THE HISTORY OF HOMELAND
FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE PRESENT
ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY
Compiled by:
B. Yu. Ivanov, V. M. Karev, E. I. Kuksina, A. S. Oreshnikov, O. V. Sukhareva
From the publisher…………………………………………………………….3
Historical sketch………………………………………………………..5
Dictionary entries
A……………………………………………………………………………….78
B…………………………………………………………………………………... 101 V…………………………………………………………… ………………....128 G……………………………………………………………………154
D………………………………………………………………………………171
E………………………………………………………………………………189
F………………………………………………………………...196 W……………………………………………………………… ………………….199
And………………………………………………………………………………206
J…………………………………………………………......220 K………………………………………………………… ……………………220
L………………………………………………………………………………259
M……………………………………………………………...272 N……………………………………………………………… …………………300
O………………………………………………………………………………314
P………………………………………………………………………………328
R……………………………………………………………………………….357
C……………………………………………………………………………….381
T……………………………………………………………………………….424
U……………………………………………………………………………….440
F……………………………………………………………………………….446
X……………………………………………………………………………….453
C……………………………………………………………………………….459
H……………………………………………………………………………….462
W……………………………………………………………………469
Ш………………………………………………………………………………477
E……………………………………………………………..479 Y……………………………………………………………… ……………….....481 I………………………………………………………………………………..483
APPENDIX 1. Chronology………………………………………………………589
APPENDIX 2. Grand Dukes. Kings. Emperors…………………542
APPENDIX 3. Heads of the Russian Orthodox Church………………...547 APPENDIX 4. Higher and central state
institutions in the 16th - 20th centuries………………………………………...555
APPENDIX 5. Table of ranks…………………………………………..585 APPENDIX 6. Administrative-territorial division
XVI - XX centuries……………………………………………………….587
APPENDIX 7. Russian alphabet……………………………………594
APPENDIX 8. Russian system of measures…………………………………..595 APPENDIX 9. Materials for the recommendatory bibliography…....596
FROM THE PUBLISHER
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland", published by the publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", is the first attempt at a one-volume reference and encyclopedic publication covering all periods of Russian history from ancient times to the present day.
The publication opens with a brief historical sketch. The main body of the book is the alphabetical part, which includes several thousand reference articles about the main events, facts, phenomena of Russian history, about state, political, military, public figures, as well as about major historians. The appendices publish: a chronological table, materials for a recommendatory bibliography and a series of reference information on the administrative structure of Russia and the USSR, lists of government institutions and their heads, as well as hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, etc. A special section of the appendices consists of historical maps.
The dictionary is compiled on the basis of encyclopedic publications published by the Scientific Publishing House "Big Russian Encyclopedia" (until 1991 - "Soviet Encyclopedia") and the publishing house's data bank. When compiling a list of government institutions, as well as a list of administrative-territorial units, official publications of the Russian Federation and the latest research by domestic historians were used.
The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland" is addressed to a wide range of readers. Please send comments and suggestions about the dictionary to the publishing house "Bolshaya"
Russian Encyclopedia".
Our address: 109544, Moscow, Pokrovsky Boulevard, 8, publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", editorial office of National History.
MAIN ABBREVIATIONS
AN - Academy of Sciences JSC - autonomous region
ASSR - Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic AX - Academy of Arts
Air Force - Airborne Forces of the Airborne Forces - Airborne Forces of the Navy - Naval Forces of the Navy - Navy
VRK - Military Revolutionary Committee of the Supreme Economic Council - Supreme Council of the National Economy, All-Russian Council of the National Economy
All-Russian Central Executive Committee All-Russian Cheka - All-Russian Extraordinary Commission of the GDR - German Democratic Republic GKO - State Defense Committee of the People's Republic of China - People's Republic of China Ministry of Internal Affairs - Ministry of Internal Affairs
MSU - Moscow State University MFA - Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the MPR - Mongolian People's Republic
NATO - North Atlantic Pact Organization UN - United Nations Air Defense - air defense
RSFSR - Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic SNK - Council of People's Commissars STO - Council of Labor and Defense
CMEA - Council for Mutual Economic Assistance of the Federal Republic of Germany - Federal Republic of Germany Central Executive Committee - Central Executive Committee of the Central Committee - Central Committee
The articles in the alphabetical part use a system of links common to encyclopedic publications. The names of the articles to which links are given are in italics.
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Primitive society
The settlement of primitive man on the territory of the Russian Federation took place during the era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic), characterized by the predominant use of stone for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Wood, bone and other materials were also used. The main activities of small human groups were hunting and gathering. Traces of the habitation of ancient man who came from Transcaucasia were discovered in the North Caucasus and in the Kuban region. Sites of the Mousterian Paleolithic culture (100-35 thousand years ago) were discovered by archaeologists in the middle Volga region and other regions. The discoveries of burials, according to scientists, indicate the development of religious beliefs. In the Upper or Late Paleolithic (40-35 - 10 thousand years ago), people of the modern type (Cro-Magnons) lived in certain areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia (the Urals, Pechora, West Siberian Lowland, Transbaikalia, the middle Lena valley). They own numerous archaeological sites (Avdeevskaya site, Sungir, Kostenki, Malta, Buret, etc.). Collectives of blood relatives on the maternal or paternal lines (clan) lived under the conditions of the last (Valdai) glaciation. Adapting to harsh natural conditions, they improved the technique of processing stone, bone, etc., and mastered the construction of dwellings; introduced specialization in hunting and other trades. During this period, hunting for large mammals prevailed: mammoths, cave bears, etc. Understanding of the surrounding world was reflected in sculptures and cave paintings (Kapova Cave).
IN During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), people adapted to changing natural conditions associated with the retreat of the glacier and the formation of modern relief, climate, flora and fauna. Small groups of hunters and fishermen moved into areas freed from glaciation. With the invention of the bow and arrow, hunting for medium and small mammals and waterfowl became important in hunting; significant areas of inland water bodies contributed to the development of fishing. Researchers attribute the emergence of group burial grounds to this period (Oleneoostrovsky burial ground, etc.).
At the last stage of the Stone Age (Neolithic), the formation of branches of the productive economy began: agriculture and cattle breeding. Grinding and polishing, as well as sawing and drilling, were used in the manufacture of stone tools. Pottery production, spinning and weaving arose. Canoes, skis, and sleighs were used for transportation. By the end of the Neolithic, individual copper products appeared. As clan society became more complex, associations of individual clans appeared - tribes. At the same time, groups of tribes led the same type of economy, which is confirmed by excavations and studies of pit-comb and other archaeological cultures of the Neolithic (Lyalovskaya, Balakhninskaya, etc.).
IN During the Copper Age (Chalcolithic), agriculture, cattle breeding and copper metallurgy developed initially in the southern regions of Eurasia. IN 4th-2nd millennium BC e. settlements of settled farmers and pastoralists existed in the North Caucasus; Ukraine, Moldova (Trypillian culture); steppes of the South of Russia (Yamnaya culture), etc.
