academic title "professor" is not the position of professor. As a rule, the academic title of “professor” is awarded to doctors of science. Accordingly, upon receiving the title of “professor,” the scientist’s salary also increases.
I hope that this information sheds at least a little light on how the system of state science and education is structured. Of course, in this system there are many more “intermediate” concepts, positions, titles. Whenever possible, Dystlab will try to explain them in new publications.
Many people are confused about the positions, degrees and titles of teachers and researchers working at universities. And this is not surprising...
Let's figure this out.
The fact is that university employees are characterized immediately by four directions :
1. Academic position.
2. Administrative position.
3. Academic degree.
4. Academic title.
Table 1
List of academic positions
Full title | abbreviation | Full title | abbreviation |
1. Graduate student | asp. | 8. Researcher | ns |
2. Assistant | Ass. | 9. Teacher | Rev. |
3. Leading researcher | VNS | 10. Professor | prof. |
4. Chief Researcher | GNS | 11. Senior teacher | senior teacher |
doctoral student | 12. Trainee | intern |
|
6. Associate Professor | Assoc. | 13. Senior Researcher | sns |
7. Junior Researcher | mns | 14. Student | stud. |
Positions are listed in alphabetical order. They give different rights and responsibilities to participate in the educational (academic) process. For example, a student can study, but cannot teach. The assistant can teach, but cannot independently develop his own training course, etc.
table 2
List of administrative positions
Full title | abbreviation |
Academic Secretary | Academician-Sec. |
Graduate student | asp. |
Assistant | Ass. |
Leading Researcher | VNS |
Leading Specialist | leading specialist |
Vice President | Vice President |
CEO | general director |
General designer | general design |
Chief Researcher | GNS |
Chief Editor | chief editor |
Chief Specialist | chief special |
Dean | dean |
Director | dir. |
Doctoral student | doctoral student |
Assistant professor | Assoc. |
Head of the department | head of department |
Station manager | station manager |
Deputy academic secretary | Deputy Academic Secretary |
Deputy general director | Deputy General Director |
Deputy editor-in-chief | Deputy Chief Editor |
Deputy dean | Deputy Dec. |
Deputy directors | deputy director |
Deputy chairman | deputy chairman |
Deputy head | deputy manager |
Deputy leader (manager, chief) of the group | deputy head of group |
Deputy head (manager, chief) of the laboratory | deputy head of laboratory |
Deputy head (manager, chief) of the department | deputy head of department |
Deputy head (manager, chief, chairman) of the department | deputy head of department |
Deputy head (manager, chief) of the sector | deputy leader of the sect. |
Deputy head (manager, chief, chairman) of a center (scientific, educational, etc.) | deputy head of the center |
Consultant | cons. |
Laboratory assistant | lab. |
Junior Researcher | mns |
Scientific consultant | scientific cons. |
Researcher | ns |
Head of Department | start control |
Head of the expedition | head of expedition |
Chairman. | prev |
The president | Prez. |
Teacher | Rev. |
Vice-Rector | vice-rector |
Professor | prof. |
Editor | ed. |
Rector | rector |
Leader (manager, chief) of the group | hand gr. |
Head (manager, chief) of the laboratory | head of laboratory |
Head (manager, chief) of the department | head of department |
Head (manager, chief, chairman) of the department | head of department |
Head (manager, chief) of the sector | leader of the sect. |
Head (manager, chief, chairman) of a center (scientific, educational, etc.) | head of the center |
Advisor | advisor |
Specialist (zoologist, programmer, geologist, engineer, etc.) | specialist. |
Senior specialist (geologist, zoologist, engineer, etc.) | senior specialist |
Senior Assistant | st.lab. |
Senior Lecturer | senior teacher |
Senior technician | senior technical |
Trainee | intern |
Senior Researcher | sns |
Student | stud. |
Technician | tech. |
Scientific Secretary | academic secretary |
Other positions | etc. |
Positions are listed in alphabetical order. It is in accordance with administrative positions that university employees receive salaries, or rather, official salaries. The higher the position, the higher the salary. These positions are of particular importance to the HR and Accounting departments. They arrange all employees into a hierarchy of superiors and subordinates.
