After Prussia's convincing victory over Austria in the War of 1866 and the subsequent creation of the North German Confederation under the hegemony of the Prussian King Wilhelm I, the unification of the German state was not completed, and the South German states remained outside the union created by Prussia.
On the path to the final unification of Germany stood the reactionary government of France headed by Napoleon III, because. a single, powerful German state in central Europe threatened France's hegemony on the continent.
Despite the defeat of Austria by the Prussian army four years earlier, the French generals and Emperor Napoleon III himself were skeptical of the Prussian military machine. The war with Prussia, which was rapidly gaining influence in Europe, allowed Napoleon III to solve two problems - to weaken Prussia and prevent the further unification of Germany, on the one hand, and, secondly, to stop the growth of the revolutionary movement in France, directed against the regime of the Second Empire.
In turn, the de facto ruler of Prussia and the North German Confederation, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, in every possible way provoked France into war. He hoped, as a result of rapid and successful military action, to complete the unification of Germany and reunite with the South German states, which is considered by historians as the beginning of a just and progressive war for the unification of a single German people. However, the Prussian government's plan to seize the mineral-rich French territories of Alsace and Lorraine must be seen as part of Prussia's aggressive and aggressive policy.
So, both sides of the conflict were looking for a reason for war, which did not take long to arrive. The offer by the new Spanish government after the revolution of 1868 of the vacant Spanish throne to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, the head of the senior Catholic branch of the German Brandenburg royal dynasty, who was a relative of the Prussian King William I, caused great indignation of the French government. At first, in the negotiations for the Spanish throne with King William I, diplomatic success accompanied Napoleon III's ambassador to Prussia, Benedetti. However, the intrigue masterfully carried out by Chancellor Bismarck - the publication in the German press of the so-called "Ems dispatch" - caused a storm of indignation in France, and on July 19, 1870, the North German Reichstag was officially informed of France's declaration of war on Prussia, which is what Bismarck sought - to force France to formally start a war first.
Parties to the conflict.
All states of the North German Confederation and Southern Germany took the side of Prussia. France found itself without allies, which was greatly facilitated by the Russian position of neutrality on the one hand, and the incompetent policy of Napoleon III in relations with the British Empire and Italy, on the other. Austria, thirsting for revenge for the humiliating defeat in the war of 1866, did not dare to open a second front against Prussia until the last moment and never began hostilities.
The Prussian army was superior to the French in many respects - in numbers, combat training, steel artillery from the Krupp factories in Germany against the bronze guns of the French. Germany's well-branched railway network made it possible to quickly mobilize and transfer German troops to the front line, which the French could not afford. The superiority of the French small arms - the Chassepot rifle of the 1866 model - over the Prussian Dreyse rifle of the 1849 model, could in no way change the course of hostilities in favor of the French army.
The French government's plan was to launch a major attack in the Bavarian Palatinate, intending to advance along the border of the North German Confederation and thus disconnect it from Southern Germany. Napoleon III also believed that after the first successes of the French army, Austria and Italy would enter into an alliance with him and begin military operations against Prussia.
The outstanding Prussian military leader, Field Marshal Helmuth Moltke the Elder, who, along with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and Field Marshal Albrecht von Roon, should be considered one of the founders of the united German state, developed a strategic plan providing for a rapid offensive in the Alsace and Lorraine directions, the defeat of the main enemy forces in a general battle and the subsequent capture of Paris. Moltke's plan also took into account the possibility of military action against Austria if the latter entered the war against Prussia on the side of France.
Fighting between France and Prussia.
Contrary to French plans, the mobilization of the army was extremely slow and unsatisfactory, which was generally facilitated by the confusion that reigned within the Second Empire. By August 1870, French troops managed to concentrate only 220 thousand people with 800 guns at the borders in Lorraine and Alsace. The troops were consolidated into one Army of the Rhine under the command of Emperor Napoleon III himself.
In contrast to France, Prussia very quickly mobilized its armed forces and, by August 1870, its three armies, numbering over 400 thousand people with 1600 modern guns, entered the Bavarian Palatinate and southwestern Prussia in full combat readiness. In addition to the Prussians, the 3rd Army also included South German troops. The commander-in-chief of the united German army was the chief of the general staff, Field Marshal Moltke the elder.