Archaeological sites of the Bronze Age have been discovered throughout almost the entire territory of Eurasia. By the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. These include Bronze Age monuments in the Caucasus, the Northern Black Sea region, etc. At the end of the 3rd -1st quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the technology of bronze smelting was mastered by the tribes of the forest-steppe and forest zones of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, and the Altai-Sayan region. The primitive communal form of social organization was largely preserved. Scientists have established the existence in the Bronze Age of independent, territorially isolated population groups with unique characteristics of spiritual and material culture (cultural groups, archaeological
cultures, cultural and historical communities). In the southern zone (Caucasus, Central Asia, and partly Southern Siberia), agricultural and pastoral complexes with developed handicraft production arose. In the steppe, forest-steppe and partly forest zones, the pastoral type of economy predominated with the auxiliary role of agriculture. In the forest (taiga) zone, cattle breeding was combined with hunting and fishing. There were long-term settlements where handicraft production developed. In the Early Bronze Age in Transcaucasia
and in the North-Eastern Caucasus there was a Kura-Araks agricultural and pastoral culture. Contacts were maintained with the civilizations of the Middle East. In the Late Bronze Age, the Koban culture spread in the central regions of the Caucasus. On the territory of the steppes of Eastern Europe lived the pastoral tribes of the Yamnaya cultural and historical community, which arose back in the Copper Age. At the end of the 3rd - mid-2nd millennium BC. e. in Verkhny
And In the Middle Volga region and between the Oka and Volga rivers lived bearers of the Fatyanovo and Balanovo cultures. In the forest-steppe zone of the Don region, the Middle Volga region and the Southern Urals in the middle 2nd millennium BC e. lived tribes of the Abashevo cultural and historical community, which were characterized by a high level of development of metallurgy, based on the Ural and Volga copper deposits. In the 2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st millennium BC. e. In the territory from the Urals to the Left Bank of the Dnieper, cattle-breeding and agricultural tribes of the timber-framed cultural and historical community were located. The Seima-Turbino cultural complex, which originated in the Sayano-Altai region, spread thousands of kilometers to the West. In Siberia, the Afanasyevskaya culture in the upper reaches of the Yenisei and the Altai steppes belonged to the Chalcolithic - the early stage of the Bronze Age, to the Early Bronze Age - the Glazkovskaya culture in the Baikal region and the Ymyyakhtakhskaya culture in the middle Lena basin. The spread of metallurgy in Eastern Siberia is associated with the influence of the Okunev culture, presumably formed in the Minusinsk Basin and pushed to the East by tribes of the Andronovo cultural and historical community. The Andronovo tribes occupied in the 2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st millennium BC. e. the territory from the Urals to the Yenisei and from the taiga zone to the northern regions of Central Asia (Alekseevskoe settlement, etc.). The Karasuk culture (13-8 centuries BC) was discovered in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, Ob, in the Sayan-Altai region. In the south of the Far East in the 2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st millennium BC. e. there were Singai, Lidov, Evoron and other cultures. In the Bronze Age, the process of social division of labor intensified, and exchange between tribes increased. Crafts became an independent sphere of production. The heads of large patriarchal families possessed significant wealth; Property differentiation intensified, and clashes between tribes became more frequent. In the Bronze Age, tribal alliances arose, which were later described by ancient historians and geographers.
Ancient peoples and states in the early Iron Age
In the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron metallurgy spread over a large territory of Russia (except for the northern and northeastern regions), and therefore the decomposition of primitive communal relations accelerated. At the same time, in the North - in the taiga and tundra, in harsh natural conditions, the archaic primitive way of life was preserved. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th to 6th centuries. BC e. under the influence of the ironworking and blacksmithing industries of Transcaucasia. The transition to iron production is traced using material from the Koban, Srubnaya, Abashevo and other cultures. The rise of the Iron Age in the Black Sea steppes coincided with the presence of the Cimmerians and then the Scythians there. Two economic structures emerged: pastoral-nomadic in the steppes and sedentary agricultural in the forest-steppes. The emergence of craft centers that grew into urban centers, with significant military potential, contributed to the emergence of a state among the Scythians. Scythian and Scythian cultures 7-4 centuries. BC e. on the territory of South-Eastern Europe constituted the western part of a large cultural and historical community formed in
mainly among the nomadic pastoral tribes of Eurasia (the so-called Scythian-Siberian cultural-historical community).
In the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. Ancient cities arose on the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, united in the 5th century. BC e. in the Bosporus state, which also included the Sinds, Meotians and other tribes. The Greek slave-owning cities were centers of high ancient culture; they established close economic, political and cultural ties with the Scythians and other peoples. In the 4th century. BC e. The movement of Sarmatian tribes from the Urals to the Volga region began. The Sarmatians defeated the Scythians in the 3rd century. BC e. settled in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and in the North Caucasus. In the steppe zone at the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Sarmatian culture became dominant. The Scythian state, which existed from the 2nd century. BC e. mainly in the Crimea and along the banks of the lower Dnieper, it was influenced by ancient cities and Sarmatian culture.
Iron production developed in the forest-steppe and forest zones of the Dnieper basin. The population of the Zarubintsy culture (2nd century BC - 2nd century AD) in the upper and middle parts of the Northern Dnieper and Desenia regions is correlated by some scientists with the Balt tribes, by others with the Proto-Slavs. In the forest area of Eastern Europe from the 8th century. BC e. to 6-7 centuries n. e. There were cultures associated with different ethnic groups. Monuments of the Dyakovo culture were discovered on the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve; the Gorodets culture spread to the South and East from the middle reaches of the Oka to the Volga (the basins of the Tsna, Moksha, and Sura rivers). The carriers of these cultures were the Finno-Ugric tribes, the ancestors of the Meri, Vesi, Meshchera, Murom and Mordovians. Representatives of the Ananino culture (8-3 centuries BC) occupied the left bank of the Middle Volga and the Kama region. They are considered the ancestors of the Udmurts and Komi. From 8th to 5th centuries BC e. The development of iron was underway in the Far East. The centers of ferrous metallurgy were formed here.
IN the process of the great migration of peoples to the Northern Black Sea region in the 3rd century. n. e. the Goths came, and in 375 the Huns. Ancient cities ceased to exist. In 2nd half of the 3rd century. In the steppe and forest-steppe from the left tributaries of the Dnieper to the Danube, the multi-ethnic Chernyakhov culture spread. Its carriers were the Dacians, Getae, Sarmato-Alans, Late Scythians, Goths, and Slavs. From the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. There was a decomposition of primitive communal relations among many agricultural and pastoral peoples living in Eastern Europe and Siberia. In 550-562, an alliance of nomadic tribes of the Avars moved from the Urals and Volga region to the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the 6th century. In Central Asia, a tribal union of Turks created a state - the Turkic Khaganate, which played an important role in the consolidation of the Turkic-speaking population of Eurasia. In the 60s 6th century The Turks defeated the Hephthalite state in Central Asia. At the turn of the 6th-7th centuries. The Eastern Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates arose. In 638-926 in Southern Primorye there was a state of the Mohe tribe and another - Bohai, which successfully fought the emperors of Tang China. In the 2nd half of the 6th century. Turkic-speaking Bulgarian Balanjar tribes moved from the Trans-Urals to the North Caucasus. In the 1st third of the 7th century. In the Azov region, the state entity Great Bulgaria arose. In the middle of the 7th century. nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of the Lower Volga region, Northern Caucasus, Azov region and Don steppes were included in the Khazar Khaganate. Finno-Ugric tribes of the Middle Volga region and immigrants from Great Bulgaria created in the 10th century. state - Volga-Kama Bulgaria. At the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. The process of state formation among the Alans in the North Caucasus took place.