List of academic degrees
Russia has introduced two academic degrees:
1. PhD - primary. For example, a candidate of medical sciences - candidate of medical sciences - candidate of medical sciences.
2.
Ph.D- higher . For example, Doctor of Biological Sciences - Doctor of Biological Sciences - Doctor of Biological Sciences.
In order to obtain such a degree, it is necessary to create a special scientific work called “a dissertation for the academic degree of a candidate of such and such sciences” or “a dissertation for the academic degree of a doctor of such and such sciences.” In addition, this dissertation still needs to be “defended” in a specially designated place - the Dissertation Council. Specialists in a related scientific field there will decide whether the submitted dissertation corresponds to the desired degree. So an academic degree may or may not be awarded. Writing and defending a dissertation is not a simple and easy job, therefore the scientific and organizational value of candidates and doctors of science is clearly higher than that of them, but before defending their academic degree.
True, we are threatened by the emergence of several more degrees, modeled on Western ones, but, naturally, in the Russian way.
Bachelor- in fact, this is our same graduate of a technical school or a dropout student from a university with an “incomplete higher education”, but who defended his thesis, for which he receives a bachelor’s “degree”. This is the lowest possible academic degree.
master- in the recent past, this was simply a university graduate who defended his thesis, and not just passed state exams. But now the student's thesis began to be called the VKR ("graduate qualifying work") and ceased to give a master's level. Now you will have to spend an additional 2 years (for additional money) at the university and do, essentially, a second thesis, now a master’s thesis. Only then will it be possible to be called a “master”. And this work will be called a “master’s thesis”, like a candidate’s or doctoral dissertation. A master's degree is an academic degree that reflects the appropriate educational level of the graduate, readiness for research and scientific-pedagogical activities. The master's degree is awarded based on the results of the defense of the master's thesis.
"Doctor of Philosophy" or "PhD"- a degree popular abroad, in terms of scientific weight it is something intermediate between a graduate thesis and a classic Soviet candidate's dissertation. True, pessimists fear that over time they will begin to demand a hybrid of a higher level - something between a candidate’s and doctoral dissertation. Life will show what will actually hatch from this gilded egg: a chicken or a crocodile...
An approximate analogue of the academic degree of Doctor of Science in countries with a “single-stage” system of academic degrees is the Doctor of Science (D.Sc.) degree, in countries with a “two-stage” system (for example, in Germany) - a habilitated (habilitated) doctor. After completing the habilitation procedure, i.e. defense of the second doctoral dissertation (more significant than the first), the applicant is awarded the title of habilitated doctor (doctor habilitatus, Dr. habil.)
There is also a system of academic degrees for “professional” rather than scientific research work. Thus, for example, Doctor of Laws (DL), Medicine (DM), Business Administration (DBA), etc. degrees are considered in many countries to constitute a professional rather than an academic/research doctorate, i.e. the holder of such a degree is expected to engages in relevant practical activities, not science. Because these degrees do not require independent scientific research, a professional doctorate is not generally considered an advanced degree. Whether a degree is classified as a professional or research doctorate varies by country and even by university. For example, in the USA and Canada the degree of Doctor of Medicine is professional, and in Great Britain, Ireland and many countries of the British Commonwealth it is research.
Honorary degree
There is also a workaround for obtaining an academic degree without scientific work. This is the so-called “honorary degree” of Doctor of Science (Honor Doctor or Honor degree or Doctor honoris causa). It is issued by universities, academies or the Ministry of Education without completing a course of study and without taking into account mandatory requirements (for publications, defense, etc.), but who have achieved great success in business and have gained fame in any field of knowledge (artists, jurisprudence, religious figures, businessmen, writers and poets, artists, etc.). Such people are attracted to teaching and give lectures at the best universities in many countries around the world. An honorary Doctor of Science degree is not awarded in medicine. An honorary degree may be awarded or withdrawn.
So, an academic degree confirms the scientific qualifications of its holder and his ability for fruitful scientific activity.