On August 2, the French corps went on the offensive and drove the Prussian garrison out of Saarbrücken, but already on August 4, the 3rd Prussian Army launched an offensive in the direction of Alsace and defeated the French division near Weissenburg.
After this first defeat, Napoleon III relinquished supreme command of the French armed forces and the Army of the Rhine was divided into two armies: the 1st (1st, 5th and 7th Corps, located in Alsace) under the command of Marshal MacMahon and the 2nd Yu (2nd, 3rd and 4th corps, located in Lorraine) under the command of Marshal Bazin.
The Prussian 3rd Army invaded Alsace and MacMahon was forced to withdraw to Chalons-sur-Marne. In the 20th of August, a new French group was formed - the Chalon Army under the command of McMahon. Napoleon III intended to send this army towards Paris, since the German 3rd Army had already begun to develop an offensive in the direction of the French capital.
On August 6, the 1st and 2nd Prussian armies went on the offensive against Bazin's army in Lorraine. The French retreated to the fortified fortress of Metz, and, after defeat in the battles of Gravolta and Saint-Privat, Marshal Bazin decided to lock himself in the fortress. The Germans regrouped their forces and formed the 4th Meuse Army, which was supposed to move towards Paris and at the same time, together with the 3rd Prussian Army, act against the French Chalon Army of Marshal McMahon.
The French government made the wrong decision and, instead of providing protection to Paris, sent the Army of Chalons to help the besieged troops of Bazaine.
On September 1, 1870, the Chalon army was surrounded by German troops near the weakly fortified Sedan fortress and cut off from Metz; The 3rd Prussian Army cut off the retreat path of McMahon's group to the southwest towards Reims. After a bloody battle, Prussian troops occupied the commanding heights above Sedan and began a merciless artillery bombardment of the French. Having suffered colossal losses during the shelling carried out by Prussian troops, the French Army of Chalons was forced to raise the white flag and begin negotiations on surrender. Under the terms of surrender, the entire Chalon army, together with Emperor Napoleon III, who was with it, surrendered. As a result of the battle of Sedan, French troops lost about 17 thousand people killed and wounded, as well as over 100 thousand prisoners. Prussian losses amounted to about 9 thousand people killed and wounded. On September 4, the 3rd and 4th Prussian armies continued their attack on Paris.
After the defeat of the French army near Sedan, a coup took place in Paris, as a result of which the government of Napoleon III was overthrown and the Third Republic was proclaimed. The new French government proclaimed itself the Government of National Defense and began to form new armies in the provinces. Military men, sailors and volunteers flocked to Paris from all over France. By September 17, there were about 80 thousand regular troops and more than 300 thousand irregular troops in Paris. On September 17, the Prussian armies approached Paris and blocked it.
On October 27, 1870, the French army of Marshal Bazin, besieged in Metz, capitulated to Prussian troops. Many historians consider Bazin a traitor, because. The 2nd French Army was quite large and quite combat-ready. One way or another, Bazaine’s capitulation made it possible for the Prussian command to send the 1st Army to the north, and the 2nd to the Loire.
On December 4, the approaching 2nd Prussian Army managed to push back the newly formed French Loire Army across the Loire River and capture Orleans.
Despite the fact that the French people heroically defended their country, the Government of National Defense was unable to organize a worthy rebuff to the German troops. The uprising that arose on October 31, 1870 in Paris against the government, which was pursuing a mediocre policy for the defense of France, was brutally suppressed by regular units of the French National Guard.
On January 26, 1871, the French government signed an agreement on the surrender of Paris, and on the 28th it concluded a truce with the enemy.
The truce of January 28 did not extend to the eastern departments of France, where it was supposed to come into force after agreement was reached on the demarcation line between the warring parties in these areas.
The Loire army was pushed back by the Prussians to Switzerland, where it was forced to lay down its arms. Hero of Italy Giuseppe Garibaldi fought on the side of the French and commanded a corps, and subsequently the international volunteer Vosges Army, but was unable to provide support to the French Loire Army.
On February 18, 1871, the French fortress of Belfort capitulated, and the last hostilities in France ended.
Results of the Franco-Prussian War.