East Slavs
The Eastern Slavs were one of three groups of ancient Slavs who, along with the Western and Southern Slavs, emerged from the pan-Slavic ethnolinguistic community. The general features of their ethnic appearance were formed in the 6th-9th centuries. on the territory of Eastern Europe as a result of the regrouping of Slavic tribal associations: Antes, Sklavins, Dulebs and
etc. The Eastern Slavs interacted with the Balts, Finno-Ugrians, descendants of the Sarmatians, Turks and came into contact with the Arabs, Byzantines, Scandinavians, etc. By the 9th-10th centuries. they occupied the space from Lakes Peipus and Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea in the South; from the Eastern Carpathians in the West to the lower Oka in the East. The Eastern Slavs were engaged in slash-and-burn farming, field arable farming and sedentary cattle breeding, as well as hunting, fishing, beekeeping and other crafts. Crafts developed (iron production, blacksmithing, jewelry, pottery, etc.). Trade ties were maintained on the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and along the Volga. They lived mainly in territorial communities, the settlements were grouped in nests. In the 9th-10th centuries. Cities appeared on the East Slavic lands: Kyiv, Ladoga, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, Chernigov, etc. Tribal alliances arose led by local princes: Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Ulichi, Tivertsy, etc. Being pagans, the Eastern Slavs worshiped Perun - the god of thunderstorms, Khors - the god of the sun, Volos - the patron of wealth and livestock, etc.
Old Russian state. Old Russian principalities. Novgorod Republic
In the last quarter of the 9th century. the two centers of the Eastern Slavs, Novgorod and Kyiv, were united by the princes of the Rurik dynasty, which marked the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state. Arab, Iranian and Central Asian geographers knew 3 political entities of Rus' (9-10 centuries): Kuyavia, Slavia, Artania. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, in the 9th-10th centuries. there were reigns in the lands of the Drevlyans, Polotsk, and others. The territorial core of the emerging statehood in the Middle Dnieper region was the political and then state formation of the Russian Land (Rus). Archaeological excavations have established that in the middle of the 9th century. on the so-called At the Rurik settlement (in the area of modern Novgorod), a princely residence arose in which the Scandinavians lived. According to scientists, the emergence of this center is connected with the chronicle message about the calling of the prince “from overseas” by the top of the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. The local nobility entered into an agreement with the invited prince, according to which the collection of income from the subject tribes was carried out by representatives of the local elite, and not by the princely squad. This agreement formed the basis of the traditional relationship between the Novgorodians and the princes. Polyana, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi were in the 9th century. depending on the Khazar Khaganate. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled in Kyiv, freed the glades from Khazar dependence. In the 2nd half of the 9th century. The rivalry between “North” and “South” for dominance among the Eastern Slavs intensified. In 882, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, Prince Oleg and Rurik’s young son Igor captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state, and then liberated the lands of the northerners and Radimichi from Khazar tribute. The Old Russian state at that time was a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev, who accepted the title of Khakan, which equated him with the rulers of Khazaria. The central government in Kyiv gradually liquidated the local East Slavic principalities. Constantinople campaigns of the 9th-10th centuries. strengthened Russian-Byzantine relations and, in general, the international position of the state. Princess Olga, who had contacts with the Roman Church, however, around 957 accepted Christianity from Constantinople. Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich defeated in the 60s. 10th century Khazar Khaganate, but could not gain a foothold on the Danube. In the Old Russian state, 3 socio-economic structures coexisted: primitive communal, slaveholding and emerging feudal. Princes and representatives of the senior squad (boyars) became landowners. Slaves served in private households, performed various functions in the princely domain, were used as artisans and were introduced to agriculture. In the presence of communal ownership of land, the foundations of state, church and private hereditary (princely, boyar, peasant, etc.) were laid.
land tenure, which had some regional and temporary features. A special type of feudal land ownership arose - fiefdom. Cities became major centers of crafts and trade.
Having established himself in Kyiv in 980, Vladimir I Svyatoslavich tried to establish an all-Russian pagan pantheon, which included Perun, who was considered the patron of the prince and his squad, Horse, Simargl and other deities. Continuing the policy of state consolidation, Vladimir came to the conclusion that it was necessary to establish monotheism in Rus'. The baptism of Rus' in 988-89 through the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium predetermined the spiritual development of Russia for many centuries. The Russian Orthodox Church strengthened the authority of the princely authorities. Vladimir managed to eliminate the previous federal structure and annexed the southwestern and western lands to his state. From among the senior warriors, a circle of permanent advisers to the prince was formed, the prototype of the so-called. Boyar Duma. During his lifetime, Vladimir distributed control of individual lands to his sons. During the civil strife that arose after the death of Vladimir (1015), on the orders of Svyatopolk I the Accursed, his half-brothers Boris and Gleb were killed. Yaroslav the Wise, who expelled Svyatopolk, became prince in Kyiv in 1019. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich (1036), who ruled the lands along the left bank of the Dnieper, Yaroslav became the sole head of state, which occupied a vast territory from the Taman Peninsula to the Northern Dvina and from the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula to the upper reaches of the Volga and Don. The foreign policy ties of the princely house were sealed by marriage alliances with the rulers of Poland, France, Hungary, and the Scandinavian countries. Rus' successfully fought against Byzantium's claims to dominance in the Northern Black Sea region and the Dnieper region, as well as against the expansion of nomads: the Pechenegs, Torcans, and Polovtsians. Yaroslav appointed the Russian priest Hilarion as metropolitan. The Grand Duke of Kiev promoted the development of books, invited builders, architects and painters. Monasteries became spiritual and cultural centers.
The tendency towards disunity of Russian lands emerged after the death of Yaroslav (1054). This was facilitated by the growth of economic independence of cities - centers of land (Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, etc.). In 1073, Yaroslav's sons Svyatoslav and Vsevolod expelled their elder brother Izyaslav from Kyiv. In the 2nd half of the 11th century. princely civil strife engulfed the Volyn, Galician, Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan, and Tmutarakan lands. The external danger from the Polovtsian, Polish, Hungarian and other rulers increased. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes in the city of Lyubech made a decision on the inheritance of the lands of their fathers and on the independence of the domains. The Kyiv princes Vladimir II Monomakh (ruled 1113-25) and his son Mstislav (ruled 1125-32) tried to strengthen the state, but in the 2nd quarter of the 12th century. it has entered the final phase of its development. At the end of the 10th-12th centuries. Old Russian culture reached a high level. Original and translated written monuments were created, which became a model for the subsequent development of Russian literature and books ("The Tale of Bygone Years" and other chronicle collections, the lives of Saints Boris and Gleb, Theodosius of Pechersk, etc., the works of Metropolitan Hilarion, Abbot Daniel, Vladimir II Monomakh; Russian Truth). In the era of the Old Russian state, on the basis of the East Slavic and some other tribes, the Old Russian nationality emerged.