List of academic titles
In Russia, according to the unified register of academic degrees and titles, approved in 2002, the following are provided:academic titles:
1. Assistant professor by specialty according to the nomenclature of specialties of scientific workers or by department of an educational institution.Academic title of associate professor assigned to employees of scientific organizations for research activities, and to employees of higher educational institutions - for scientific and pedagogical activities.
2. Professor by specialty or department.Academic title of professor awarded to employees of higher educational institutions and scientific organizations for scientific and pedagogical activities and training of graduate students.
3. Corresponding Member(corresponding member) of the Academy of Sciences.
4. Full member (academician) of the Academy of Sciences.
System academic titles more confusing than the system academic degrees . So, there are different titles by specialty And by department. In addition, there are only scientific degrees (scientists), and titles - both scientific and pedagogical (teaching). Academic degrees are officially registered only by the Higher Attestation Commission (Higher Attestation Commission), and all academic titles are officially registered by the Higher Attestation Commission, the Ministry of Education, and the Russian Academy of Sciences.
How can we distinguish between the concepts of “academic degree” and “academic title” in order to reduce the often observed confusion in this regard?
Speaking about academic titles, one should distinguish title or simply the position held from academic title, which you can have without holding a similar position. Yes, you can borrow job title professor or associate professor, but not have the same ranks, confirmed by the presence of a certificate. On the contrary, you can have rank professor or associate professor, have the appropriate official certificate, but work not as a professor, but, for example, as a house manager, or even not work at all. So professors with the title of professor can work, alas, not as professors at all.
The matter is further complicated by the fact that people who work as professors, but do not have the same academic title, tend to call themselves professors, although in reality they only occupy professorship. It is curious that the military is more modest in this regard: for example, a colonel holding a general's position job title, does not call himself a general until he receives a general's title rank.
So, ranks "Associate Professor" or "Professor"supported by official certificates. Purely job titles "Associate Professor" or "Professor", are not associated with the official assignment of the same academic title.
At the same time, in order to occupy a decent position in a university or research institution, it is desirable (and sometimes mandatory) to have academic degree. The presence of an academic degree, position and required activities in this position give the right to receive academic title.
Academic degrees are awarded as a result of defending dissertations, and academic titles assigned based on the results of scientific and pedagogical activities.
About availability academic degree testifies diploma candidate or doctor of sciences, but about the availability academic title - certificate associate professor, professor. So official supporting documents for degrees And ranks are called differently.
Non-state degrees and titles
And you should definitely know about one more interesting detail. In Russia there are many non-state
educational institutions: academies, universities, institutes, which sometimes have their own non-state dissertation councils. Some of them dare to completely separate from the state in the person of the Higher Attestation Commission and begin to award academic degrees, not just candidates, but even doctors of sciences without the participation of the Higher Attestation Commission
, in the same way as is customary abroad, but in completely different conditions. After protection like this "non-state"
Scientists are immediately issued diplomas sealed with seals, popularly called “crusts,” the forms of which are not difficult to produce or buy. The question of their legal force raises reasonable doubts...
According to Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of January 30, 2002 No. 74, only diplomas issued by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation or other authorized state bodies are valid as documents for the award of academic degrees provided for by the state certification system.
Academicians and Corresponding Members
Now in Russia scientific academies with their academicians and corresponding members form a whole pyramid.
On first level, at the top of this academic pyramid is created by Peter the Great in 1724. Russian Academy of Sciences (RAN) , which includes about a thousand corresponding members and full members (academics). This is the holy of holies of Russian science.
On second level academic pyramid are state branch academies , such as the Academy of Medical Sciences (RAMS), the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, the Academy of Architecture and Construction, the Academy of Agricultural Sciences, the Academy of Arts and, to some extent, the Academy of Natural Sciences (RAEN). They also include full members (academicians) and corresponding members, but their state academic “scholarships” are one and a half, or even two times lower than in the Russian Academy of Sciences, and in the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences, in general, only the Academy itself has the right to pay money, without state support.
On third level so many have already arisen non-state , public academies , and in them"public" academicians and corresponding members that it is not easy to count them. But in these"academies" state academic scholarships are not paid at all, and even, on the contrary, in order to become a participant, one must pay an entrance fee - as a kind of payment for the right to bear the title of corresponding member or full member of such a non-state public Academy.