The National Assembly appointed the French statesman Louis Adolphe Thiers as head of the new government (later president of the republic). Following this, on March 18, 1871, a rebellion broke out in Paris, and power in the capital passed to the Paris Commune. A bloody civil war began between the Commune and Thiers' supporters.
On May 10, 1871 in Frankfurt, the Thiers government was forced to sign a peace treaty with Germany under very difficult conditions for France. Alsace and Eastern Lorraine went to Germany, and France was obliged to pay a huge indemnity of 5 billion francs.
The most important consequence of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 was the completion of the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony. On January 18, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor.
France's military losses (killed, from wounds, from disease, in captivity) amounted to over 140 thousand people. The losses of Prussia and the allies were about 50 thousand people. The Frankfurt Peace of 1871, humiliating and difficult for France, was a bleeding wound for the French Republic for a long time. The outbreak of the First World War of 1914–1918 was largely due to the consequences of the Franco-Prussian War and the catastrophic defeat of France in this war.
The Franco-Prussian War was the result of a long-standing confrontation between the two largest European powers. The object of the dispute was the territories of Alsace and Lorraine. The slightest reason was enough to start hostilities.
France and Prussia on the eve of the war
The main cause of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. lies in the desire of the two powers to take a leading position in Europe.
By this time, France had lost its dominant position on the continent. Prussia strengthened significantly, uniting most of the German lands.
Napoleon III planned to conduct a victorious war against a dangerous neighbor. In this way he could strengthen the regime of his personal power.
The emperor's grandiose plans turned out to be insufficiently supported organizationally and military-technically.
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Rice. 1. Map.
Prussia had by this time carried out military reform, which gave it a well-trained mass army. Much attention was paid to the future theater of military operations.
Prussia led the movement for the national unification of the German lands, which greatly raised the morale of the soldiers.
Reason for the Franco-Prussian War
In 1869, the Spanish government invited a relative of King William I of Prussia, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern, to the throne. With the consent of the king, the prince accepted the offer, but soon refused.
Napoleon III expressed strong protest, demanding that William I undertake “for all future times” not to support the prince’s candidacy as king of Spain.
Rice. 2. Otto von Bismarck. F. Ehrlich.
Wilhelm I, who was in Ems, on July 13, 1870, refused such a promise. His refusal was deliberately distorted by Chancellor Bismarck and published in the press. The offensive “Ems Dispatch” caused a scandal in Paris and became the pretext for war, declared by Napoleon III on July 19, 1870.
Progress of the war
The fighting was extremely unsuccessful for France:
- Bazaine's army was blocked in the fortress of Metz;
- On September 1, 1870, McMahon's troops were defeated at Sedan.
- The French emperor was captured by Prussia.
Rice. 3. Battle of Sedan 1870
Prussia's convincing victories led to a political crisis and the collapse of the Second Empire in France. On September 4, 1870, the Third Republic was proclaimed.
On September 19, 1870, Prussian troops began the siege of Paris. Gradually, the capital ran out of fuel and food supplies.
Results of the Franco-Prussian War
Under these conditions, the government was forced to surrender. At the end of January 1871, the act of surrender was signed in Versailles.
- transfer of Alsace and eastern Lorraine to Germany;
- indemnity in the amount of 5 billion francs;
- France was obliged to maintain German troops, who remained on its territory until the indemnity was paid in full.
The German Empire was founded on January 18, 1871 at Versailles. At this time, the siege of Paris was still ongoing.
France suffered enormous human and material losses. Despite the long-awaited peace, already in mid-March an uprising broke out in the capital, as a result of which the Paris Commune was formed.
Franco-Prussian War
Reasons for the war: Prussia wanted to increase its authority among the German states and unify Germany. Prussia wanted to increase its authority among the German states and unify Germany. France. The decline in the prestige of Napoleon III due to unsuccessful foreign policy, his desire to rise again in the eyes of the people. The need to strengthen the regime of the Second Empire and prevent the unification of Germany, because "France doesn't need a strong neighbor." France. The decline in the prestige of Napoleon III due to unsuccessful foreign policy, his desire to rise again in the eyes of the people. The need to strengthen the regime of the Second Empire and prevent the unification of Germany, because "France doesn't need a strong neighbor."