Novgorod occupied a special place in the history of Ancient and Medieval Rus'. In the 9th-11th centuries. the power of the Novgorod boyars was based on large state corporate land ownership. The institutions of the veche system were formed. Relations with the princes were regulated by tradition, dating back to the agreement with the princes invited in the mid-9th century. At the same time, a hereditary reign did not develop in Novgorod. During the 11th century. the will of the veche was repeatedly decisive in leaving one or another prince on the Novgorod table. Under Vladimir II Monomakh, the last attempt was made to keep the Novgorod boyars in obedience. In 1118, the boyars were summoned to Kyiv, sworn allegiance, some of them were accused of abuses and imprisoned. In 1136, the boyars and merchant elite, taking advantage of popular discontent, expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod.
The supreme power in the Novgorod Republic belonged to the veche, which elected the mayor, the thousand (previously appointed by the princes), and the archbishop (from 1156). Princes were invited to perform mainly military functions. Later, the boyars created their own government body - the “council of masters”, the true government of the Novgorod Republic. In the 11th-15th centuries. Novgorod expanded its territory to the East and North-East. Obonezhye, the Northern Dvina basin, the shores of the White Sea and other lands were developed. Until the mid-13th century, legally until 1348, the Pskov land was part of the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod landowners supplied furs, walrus tusk, hemp, wax and other goods to Western Europe. Cloths, metals, weapons, wines, and jewelry were imported. Novgorod was not only a trading center, but also a highly developed craft center. Novgorod culture was distinguished by its striking originality. There are 900 known birch bark letters, which indicate a high degree of literacy among Novgorodians.
IN 10th century On a branch of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” in the basin of the Western Dvina, Berezina, and Neman rivers, the Principality of Polotsk arose. At the end of the 10th century. Vladimir Svyatoslavich killed Prince Rogvolod of Polotsk. Around 1021, under Vladimir's grandson Bryachislav Izyaslavich, the separation of Polotsk from Kyiv began. Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich (ruled in 1044-1101) during the internecine war with Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, he was captured by deception and imprisoned in Kyiv. Liberated by the rebels of Kiev, he ruled in Kyiv in 1068-69. In the 12th century in the Polotsk land, along with Polotsk, the Minsk, Vitebsk and other principalities arose.
Principality of Kiev in the 12th century. included about 80 urban centers and was the most important outpost protecting Southern Rus' from nomads. Despite the weakening influence of the Kyiv princes on other principalities, Kyiv was still considered by the princes as the main center of Rus'. The most important feature of the struggle for the Kiev table was the fierce rivalry between the two princely dynasties of the Monomakhovichs - descendants of Vladimir II Monomakh
And Olgovichi - descendants of Oleg, son of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. IN 1st half of the 13th century In connection with the strengthening of the Galician-Volyn principality, as well as the devastation of the Kyiv land by the troops of Khan Batu, the influence of Kyiv on Southern Rus' was lost.
IN Northeast Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. The Rostov-Suzdal principality dominated. Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (reigned 1125-57) waged a stubborn struggle with the southern Russian princes for the Kiev table. In 1157, in connection with the transfer of the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir was formed on Klyazma. Grand Dukes Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest had a significant influence on the politics of the Murom, Ryazan, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kyiv principalities and the Novgorod Republic. In the 60-80s. 12th century A number of campaigns were made against Volga-Kama Bulgaria. The Grand Duke of Vladimir became the eldest in North-Eastern Rus'. At the end of the 12th century. The druzhina organization in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and other principalities of North-Eastern Rus' was replaced by the so-called. courtyard (later the Sovereign's courtyard) with a staff of military servants, which marked the beginning of the formation of the nobility.
The Principality of Chernigov and the entire Left Bank of the Dnieper separated from Kyiv under Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich in 1024, but after his death (1036) it was returned by Yaroslav the Wise to the Old Russian state. In 1054, according to Yaroslav's will, it was allocated to his son Svyatoslav. In the 12th-13th centuries. the descendants of Svyatoslav and his sons Davyd and Oleg (Olgovichi) - Vsevolod Olgovich, Izyaslav Davydovich, Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich Chermny, Mikhail Vsevolodovich reigned in Kyiv. From 1097, princely possessions arose within the Principality of Chernigov with centers in the cities of Novgorod-Seversky, Putivl, Rylsk, Kursk, and others. The principality ceased to exist during the Mongol conquests in 1239.
The largest state in Southwestern Rus' was the Galician-Volyn principality, formed in 1199 under Prince Roman Mstislavich as a result of the unification of the Galician and Vladimir-Volyn principalities. Roman and his son Daniel fought against the Galician boyars, who had great economic and political power. In the 12th-13th centuries. the trade and political importance of the cities of Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Terebovlya grew,
History of Russia IX-XX centuries.
Exam questions on Russian history
1. Eastern Slavs in ancient times. Origin and settlement of the Slavs. Public
system, economy, beliefs on the eve of the formation of the state.
2. Formation and formation of a single Old Russian state (IX-X centuries). Norman theory. Normanists and anti-Normanists.
3. Old Russian state and society in the 11th and early 12th centuries.
4. Political fragmentation of Rus'. Causes, features and consequences. Development of Russian lands and principalities in conditions of fragmentation.
5. The struggle of Rus' against the Tatar-Mongol invasion and aggression from the West. Rus' and the Horde. Foreign policy strategy of Alexander Nevsky.
6. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. The fight against the Horde yoke (XIV - first half of the XVI century).
7. The final stage of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of a single Russian state (mid-16th century - first third of the 16th century).
8. The political system of Russia at the end of the 15th century - the beginning of the 15th century.
9. Beginning of the reign of Ivan IV. "The Chosen One" Reforms of the mid-18th century.
10. Oprichnina and its consequences. The activities of Ivan the Terrible in the assessments of historians.
11. Russian foreign policy during the reign of Ivan IV.
12. Russia in the Time of Troubles. Causes, stages, course of events, consequences of the Troubles.
13. Domestic policy of the first Romanovs. Estate-representative monarchy and its development into absolutism.
14. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century. Cathedral Code of 1649 Registration of serfdom and class system.
15. Church reform of the mid-17th century. Church split. The conflict between secular and spiritual authorities of the 50s-60s. XVII century
16. Social movements in the 12th century.
17. Foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. Not the results.
18. Russia and the last quarter of the 12th century. Prerequisites for transformation. The beginning of the state activity of Peter 1.
19. Socio-economic transformations of Peter I.
20. Public administration reforms of Peter I.
21. Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century. Its results.
22. Russia in the era of palace coups (1725-1762).
23. “Enlightened absolutism” of Catherine II.
24. Domestic policy of Catherine 11 after the peasant war under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva.
25. Socio-economic development. Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
26. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. Its results.
27. Domestic policy of Alexander I. Attempts at reform at the beginning of the 19th century.
28. Decembrist movement.
29. Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 19th century.