Related « public academies» the abroad our former compatriots. They quickly trade in titles, diplomas and certificates, making money on this, and not on science. And in Russia the number is growing"foreign academicians ", having beautiful"candy wrappers ", with notes in a foreign language, as if confirming their mythical international scientific status...
Vivat Academy!
Vivant professors!
Gaudeamus
“Gaudeamus” (lat. gaudeamus let us rejoice) is a student song (hymn) in Latin, the real name is “De brevitate vitae” (For the transience of life). Appeared in the 13th or 14th century, either at the University of Heidelberg or at the University of Paris, printed in 1776, the anthem mentions the academic title - “PROFESSORES”. In the modern meaning, “professor” (teacher) is an expert in a certain branch of science and art; in different countries, the understanding of the term has its own characteristics; in some, a school teacher is also called a professor, in others - only a university and academy teacher (professor in a department or specialty ).
In research we criticize any word, because... “official” etymology is helpless and explains nothing. The vast majority of names and terms were formed in European Judeo-Christian society, and according to linguists they are not associated with IDEOLOGY (religion). How is it that God exists, but the language of God does not exist? Is such a socio-cultural phenomenon really possible? Does the content of terms and names as interpreted by modern philologists not correspond to the basic model of European society?
Disputes are conducted with words,
Systems are created from words,
We must trust words
You can't change one iota in your words...
Goethe, Faust.
Guided by the poet’s thought - we are looking for a “system of words”, having discovered it, we will begin to “trust the words” - we will get closer to the TRUTH. There is truth in Judaism; loyalty to the Commandments transmitted by Moses to man from God; in Christianity there is truth; this is Freedom in Christ (for the Law is the lot of slaves only (a very controversial idea)), liberation from ignorance through knowledge brought by the Good News. Philosophy states: “analytical truth occurs when the property attributed to an object is necessarily contained in its very concept.” Who is right, is it possible to find in the word-concept PROFESSOR the PROPERTIES attributed to it, which specialist is capable of this: a linguist, philosopher, historian, theologian, or maybe all this should be combined when analyzing the word?
1) The medieval university and its figures
It is believed that the term professor (Latin professor - an expert, publicly declared as a teacher) came from ancient Rome (this was the name given to teachers of rhetorical schools); in medieval European universities professors began to be called master teachers (magistri) and doctors (doctores). The title “professor” is found in texts of the 13th century, but more often in the medieval university the terms were used: bachelor, master or doctor (academic degrees), in 1240 the title RECTOR (Latin ruler, leader) was introduced for the head of the university. The modern title “professor” implies the academic title and position of a university teacher (actually a teacher) or a researcher at a research institution. Researchers believe that this title was first introduced as an academic position at Oxford University in the 16th century. The term is obviously associated with the allocation of certain DEPARTMENTS at the faculty and had the meaning of specialization in some discipline (scientific direction); not every MASTER teacher was a PROFESSOR, a narrow specialist.
The first universities were formed on the basis of church schools and were part of the system of spiritual education; they trained specialists in philosophy, theology, law and medicine. Teachers were united by faculties (lat. ability), that is, by groups of people capable of teaching a particular discipline; the term “facultas” was used by Pope Honorius III in 1219, in his message to the University of Paris; teaching mainly consisted of reading texts and comments from the teacher.
The process of obtaining a teaching permit was complex; the candidate had to demonstrate a strong knowledge and commitment to the university spirit, after which he was officially issued a license. On the hill of St. Genevieve, the licentiate knelt before the vice-chancellor of the university, who solemnly proclaimed: “I, by the authority given to me by the apostles Peter and Paul, grant you the right to teach, lecture, participate in debates, resolve issues and engage in other scientific and master's work.” activities at the University of Paris and other places, in the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, amen."
In 1213, the chancellor (representing the authority of the Bishop of Paris at the university) issued a decree that only those who had received the approval of the entire college of teachers (in the decree they are called PROFESSORS) should give lectures on theology and church law at the university. In 1219, Pope Honorius III, confirming these measures, ordered that candidates for the position of teacher undergo strict examinations under the direction of the dean of the cathedral church. The too large number of Parisian teachers, among whom it was necessary to choose worthy ones, was probably the reason for this decree.