Cause of war: A dispute between Germany and France over a candidate for the Spanish throne; the Spanish Cortes offered the crown to the brother of the Prussian king Leopold, which did not suit France. A dispute between Germany and France over a candidate for the Spanish throne; the Spanish Cortes offered the crown to the brother of the Prussian king Leopold, which did not suit France. "Ems Dispatch". "Ems Dispatch".
Results of the war for France France lost Alsace and Lorraine, a territory with a population of almost 2 million people. France lost Alsace and Lorraine, a territory with a population of almost 2 million people. Had to pay Germany 5 billion francs. Had to pay Germany 5 billion francs. “Revanchism” arose - the idea of repaying the Germans for their defeat. “Revanchism” arose - the idea of repaying the Germans for their defeat.
The presentation was prepared by: Russkikh Anastasia Russkikh Anastasia Mazneva Ksenia Mazneva Ksenia Shadrin Dmitry Shadrin Dmitry Ivanova Victoria Ivanova Victoria Students of the 8th grade of the lyceum academic year
The defeat of France with the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 occurred unusually quickly. Three German armies, led by himself William I, constantly having Bismarck, Moltke and War Minister Roon with them, they moved towards France, preventing its army, led by Napoleon III, from invading Germany. Already in the first days of August, the Germans victoriously entered Alsace and Lorraine, after which revolutionary ferment began in Paris.
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871: Battle of Mars-la-Tour on August 16, 1870. Artist P. J. Janniot, 1886
Under the influence of dissatisfaction - both among the people and among the army - with the defeats to which certain parts of the French army were subjected, Napoleon III resigned from his main command in the Franco-Prussian War and handed it over to Marshal Bazin. It was necessary to retreat, but nothing was prepared for the retreat, and Bazaine had only one thing left - to lock himself in Metz, which was immediately surrounded by the enemy. Another French army under the command of a marshal McMahon was heading towards Metz, but the Germans blocked her road, pushed her to the north and surrounded her on all sides near Sedan. Here, on September 2, the main catastrophe of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 occurred - the surrender of the French army of more than 80 thousand people and the surrender of Napoleon III himself. Bazin's attempt, around this time, to break through to join MacMahon was repulsed, and Bazin was finally locked in Metz.
Franco-Prussian War. Battle of Sedan. 1870
Battle of Sedan decided the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 and became a fatal blow to the second French empire. Napoleon III did not feel safe in his own army, he left in a carriage to look for the Prussian king, but met with Bismarck and Moltke, and then with Wilhelm I. At their meeting, they talked about the causes of the Franco-Prussian War, and the captive emperor justified himself by saying that It was the public opinion of France that forced him to start a war that he himself did not want. “But this public opinion,” the Prussian king objected to him, “was created by your Majesty’s ministers.”
Captured Napoleon III talks with Bismarck after the Battle of Sedan
The news of the Sedan disaster came to Paris the next day, and on the 4th it happened revolution. In the morning, crowds of people walked through the streets of Paris, shouting about the deposition of Napoleon, and in the middle of the day people filled the legislative building. The meeting was interrupted, and the Parisian deputies, having gathered in the town hall, proclaimed a republic ( Third Republic) and organized a “government of national defense” under the chairmanship of General Trochu. It included well-known opponents of Napoleon III: a Jew who took over internal affairs, and the journalist Rochefort, who had just been released from prison. This government was not averse to ending the Franco-Prussian War and making peace, but Bismarck demanded the concession of Alsace and the German part of Lorraine. “Not a single inch of our land, not a single stone of our fortresses,” Jules Favre, a member of the French government who was in charge of external affairs, decisively declared in response to this demand.
The “Government of National Defense” sent Thiers to the foreign courts on September 12 for help, but his mission was not successful, and on September 19, 1870, exactly two months after the declaration of war, the Germans had already besieged Paris. At the end of September 1870, the capitulation of Strasbourg, besieged at the beginning of hostilities, followed; at the end of October, Bazaine was forced to starve to surrender Metz to the Germans with an army of 173 thousand. (Public opinion biasedly accused the marshal of treason). Now there were two French armies in German captivity, numbering about 250 thousand people - something unheard of in all military history - and German troops from Strasbourg and Metz could move further into France. Sedan, Strasbourg and Metz reserves during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 went to the Germans, as well as everything that was still found by the Germans in other fortresses, which then surrendered one after another.