30. Domestic policy of Nicholas I. Social movement of the 20s-50s. XIX century
31. Russian foreign policy during the reign of Nicholas 1. The Crimean War and its results.
32. Abolition of serfdom. Contents of peasant and land reforms. Historical meaning.
33. Reforms of the 60s-70s. XIX century Contents, historical significance
34. Social and political movements of post-reform Russia. The formation of political parties begins.
35. Government policy of the 80-90s. XIX century Policy of conservative stabilization.
36. Foreign policy of Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century.
Question No. 1. Eastern Slavs in ancient times. Origin and settlement of the Slavs. Social system, economy, beliefs on the eve of the formation of the state.
The Slavs are the largest group of related peoples in Europe, united by the proximity of their languages and common origin. Their number is almost 300 million people. The ancestors of the Slavs, the so-called Proto-Slavs, belonged to the ancient Indo-European family of peoples who, in the IV-III millennium BC. e. settled on the vast territory of the European continent - from Europe to India. The closest relatives of the Slavs in terms of language were the Balts - the ancestors of the Lithuanians, Latvians and Prussians. The neighbors in the south and west are the Germans, whom the Slavs called by the common name “Germans”. The eastern neighbors are the Western Iranian tribes - the Scythians and Sarmatians. The same family included Indians, Iranians, ancient Hittites, Armenians, Greeks and Romans, Celts and other peoples. The ancient Slavs inhabited Central and Eastern Europe between the Vistula and Dnieper rivers, the foothills of the Carpathians and moved towards the Danube and the Balkans. In the second half of the 1st millennium, they occupied the territory from the Elbe and Oder in the west, the Upper Dnieper region and the Middle Dnieper region in the east. While the Slavs lived together between the Vistula and the Dnieper, they spoke one language that was understandable to everyone - Proto-Slavic. However, as they settled, the ancient Slavs became more and more distant from each other in language and culture. Later, the Slavic massif was divided into three branches, on the basis of which modern nations emerged:
· Western Slavs - Poles, Czechs, Slovaks;
· Southern Slavs - Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bosnians;
· Eastern Slavs are Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians.
In the middle of the 1st millennium, the tribes of the Eastern Slavs occupied a vast territory from Lakes Onega and Ladoga in the north to the northern Black Sea region in the south, from the foothills of the Carpathians in the west to the interfluve of the Oka and Volga in the east. In the VIII-IX centuries. The Eastern Slavs formed about 15 of the largest tribal unions. The picture of their settlement looked like this:
> clearing- along the middle reaches of the Dnieper;
> Drevlyans- in the northwest, in the Pripyat River basin and in the Middle Dnieper region;
> Slavs (Ilmen Slavs)- along the banks of the Volkhov River and Lake Ilmen;
> Dregovichi- between the Pripyat and Berezina rivers;
> Vyatichi- in the upper reaches of the Oka, along the banks of the Klyazma and Moskva rivers;
> Krivichi- in the upper reaches of the Western Dvina, Dnieper and Volga;
> Polotsk residents- along the Western Dvina and its tributary the Polota River;
> northerners- in the basins of the Desna, Seim, Sula and Northern Donets;
> Radimichi- on the Sozh and Desna;
> Volynians, Buzhanians and Dulebs- in Volyn, along the banks of the Bug;
> streets, Tivertsy- in the very south, in the interfluves of the Bug and Dniester, Dniester and Prut;
> White Croats- in the foothills of the Carpathians.
Next to the Eastern Slavs lived Finno-Ugric tribes: Ves, Karela, Chud, Muroma, Mordovians, Mer, Cheremis. Their relations with the Slavs were mostly peaceful. The basis of the economic life of the Eastern Slavs was agriculture. The Slavs who lived in the forest-steppe and steppe zones were engaged in arable farming with two-field and three-field crop rotation.
The main tools of labor were a plow with an iron tip, a sickle, and a hoe, but a plow with a ploughshare was also used. The Slavs of the forest zone had shifting agriculture, in which forests were cut down and burned, the ash mixed with the top layer of soil served as a good fertilizer. A good harvest was harvested for 4-5 years, then this area was abandoned. They grew barley, rye, wheat, millet, oats, peas, and buckwheat. Important agricultural industrial crops were flax and hemp. The economic activity of the Slavs was not limited to agriculture: they were also engaged in cattle breeding, raising cattle and pigs, as well as horses, sheep and poultry. Hunting and fishing were developed. Valuable furs were used to pay tribute; they were the equivalent of money. The Slavs were also involved in beekeeping - collecting honey from wild bees. Intoxicating drinks were prepared from honey. An important branch of the economy was iron production. It was mined from iron ore, deposits of which were often found in swamps. Iron tips for plows and plows, axes, hoes, sickles, and scythes were made from iron. Pottery was also a traditional branch of the economy of the ancient Slavs. The main form of tableware among the Slavs throughout the Middle Ages were pots. They were used for cooking, storing food and as ritual utensils: in pre-Christian times, the dead were burned and the ashes were placed in a pot. Mounds were built at the site of the burning. The low level of development of agricultural technology also determined the nature of the organization of economic life. The main unit of economic life was the clan community, whose members jointly owned tools, jointly cultivated the land and jointly consumed the resulting product. However, as methods of iron processing and the manufacture of agricultural implements improve, slash-and-burn agriculture is gradually being replaced by the arable system. The consequence of this was that the family became the main economic unit. The clan community was replaced by a neighboring rural community, in which families settled not according to the principle of kinship, but according to the principle of neighborhood. The neighboring community retained communal ownership of forest and hay lands, pastures, and reservoirs. But the arable land was divided into plots, which each family cultivated with its own tools and disposed of the harvest itself. Further improvement of tools and technology for growing various crops made it possible to obtain surplus product and accumulate it. This led to property stratification within the agricultural community, the emergence of private ownership of tools and land. The main deities of the Slavs were: Svarog (god of the sky) and his son Svarozhich (god of fire). Rod (god of fertility), Stribog (god of the wind), Dazhdbog (deity of the sun), Veles (god of cattle), Perun (god of thunderstorms). In honor of these gods, idols were erected and sacrifices were made to them. As the social organization of East Slavic society became more complex, changes took place in the pagan pantheon: Perun became the main deity of the military service nobility, turning into the god of war. Instead of wooden idols, stone statues of deities appeared, and pagan sanctuaries were built. The decomposition of clan relations was accompanied by the complication of cult rituals. Thus, the funerals of princes and nobles turned into a solemn ritual, during which huge mounds were built over the dead, one of his wives or a slave was burned along with the deceased, and a funeral feast was celebrated, that is, a wake accompanied by military competitions.
Question No. 2. Education and formation of a unified Old Russian state. Norman theory. Normanists and anti-Normanists.
History of the Fatherland, From ancient times to the present day, Artemov V.V., Lubchenkov Yu.N., 2004.
The textbook presents in an accessible form the main events of the History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. The most important patterns of development of Russian civilization are revealed. Much attention is paid to issues of the spiritual life of society, culture and life, and the history of the church. Portraits of prominent historical figures are given. The book will be useful to teachers, as well as to anyone interested in history. For students of secondary vocational educational institutions.
FORMATION OF THE STATE OF Rus'.
The Eastern Slavs are a people whose origin dates back to the early Middle Ages. From the 9th century The first state of the Eastern Slavs - Rus' - is emerging. Historians call this state Ancient, or Kievan, Russia (after the name of its capital), and the Eastern Slavs of the period of the existence of Rus' - the Old Russian people.