Sources note that in the developed Middle Ages, a fairly large layer of educated people (university graduates) appeared who found a livelihood at the courts of small and large monarchs as: teachers, poets, alchemists, researchers, doctors, theologians. Master's or doctoral degrees issued by one of the universities were recognized, and their holder received the right to give lectures and conduct research in any field of science, but it was difficult to realize this right, since the problem of financial support arose.
It was impossible for teachers to exist independently on payment from students in the conditions of medieval cities, so the popes allowed members of the university - clergy - to enjoy benefits, that is, to continue to receive part of the income from the church to which they were assigned. “Sinecures” were transferred to the benefit of the university - positions in churches built on private donations, the service in which was not related to the duties of the parish priest; in monasteries, places were provided in advance to be transferred to the university; the monk of the monastery (university professor) enjoyed the privilege of a “staff position.”
Thus, teaching at the university was closely associated with obtaining certain "cathedras" in monastic or city churches; the very concept of “department” (Greek: place, seat) was fixed in university terminology, as a “unit of funding” - a full-time position of a professor. By Bull of 1231, the University of Paris established that the college of professors itself selected potential teaching staff for vacant church positions (assigned to the university).
2) Existing etymology
A) Wiktionary
Root: -professor-. Meaning: the highest academic title of a teacher at a higher educational institution or a researcher at a research organization; position of head of department in a higher educational institution; a person holding the title of professor; an expert in his field.
Etymology according to Max Vasmer
Comes from Lat. professor “public teacher”, from profiteri “to openly declare, speak directly, announce”, further from pro “forward, for, for, instead” + fateri “to acknowledge, show”, further from Proto-Indoev. bha- “to speak.” In Russian - already in Ust. Morsk. 1720; borrowed via lat. Professor from Lat.
The term "professor" is used in almost all European languages, with the exception of Greek - kathigitis.
B) Online etymology dictionary (English translation by Google)
Professor, late 14th century, "one who teaches a branch of knowledge," from L. professor "A person who professes to be an expert in some art or science, a teacher of the highest rank, "agent noun from profitieri "to claim, openly declare" ( see confess). In the name, the prefix to the name refers to 1706. The short "prof" form has been written since 1838.
B) School etymological dictionary of the Russian language. Origin of words. - M.: Bustard N. M. Shansky, T. A. Bobrova. 2004.
Professor Borrowing. in the Petrine era from it. language in which Professor< лат. professor «учитель» - суф. производного от profiteor < profateor «преподаю». Исходное слово - fari «говорить, сообщать».
3) Generalization and conclusion
A) Obviously, the etymology of the term “professor” is not precisely defined (there are variations in interpretation).
B) The word is recorded in medieval writing in the 13th century; if this word is of Latin origin, then it should be mentioned in the Latin sources of Ancient Rome (before the 5th century), but no one gives examples of its use in documents.
C) In the literature of Ancient Rome, the term is noted only once; it is used by the historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquil (2nd century, secretary of the imperial chancellery) in his work “DE GRAMMATICIS”.
"9. Librum etiam, cui est titulus Perialogos, edidit continentem querelas de iniuriis, quas PROFESSORES neglegentia aut ambitione parentum acciperent” (professor in the meaning of a teacher).
Let us note that during this period there was a spread of Judeo-Christianity; Suetonius left one of the earliest mentions of Jesus Christ and Christians in secular literature: “He expelled the Jews, constantly agitated by the Christ, from Rome.”
The term “professors” may have been inserted into Suetonius’s work by later scribes: “From Suetonius’s extensive work De viris illustribus, which treated scientists and artists, the books De illustribus grammaticis and De claris rhetoribus have been preserved in incomplete form; From the work “De vitis poetarum” (“On the lives of poets”), significantly falsified and spoiled biographies of Terence, Horace, Lucan, Juvenal and Persia have survived” (Wikipedia).
The activities of the first “professors” were related to theology (theology, from the 13th century, University of Paris, Department of Theology); systematic presentation and interpretation of religion. Universities were part of the system of spiritual education and were controlled by the Church.