Franco-Prussian War. Map. The dotted line marks the border of the territory ceded to Germany by the Frankfurt Peace
On September 19, as was said, the siege of Paris began. Back in the forties, in view of the expected war with the Germans, the city was, on the initiative Thiera, fortified with a rampart and ditch 34 versts long and a number of forts at some distance from Paris, the line of which was 66 versts. When the enemy attacked Paris during the Franco-Prussian War, 60-70 thousand regular troops were collected, a large amount of food supplies, as well as military supplies, etc. were brought in. It was a difficult task for the Germans to surround Paris with its population exceeding 2 million. shower to cut him and his forts off from all communication with the rest of the world. The main headquarters of the German army was located at Versailles, the famous residence of the last three French kings of the old monarchy.
Siege of Paris, which lasted during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 for 19 weeks without one day (4 and a half months), in terms of the mass of the inhabitants of the besieged city and the mass of the besieging troops, was something unprecedented in world history. In the end, there was not enough food supplies, and they had to eat dogs, rats, etc. In addition to hunger, the Parisians also suffered from the winter cold. To top it all off, in January 1871, when the Prussians brought heavy siege artillery to Paris, the city was bombarded for three weeks. Communication with the outside world was maintained only by carrier pigeons. Three members of the government of national defense, even before the start of the siege, retired to Tours in order to organize the defense of the country from there, and after the start of the siege they were joined by Gambetta, who flew from Paris in a hot air balloon.
All attempts by the besieged to repel the Germans ended extremely unsuccessfully; Discontent with General Trochu reigned in the city, and attempts were even made to overthrow the government. Finally, on January 23, 1871, after a series of failed armistice negotiations in the Franco-Prussian War, Jules Favre went to Versailles to ask for peace. On January 28, 1971, he and Bismarck signed an act of surrender of Paris and a truce for three weeks with the transfer of all external forts to the Germans, the issuance of weapons, leaving the Parisian troops in the city as prisoners of war, the payment of 200 million francs indemnity and the obligation to assemble in Bordeaux in two weeks national assembly for peace.
Ten days before the capitulation of Paris, on January 18, 1871, in one of the Versailles halls, the allied German sovereigns, on the formal initiative of the Bavarian king, proclaimed the Prussian king German Emperor. This was preceded a month before Wilhelm I received a deputation from the North German Reichstag, asking him to accept a new title. It is curious that the deputation was headed by the same person (Simsov), who in 1849 offered the imperial crown to the late brother of Wilhelm I on behalf of the Frankfurt parliament. Thus the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership was completed.
Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles, 1871. Painting by A. von Werner, 1885. In the center, at the steps of the throne, is Bismarck in a white uniform. To his right, half-turned, is Helmuth von Moltke
During the siege of Paris, the “Dictator of Tours,” as Gambetta was nicknamed for the energy and authority he displayed, as now Minister of War, organized a massive militia from the remnants of the regular army and recruits (all men from 21 to 40 years old) and obtained weapons for it, secretly bought in England. Four armies were created, which numbered almost 600 thousand people, but the Germans defeated these untrained crowds thrown into battle by the French Republicans one after another. As the Franco-Prussian War continued, they continued to capture thousands of soldiers and took cities on the other side of Paris, incidentally, capturing Tours itself. The north-eastern corner of France between Belgium and the Channel, and a large territory south-west of Paris fell into the hands of the Prussians, and one of Gambetta’s hastily recruited armies, defeated and losing up to 15 thousand prisoners, was forced to move to Switzerland, where it was disarmed . Despite all this, Gambetta resisted the conclusion of peace and, with a proclamation to the people on January 31, appealed to the patriotism of the French to wage the Franco-Prussian war to the last extreme.
Leon Michel Gambetta. Painting by L. Bonn, 1875
In essence, however, the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was decided by the capitulation of Paris. Military operations in 1870-71. lasted 180 days, during which 800 thousand people were killed, wounded, taken prisoner, disarmed in Paris and crossed into Swiss territory - again, something that could not be imagined before.