The history of the Eastern Slavs, like the history of the emergence of Rus', is one of the controversial issues due to the insufficient number of historical sources and their inconsistency. In addition to the few written documents, historical linguistics (the study of ancient languages) and archeology are of great importance in the study of these issues.
Historical linguistics allows us to point out the deep roots of the Eastern Slavs. Linguists have found that around the V-IV millennia BC. e, the distant ancestors of modern Slavic peoples (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Bulgarians, etc.) along with the ancestors of the Germans, French, English, Irish, Spaniards, Italians, Greeks, Armenians, Iranians, Tajiks, many peoples of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and other countries formed a single ethnic community. They are called Indo-Europeans. Scientists have not come to a common opinion about the place where the Indo-Europeans appeared. They are looking for their ancestral home on the Balkan Peninsula, in the steppes north of the Black Sea, in the now disappeared territory on the site of the Arctic Ocean, on the Asia Minor Peninsula (modern Turkey), etc.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3
Chapter I. Ancient Rus' (IX-early XIV centuries) 4
§ 1. Formation of the state of Rus' 4
§ 2. The rise of Ancient Rus' 9
§ 3. Fragmentation of Rus' 14
§ 4. Culture and life of Rus' 19
§ 5, Rus' in the middle of the XIII - beginning of the XIV century 23
Chapter II. Education and formation of a unified Russian state (XIV-XVI centuries) 30
§ 6. The beginning of the gathering of Russian lands around Moscow. Battle of Kulikovo 30
§ 7. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow. Overthrow of the Horde yoke 38
§ 8. Beginning of the reign of Ivan the Terrible 49
§ 9, Great Devastation 53
§ 10, Board of Boris Godunov 61
§ 11 Russian culture of the late XIII-XVI centuries 69
Chapter III. Russia in the 17th century 74
§ 12. The beginning of the Time of Troubles 74
§ 13. The end of the Time of Troubles and the election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom 81
§ 14. The reign of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov 86
§ 15. The beginning of the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich 101
§ 16. Transformations during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. Popular movements 110
§ 17. Russia during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich and the reign of Sofia Alekseevna 120
Chapter IV. Education and formation of the Russian Empire (late XVII-XVIII centuries) 127
§ 18. Russia during the reign of Peter I 127
§ 19. Transformations of Peter I 133
§ 20, Changes in the field of economics and social order 137
§ 21, The era of palace coups 141
§ 22. Russia in the second half of the 18th century 147
§ 23. Foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century. Great Russian commanders and naval commanders 155
§ 24. Development of culture in the second half of the 18th century 162
Chapter V. Russia in the first half of the 19th century 166
§ 25. Beginning of the reign of Alexander I 166
§ 26. Patriotic War of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army 169
§ 27. The last years of the reign of Alexander I and the Decembrist uprising 173
§ 28. Domestic policy during the reign of Nicholas I 176
§ 29. Social thought during the reign of Nicholas T 180
§ 30. Foreign policy during the reign of Nicholas I. Crimean War 184
§ 31. Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century 189
Chapter VI. Post-reform Russia (60-90s of the 19th century) 195
§ 32. Great reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century 195
§ 33. Economic development after the reform of 1861 goal 204
§ 34. Social movement during the reign of Alexander II 210
§ 35. Foreign policy during the reign of Alexander II 215
§ 36. Russia during the reign of Alexander III 220
§ 37. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 19th century 225
Chapter VII. Russia at the beginning of the 20th century 231
§ 38. Russia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries 231
§ 39. Revolution of 1905-1907 237
§ 40. Russia between two revolutions 244
§ 41. Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century 251
Chapter VIII. Revolution, civil war and their consequences in Russia (1917-late 20s) 256
§ 42. February Revolution of 1917 256
§ 43. The Bolsheviks came to power 261
§ 44. The first steps of the Bolsheviks 265
§ 45. Civil war 272
§ 46. Soviet Russia in the 20s of the XX century 279
Chapter IX. USSR in the 30s and mid-40s of the XX century 288
§ 47. USSR in the late 20s - early 30s 288
§ 48. USSR in the 30s 293
§ 49. Policy in the field of culture. International relations and foreign policy of the USSR in the 30s 300
§ 50. The first period of the Great Patriotic War 305
§ 51. Second period of the Great Patriotic War 310
Chapter X. Our country after 1945 316
§ 52. USSR in 1945-1953 316
§ 53. USSR in 1953-1964 323
§ 54. USSR in 1964-1985 328
§ 55. USSR during the years of perestroika. 1985-1991 338
§ 56. Modern Russia 342
Key dates in Russian history 351
Questions and tasks for self-control 355.
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THE HISTORY OF HOMELAND
SINCE ANCIENT TIMESTO THE PRESENT DAY
ENCYCLOPEDIC DICTIONARY
Compiled by:
B. Yu. Ivanov, V. M. Karev,
E. I. Kuksina, A. S. Oreshnikov,
O. V. Sukhareva
Moscow 1999
FROM THE PUBLISHER The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland", published by the publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", is the first attempt at a one-volume reference and encyclopedic publication covering all periods of Russian history from ancient times to the present day. The publication opens with a brief historical sketch. The main body of the book is the alphabetical part, which includes several thousand reference articles about the main events, facts, phenomena of Russian history, about state, political, military, public figures, as well as about major historians. The appendices publish: a chronological table, materials for a recommendatory bibliography and a series of reference information on the administrative structure of Russia and the USSR, lists of government institutions and their heads, as well as hierarchs of the Russian Orthodox Church, etc. A special section of the appendices consists of historical maps. The dictionary is compiled on the basis of encyclopedic publications published by the Scientific Publishing House "Big Russian Encyclopedia" (until 1991 - "Soviet Encyclopedia") and the publishing house's data bank. When compiling a list of government institutions, as well as a list of administrative-territorial units, official publications of the Russian Federation and the latest research by domestic historians were used. The encyclopedic dictionary "History of the Fatherland" is addressed to a wide range of readers. Please send comments and suggestions about the dictionary to the publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia". Our address: 109544, Moscow, Pokrovsky Boulevard, 8, publishing house "Big Russian Encyclopedia", editorial office of National History. MAIN ABBREVIATIONSAN - Academy of ScienceAO - Autonomous RegionASSR - Autonomous Soviet Socialist RepublicAX - Academy of ArtsVVS - Air ForceVDV - Airborne ForcesVMS - Naval ForcesVMF - NavyVRK - Military Revolutionary CommitteeVSNKh - Supreme Council of the National Economy, All-Russian Council of the People economicsVTsIK - All-Russian Central Executive CommitteeVChK - All-Russian Extraordinary CommissionGDR - German Democratic RepublicGKO - State Defense Committee of the People's Republic of China - People's Republic of ChinaMVD - Ministry of Internal AffairsMSU - Moscow State UniversityMFA - Ministry of Foreign AffairsMPR - Mongolian People's RepublicNATO - North Atlantic Pact OrganizationUN - United NationsAir defense - air defense defenseRSFSR - Russian Soviet Federative Socialist RepublicSNK - Council of People's CommissarsSTO - Council of Labor and DefenseCMEA - Council for Mutual Economic AssistanceFRG - Federal Republic of GermanyCEC - Central Executive CommitteeCentral Committee - Central Committee In the articles in the alphabetical part, a system of references is used, usual for encyclopedic publications. The names of the articles to which links are given are in italics.