It is advisable to consider the term in connection with the vocabulary of sacred Hebrew and biblical images.
4) Hebrew terminology and biblical image
Let's put the term in a form close to Hebrew grammar, read it the other way around (as in Hebrew) and highlight the roots.
PROFESSOR = vice versa ROS + SEFOR + P. We instantly identify Hebrew concepts related to the job responsibilities of a professor.
* ROS = Hebrew ROSH head (leading person), head, leader, chief.
Source. See Jewish and Chaldean Etymological Dictionary for the Books of the Old Testament, Vilna, 1878; http://www.greeklatin.narod.ru/hebdict/img/_435.htm
* SEFOR = Hebrew SOFER writer, scribe, secretary, teacher of the Pentateuch, copyist of Torah scrolls; SEFER book, letter, scripture (scribe).
Source. See Jewish and Chaldean Etymological Dictionary for the Books of the Old Testament, Vilna, 1878; http://www.greeklatin.narod.ru/hebdict/img/_333.htm
* P = Hebrew PE mouth; forms concepts with other words: orally, by heart, speak, from mouth to mouth, speak intelligently and many others.
Source. See Jewish and Chaldean Etymological Dictionary for the Books of the Old Testament, Vilna, 1878; http://www.greeklatin.narod.ru/hebdict/img/_376.htm
Thus, the term P+ROFES+SOR contains Hebrew concepts - leader, chief (teacher) + writer (having published works) + by heart (orally - orally). Book leader, teacher; which corresponds to reality and the functional responsibilities of a professor.
5) Is there confirmation in the Jewish tradition?
Soferim, SOFER (singular number), interpreters of the Torah, in Judaism SOFERim played an important role as researchers and interpreters of the Torah, they became successors to the work of the prophets. Tradition considers the last prophet to be Malachi (Malachi - “my messenger”, c. 400 BC), a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah, and they begin the series of SCRIBES, people versed in the law, who took the place of prophets.
In the era of the prophets, Judaism had not yet firmly established itself in Jewish society; in the era of SOPHERIM, recognition of the obligation of the Torah was established. Religious life was supported not by prophetic revelation, but by the interpretation of Holy Scripture; commentary required KNOWLEDGE and RESEARCH. During the “Soferim” the Torah ceased to be the exclusive possession of the priestly class; after Ezra (he is called an “experienced Sofer”), the activity of SOFERIM began, those who did not necessarily belong to the priestly class, the study of the Torah became their profession.
Some researchers believe that in the biblical language “Sofer” is a person who writes books (Jer. 8:8), as well as an official - an archivist (the Babylonian Talmud adheres to this meaning). It is believed that during the period of the Babylonian captivity there were people in the diaspora who were engaged in rewriting sacred books for the purpose of distribution; families of scribes, sofers, are mentioned in I Chron. 2:55. Others derive the word sofer from sefer (book), and “sofer” means, in their opinion, a scholar, a knowledgeable person, a researcher and interpreter of Holy Scripture (in the Jerusalem Talmud, Ezra is called knowledgeable not only in the Torah, but also in the teachings of the sages ( Jeremiah Shekalim, 48c)).
Christian sources recognize SOPHERIM's prominent role until the beginning of the 2nd century AD, the "scribes" are mentioned with the high priests (Matt., 2, 4; 16, 21; 20, 18; 21, 15; 27, 41; Mark, 8, 31; 10, 33; 11, 18 and 27; 14, 1, 53; 15, 1 and 31), and with the Pharisees (Matt. 5, 20; 12, 38; 15, 1; 23, 2, 13; Mark, 2, 16; 7, 1 and 5; Acts of the Apostles, 23, 9). Judging by the Gospels, the “soferim” occupied a prominent position in the era of early Christianity, enjoyed great influence in the Sanhedrin and were the closest assistants to the high priest.
So, SOPHERIM were a group of Jewish intellectuals who made the study of the Holy Scripture their profession: they corrected articles (made 18 changes, occupied the positions of senior judges), interpreted its provisions and carried out general educational activities. Their activities are similar (the same) to the activities of medieval professors, and therefore we can consider the concepts – identical (the same); they have the same content and meaning.