At the beginning of February, elections to the National Assembly took place throughout France, without any interference from the Germans, which then opened its meetings on February 12 in Bordeaux. The Government of National Defense resigned, and Thiers became the head of the executive branch, who was entrusted with negotiating peace. The preliminary treaty ending the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 took place at Versailles on February 26. On March 1, 1871, it was adopted by the national assembly (546 votes to 107), and on May 20 it was finally signed in Frankfurt am Main. By Treaty of Frankfurt 1871 France lost Alsace and a large part of Lorraine with a population of one and a half million, two-thirds German, one-third French, was obliged to pay 5 billion francs and had to undergo German occupation east of Paris until the indemnity was paid. Germany released French prisoners of war immediately, and at that moment there were more than 400 thousand of them.
Let me down Peace of Frankfurt 1871. France lost Alsace and a significant part of Lorraine with a population of one and a half million, two-thirds German, one-third French, undertook to pay 5 billion francs (i.e. 1875 million rubles at the current rate) and had to undergo German occupation east of Paris before payment of the indemnity. Germany released the prisoners captured in the Franco-Prussian War immediately, and at that moment there were more than 400 thousand of them.
Franco-Prussian War. Map. The dotted line marks the border of the territory ceded to Germany by the Frankfurt Peace
Results of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 – 1871 were huge.
France became a republic and lost two provinces. The North German Confederation and the South German states united to form the German Empire, whose territory was increased by the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine.
Austria, still not losing hope of taking revenge on Prussia for its defeat in the War of 1866, finally abandoned the idea of regaining its former dominance in Germany.
Italy took control of Rome, and the centuries-old secular power of the Roman high priest (the pope) thereby ended.
The Franco-Prussian War had important results for the Russians as well. Emperor Alexander II took advantage of the defeat of France in order to announce to the other powers in the fall of 1870 that Russia no longer recognized itself as bound by the Treaty of Paris of 1856, which prohibited it from having a navy in the Black Sea. England and Austria protested, but Bismarck proposed to settle the matter at a conference, which met in London at the beginning of 1871. Russia here had to agree in principle that international treaties should be respected by everyone, but the new treaty drawn up at the conference, however, satisfied Russian requirement. The Sultan was forced to come to terms with this, and Turkey, having lost its defender and patron in the person of Napoleon III, temporarily fell under the influence of Russia.
After the Franco-Prussian War, political dominance in Europe, which belonged to France under Napoleon III, passed to the new empire, just as France itself, as a result of its victories in the Crimea, took away this dominance from Russia at the end of the reign of Nicholas I. The role in international politics played by the “Tuileries Sphinx” Louis Napoleon, as a result of the Franco-Prussian War, passed to the “Iron Chancellor” of the German Empire, and Bismarck became the scarecrow of Europe for a long time. It was expected that after a war on three fronts (with Denmark, Austria and France), he would start a war on a fourth front, with Russia. It was expected that Germany would want to take possession of all the lands where there were Germans, that is, the German parts of Austria and Switzerland and the Baltic provinces of Russia, and, in addition, Holland with its rich colonies; Finally, they expected a new war with France, which did not put up with the loss of two provinces, and in which the idea of “revenge” was very strong, that is, revenge for the defeat and return of the lost regions. After the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck declared at every opportunity that Germany was “completely saturated” and would only protect the common peace, but they did not believe him.
Otto von Bismarck. Photo 1871
The peace, however, was not broken, but it was an armed peace. After the Franco-Prussian War, there was an increase in militarism: the introduction of universal conscription on the Prussian model in various states, an increase in the size of armies, improvement of weapons, reconstruction of fortresses, strengthening of military fleets, etc., etc. Something like a race began between the great powers, which accompanied, of course, by a constant increase in military budgets, and with them taxes and especially public debts. Entire industries associated with military orders received extraordinary development after the Franco-Prussian War. One “cannon king” Krupp in Germany, in the second half of the eighties, could boast that his factory produced more than 200,000 guns at the request of 34 states. The fact is that secondary states also began to arm themselves, reform their troops, introduce universal conscription, etc., fearing for their independence or, as was the case in Belgium and Switzerland, for their neutrality in the event of a new major clash like this Franco-Prussian war. The peace between the Great Powers was as unbroken after 1871 as it was between 1815 and 1859; only