HISTORICAL SKETCH
Primitive society The settlement of primitive man on the territory of the Russian Federation took place during the era of the ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic), characterized by the predominant use of stone for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Wood, bone and other materials were also used. The main activities of small human groups were hunting and gathering. Traces of the habitation of ancient man who came from Transcaucasia were discovered in the North Caucasus and in the Kuban region. Sites of the Mousterian Paleolithic culture (100-35 thousand years ago) were discovered by archaeologists in the middle Volga region and other regions. The discoveries of burials, according to scientists, indicate the development of religious beliefs. In the Upper or Late Paleolithic (40-35 - 10 thousand years ago), people of the modern type (Cro-Magnons) lived in certain areas of Eastern Europe and Siberia (the Urals, Pechora, West Siberian Lowland, Transbaikalia, the middle Lena valley). They own numerous archaeological sites (Avdeevskaya site, Sungir, Kostenki, Malta, Buret, etc.). Collectives of blood relatives on the maternal or paternal lines (clan) lived under the conditions of the last (Valdai) glaciation. Adapting to harsh natural conditions, they improved the technique of processing stone, bone, etc., and mastered the construction of dwellings; introduced specialization in hunting and other trades. During this period, hunting for large mammals prevailed: mammoths, cave bears, etc. Understanding of the surrounding world was reflected in sculptures and cave paintings (Kapova Cave). During the Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), people adapted to changing natural conditions associated with the retreat of the glacier and the formation of modern relief, climate, flora and fauna. Small groups of hunters and fishermen moved into areas freed from glaciation. With the invention of the bow and arrow, hunting for medium and small mammals and waterfowl became important in hunting; significant areas of inland water bodies contributed to the development of fishing. Researchers attribute the emergence of group burial grounds to this period (Oleneoostrovsky burial ground, etc.). At the last stage of the Stone Age (Neolithic), the formation of branches of the productive economy began: agriculture and cattle breeding. Grinding and polishing, as well as sawing and drilling, were used in the manufacture of stone tools. Pottery production, spinning and weaving arose. Canoes, skis, and sleighs were used for transportation. By the end of the Neolithic, individual copper products appeared. As clan society became more complex, associations of individual clans appeared - tribes. At the same time, groups of tribes led the same type of economy, which is confirmed by excavations and studies of pit-comb and other archaeological cultures of the Neolithic (Lyalovskaya, Balakhninskaya, etc.). During the Copper Age (Chalcolithic), agriculture, cattle breeding and copper metallurgy developed initially in the southern regions of Eurasia. In the 4th-2nd millennium BC. e. settlements of settled farmers and pastoralists existed in the North Caucasus; Ukraine, Moldova (Trypillian culture); the steppes of the South of Russia (Yamnaya culture), etc. Archaeological monuments of the Bronze Age have been discovered almost throughout the entire territory of Eurasia. By the 1st half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. These include Bronze Age monuments in the Caucasus, the Northern Black Sea region, etc. At the end of the 3rd -1st quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the technology of bronze smelting was mastered by the tribes of the forest-steppe and forest zones of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, and the Altai-Sayan region. The primitive communal form of social organization was largely preserved. Scientists have established the existence in the Bronze Age of independent, territorially isolated population groups with unique characteristics of spiritual and material culture (cultural groups, archaeological cultures, cultural-historical communities). In the southern zone (Caucasus, Central Asia, and partly Southern Siberia), agricultural and pastoral complexes with developed handicraft production arose. In the steppe, forest-steppe and partly forest zones, the pastoral type of economy predominated with the auxiliary role of agriculture. In the forest (taiga) zone, cattle breeding was combined with hunting and fishing. There were long-term settlements where handicraft production developed. In the Early Bronze Age, the Kura-Araks agricultural and pastoral culture existed in Transcaucasia and the North-Eastern Caucasus. Contacts were maintained with the civilizations of the Middle East. In the Late Bronze Age, the Koban culture spread in the central regions of the Caucasus. On the territory of the steppes of Eastern Europe lived the pastoral tribes of the Yamnaya cultural and historical community, which arose back in the Copper Age. At the end of the 3rd - mid-2nd millennium BC. e. in the Upper and Middle Volga region and between the Oka and Volga rivers lived bearers of the Fatyanovo and Balanovo cultures. In the forest-steppe zone of the Don region, the Middle Volga region and the Southern Urals in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. lived tribes of the Abashevo cultural and historical community, which were characterized by a high level of development of metallurgy, based on the Ural and Volga copper deposits. In the 2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st millennium BC. e. In the territory from the Urals to the Left Bank of the Dnieper there were cattle-breeding and agricultural tribes of the timber-framed cultural and historical community. The Seima-Turbino cultural complex, which originated in the Sayano-Altai region, spread thousands of kilometers to the West. In Siberia, the Afanasyevskaya culture in the upper reaches of the Yenisei and the Altai steppes belonged to the Chalcolithic - the early stage of the Bronze Age, to the Early Bronze Age - the Glazkovskaya culture in the Baikal region and the Ymyyakhtakhskaya culture in the middle Lena basin. The spread of metallurgy in Eastern Siberia is associated with the influence of the Okunev culture, presumably formed in the Minusinsk Basin and pushed to the East by tribes of the Andronovo cultural and historical community. The Andronovo tribes occupied in the 2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st millennium BC. e. the territory from the Urals to the Yenisei and from the taiga zone to the northern regions of Central Asia (Alekseevskoe settlement, etc.). The Karasuk culture (13-8 centuries BC) was discovered in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, Ob, in the Sayan-Altai region. In the south of the Far East in the 2nd half of the 2nd - early 1st millennium BC. e. there were Singai, Lidov, Evoron and other cultures. In the Bronze Age, the process of social division of labor intensified, and exchange between tribes increased. Crafts became an independent sphere of production. The heads of large patriarchal families possessed significant wealth; Property differentiation intensified, and clashes between tribes became more frequent. In the Bronze Age, tribal alliances arose, which were later described by ancient historians and geographers. Ancient peoples and states in the early Iron Age In the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC. e. iron metallurgy spread over a large territory of Russia (except for the northern and northeastern regions), and therefore the decomposition of primitive communal relations accelerated. At the same time, in the North - in the taiga and tundra, in harsh natural conditions, the archaic primitive way of life was preserved. In the North Caucasus, iron tools were created from the 9th to 6th centuries. BC e. under the influence of the ironworking and blacksmithing industries of Transcaucasia. The transition to iron production is traced using material from the Koban, Srubnaya, Abashevo and other cultures. The rise of the Iron Age in the Black Sea steppes coincided with the presence of the Cimmerians and then the Scythians there. Two economic structures emerged: pastoral-nomadic in the steppes and settled-agricultural in the forest-steppes. The emergence of craft centers that grew into urban centers, with significant military potential, contributed to the emergence of a state among the Scythians. Scythian