Judging by the frequent mentions of SCRIBES in the Gospels, the term became widespread in the Judeo-Christian environment in the 1st-2nd centuries, at the same time the term P+ROFES+SOR+ES appeared in Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus.
Thus, the term professor is composed of several Hebrew words and concepts and belongs to the Hebrew language.
To a certain extent, this stereotypical image corresponds to reality. Both professor and academician are scientific titles, the path to which is difficult and long, and therefore they achieve such a position, as a rule, at an advanced age. But you can be a professor at any university or research institute, and an academician only at the Academy of Sciences.
Professor
Professor is both an academic title and a position, the path to which lies along a certain “career ladder”. The title is inseparable from the person; they are appointed to the position. A candidate of sciences can take the position of associate professor of the department, but can remain an assistant - or become one if he moves to work at another university. In a few years, he will receive the title of associate professor, and then he will be able to apply for an assistant professor position at any university.
The next career step is the position of professor of the department. There is no direct prohibition on appointing candidates of science to this position, but it is usually occupied by doctors of science. Just as in the case of an associate professor, after a few years of work in this position, a scientist can receive the title of professor, and for this a doctorate degree is already required. The professorial title gives the right to head the department.
Academician
Before the October Revolution of 1917, an academician in Russia was any student of an academic educational institution - for example, a university. During the Soviet era, this title was officially introduced in a different meaning, in which it is still used in the Russian Federation.
An academician is a full member of the Academy of Sciences, an organization that unites scientists and organizes the activities of the scientific community. Such an academy should not be confused with a higher educational institution that bears a similar name - for example, the Gnessin Russian Academy of Music.
Theoretically, in order to become an academician, it is not necessary to be a professor, but in reality, such an honor is most often awarded to scientists who already have a professorship.
The first step to the title of academician is election as a corresponding member. For outstanding scientific achievements, a scientist is elected as a corresponding member by secret ballot, which takes place in the relevant department of the Academy, and then the general meeting of the Academy of Sciences approves his election. Academicians are elected from among the corresponding members at the general meeting of the Academy of Sciences, and this title is awarded for life.
Currently, there are many organizations calling themselves academies. Some of them - for example, the International Academy of Energy Information Sciences - have nothing to do with real science. Their members also call themselves “academics,” but they have no rights to this.
Only members of state academies can bear the title of academician. There are six of them in Russia: the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences (RAMS), the Russian Academy of Education (RAO), the Russian Academy of Arts (RAA), the Russian Academy of Architecture and Construction Sciences (RAASN) and the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences (RAASH). ).
Sources:
- Academic degrees and titles: who is who
At the academy arts There are 4 educational institutions: the Surikov Institute, the Repin Institute and the Moscow and St. Petersburg Lyceums. Lyceums provide secondary education and accept only schoolchildren. But the institutes are aimed at a more adult category and provide higher education.
You will need
- Own work, certificate from an ophthalmologist.
Instructions
To the Moscow Academic arts registered Russian arts Schoolchildren are admitted to . The Lyceum selects children who have demonstrated special abilities in the visual arts. To get in, bring your homework: drawing from life, painting from life, or sculpture. If you liked the work, it’s up to the latter: bring an application and a number of documents.
And here is an approximate list of requirements that the Moscow State Academic University named after Surikov imposes on its applicants. To enter academy arts, pass the Unified State Exam. Which subjects to take depends on the faculty. If you enroll in architecture - and Russian, in graphics, painting and sculpture - Russian and literature, and in art criticism - literature, Russian and history.
Creative (profile) tests. The most numerous department of the institute is painting. It requires its applicants to provide works in drawing, painting and composition. A drawing is a head, a nude model, sketches from life; painting - still life from life, landscape, portrait from; composition - work theme.
If you see yourself, then you are required to work in the same categories. Only in drawing - the head should be plaster, in painting - work in watercolors, and in composition - drawings from life of architectural objects.
After passing all tests, applicants are assessed on a 100-point scale. Those who score the most points successfully enter the institute. To be enrolled, write an application addressed to the rector and submit a document on secondary education and the results of the Unified State Exam. In the application, indicate your full name, date and place of birth, place of residence, passport details, specialties for which you are applying, indicating the form and conditions of training. Write about the availability of Olympiad winner diplomas (if any) and the need for accommodation in a dormitory.
Helpful advice
You will need a certificate from an ophthalmologist with the conclusion “Color perception is normal.”
Sources:
- Russian Academy of Arts
The emergence of a new education system has confused many. It is not easy to understand the levels of higher education (bachelor's, master's, specialty), and it is even more difficult to understand the peculiarities of a university by its name and status. For example, it is unlikely that anyone will confidently say how a university differs from an academy and why institutions are disappearing.
Academy
The concept of “academy” arose during the time of the philosopher Plato. According to legend, the ancient thinker loved to stroll through the garden called Academ. Later, having established a school, Plato gave it the name “Academy”. It was something like a circle of interests. Its purpose - to teach sciences that fall within one narrow specialization - has survived to this day. The direction of the area in which knowledge is taught is reflected in the name of the institution, for example: “Ural Art Academy”.
University
The university ranks slightly higher. Its main difference from the academy is that this university trains generalist specialists, uniting several faculties in different specialties. Within the walls of one educational institution you can meet both future physicists or test pilots, and teachers of singing or mathematics. This does not mean that the level of knowledge presented by the university is an order of magnitude higher than the academies’ program.
Academies, like universities, have the right to research activities, as well as to methodological developments and their implementation in their field.
Changes
Life flows and changes, but at the same time it makes its own adjustments. There are cases when a person goes to study at an academy and graduates from a university. Renaming and changing statuses is not a rare phenomenon, associated with the introduced obligation of universities to undergo periodic re-certification and confirm the number of specialties (departments) for which recruitment and training is taking place, as well as the status of the teaching staff, which claims the right to train specialists with higher education.
Every year, a couple of universities are transferred from universities to the category of academies, having failed to recruit the required number of students or confirm the fulfillment of the educational standard in the declared specialties.
Does the rank of the university that graduated the specialist influence the preferences of employers? In the overwhelming majority, the answer is clear - it has no effect. Therefore, when choosing your path after school, you should not get hung up on the status of the institution; in fact, the academy program will be no different from the university program. It is much more important to correctly determine the direction of specialization.
Any higher educational institution that provides training for specialists in various fields, in at least seven branches of scientific knowledge, has the right to be called a university. This differs from an institute where training takes place in one professional field.
What is an institute?
An institute (institutio translated from “institution”) is a higher educational and scientific institution in which training and scientific work are conducted in one professional field.An example is the MAI (Moscow Aviation Institute), which trains specialists of a wide range of profiles, but only in one professional field of aircraft construction.
Over 55% of the institute's teachers must have academic degrees. The volume of scientific research and the amount allocated for it is also regulated. Institute is the basic unit in the higher education system and is the most common type of higher education institution (university). Military and security educational institutions are often called institutes. The institute is led by the director or head of the institute. With the exception of some art or military universities, its graduates become graduates.
What is a university?
In the Middle Ages, a university (Latin universitas - “totality”, “community”) was a corporation of teachers and students who lived in one place, mastering the sciences in direct communication with each other. In the modern world, a university is a university that conducts scientific and educational work in at least seven areas of knowledge. This is its main difference from the institute. Modern requirements for universities are quite high: teaching staff must use innovative teaching methods and conduct extensive scientific research without fail.Scientific research at the university must be carried out in five scientific fields. The amount of research funding is regulated at ten million rubles for five research years.
A university is usually divided into faculties, and faculties into departments. Accordingly, the administrative structure of the university consists of the rector, vice-rectors and deans, who head the faculties. Next come the heads of departments. The requirements for a scientific university are higher than those of an institute: at least 60% of the teaching staff must have a scientific degree. There must also be at least four graduate students per hundred students.
Many universities operate as huge educational, scientific and practical complexes, which include entire institutes and laboratories. There are several types of state universities in Russia: federal universities, national research universities and two universities with special status - Moscow State University and St. Petersburg State University.