and Scythian cultures 7-4 centuries. BC e. in the territory of South-Eastern Europe they formed the western part of a large cultural and historical community, formed mainly among the nomadic pastoral tribes of Eurasia (the so-called Scythian-Siberian cultural and historical community). In the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. Ancient cities arose on the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea, united in the 5th century. BC e. in the Bosporus state, which also included the Sinds, Meotians and other tribes. The Greek slave-owning cities were centers of high ancient culture; they established close economic, political and cultural ties with the Scythians and other peoples. In the 4th century. BC e. The movement of Sarmatian tribes from the Urals to the Volga region began. The Sarmatians defeated the Scythians in the 3rd century. BC e. settled in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and in the North Caucasus. In the steppe zone at the turn of the 2nd-1st centuries. BC e. Sarmatian culture became dominant. The Scythian state, which existed from the 2nd century. BC e. mainly in the Crimea and along the banks of the lower Dnieper, it was influenced by ancient cities and Sarmatian culture. Iron production developed in the forest-steppe and forest zones of the Dnieper basin. The population of the Zarubintsy culture (2nd century BC - 2nd century AD) in the upper and middle parts of the Northern Dnieper and Desenia regions is correlated by some scientists with the Balt tribes, by others with the Proto-Slavs. In the forest area of Eastern Europe from the 8th century. BC e. to 6-7 centuries n. e. There were cultures associated with different ethnic groups. Monuments of the Dyakovo culture were discovered on the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve; the Gorodets culture spread to the South and East from the middle reaches of the Oka to the Volga (the basins of the Tsna, Moksha, and Sura rivers). The carriers of these cultures were the Finno-Ugric tribes, the ancestors of the Meri, Vesi, Meshchera, Murom and Mordovians. Representatives of the Ananino culture (8-3 centuries BC) occupied the left bank of the Middle Volga and the Kama region. They are considered the ancestors of the Udmurts and Komi. From 8th to 5th centuries BC e. The development of iron was underway in the Far East. The centers of ferrous metallurgy were formed here. During the great migration of peoples to the Northern Black Sea region in the 3rd century. n. e. the Goths came, and in 375 the Huns. Ancient cities ceased to exist. In the 2nd half of the 3rd century. In the steppe and forest-steppe from the left tributaries of the Dnieper to the Danube, the multi-ethnic Chernyakhov culture spread. Its carriers were the Dacians, Getae, Sarmato-Alans, Late Scythians, Goths, and Slavs. From the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. There was a decomposition of primitive communal relations among many agricultural and pastoral peoples living in Eastern Europe and Siberia. In 550-562, an alliance of nomadic tribes of the Avars moved from the Urals and Volga region to the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region. In the middle of the 6th century. In Central Asia, a tribal union of Turks created a state - the Turkic Khaganate, which played an important role in the consolidation of the Turkic-speaking population of Eurasia. In the 60s 6th century The Turks defeated the Hephthalite state in Central Asia. At the turn of the 6th-7th centuries. The Eastern Turkic and Western Turkic Khaganates arose. In 638-926 in Southern Primorye there was a state of the Mohe tribe and another - Bohai, which successfully fought the emperors of Tang China. In the 2nd half of the 6th century. Turkic-speaking Bulgarian Balanjar tribes moved from the Trans-Urals to the North Caucasus. In the 1st third of the 7th century. In the Azov region, the state entity Great Bulgaria arose. In the middle of the 7th century. nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes of the Lower Volga region, Northern Caucasus, Azov region and Don steppes were included in the Khazar Khaganate. Finno-Ugric tribes of the Middle Volga region and immigrants from Great Bulgaria created in the 10th century. state - Volga-Kama Bulgaria. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries. The process of state formation among the Alans in the North Caucasus took place. Eastern Slavs The Eastern Slavs were one of three groups of ancient Slavs who, along with the Western and Southern Slavs, emerged from the pan-Slavic ethnolinguistic community. The general features of their ethnic appearance were formed in the 6th-9th centuries. on the territory of Eastern Europe as a result of the regrouping of Slavic tribal associations: Antes, Sklavins, Dulebs, etc. The Eastern Slavs interacted with the Balts, Finno-Ugric peoples, descendants of the Sarmatians, Turks and came into contact with the Arabs, Byzantines, Scandinavians, etc. By the 9th-10th centuries. they occupied the space from Lakes Peipus and Ladoga in the North to the Black Sea in the South; from the Eastern Carpathians in the West to the lower Oka in the East. The Eastern Slavs were engaged in slash-and-burn farming, field arable farming and sedentary cattle breeding, as well as hunting, fishing, beekeeping and other crafts. Crafts developed (iron production, blacksmithing, jewelry, pottery, etc.). Trade ties were maintained on the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” and along the Volga. They lived mainly in territorial communities, the settlements were grouped in nests. In the 9th-10th centuries. Cities appeared on the East Slavic lands: Kyiv, Ladoga, Novgorod, Polotsk, Rostov, Chernigov, etc. Tribal alliances arose led by local princes: Polyans, Drevlyans, Northerners, Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Dregovichi, Radimichi, Vyatichi, Ulichi, Tivertsy, etc. Being pagans, the Eastern Slavs worshiped Perun - the god of thunderstorms, Khors - the god of the sun, Volos - the patron of wealth and livestock, etc. Old Russian state. Old Russian principalities. Novgorod Republic In the last quarter of the 9th century. the two centers of the Eastern Slavs, Novgorod and Kyiv, were united by the princes of the Rurik dynasty, which marked the beginning of the formation of the Old Russian state. Arab, Iranian and Central Asian geographers knew 3 political entities of Rus' (9-10 centuries): Kuyavia, Slavia, Artania. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, in the 9th-10th centuries. there were reigns in the lands of the Drevlyans, Polotsk, and others. The territorial core of the emerging statehood in the Middle Dnieper region was the political and then state formation of the Russian Land (Rus). Archaeological excavations have established that in the middle of the 9th century. on the so-called At the Rurik settlement (in the area of modern Novgorod), a princely residence arose in which the Scandinavians lived. According to scientists, the emergence of this center is connected with the chronicle message about the calling of the prince “from overseas” by the top of the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. The local nobility entered into an agreement with the invited prince, according to which the collection of income from the subject tribes was carried out by representatives of the local elite, and not by the princely squad. This agreement formed the basis of the traditional relationship between the Novgorodians and the princes. Polyana, Northerners, Radimichi, Vyatichi were in the 9th century. depending on the Khazar Khaganate. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled in Kyiv, freed the glades from Khazar dependence. In the 2nd half of the 9th century. The rivalry between “North” and “South” for dominance among the Eastern Slavs intensified. In 882, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, Prince Oleg and Rurik’s young son Igor captured Kyiv and made it the capital of the state, and then liberated the lands of the northerners and Radimichi from Khazar tribute. The Old Russian state at that time was a kind of federation of principalities, headed by the Grand Duke of Kiev, who accepted the title of Khakan, which equated him with the rulers of Khazaria. The central government in Kyiv gradually liquidated the local East Slavic principalities. Constantinople campaigns of the 9th-10th centuries. strengthened Russian-Byzantine relations and, in general, the international position of the state. Princess Olga, who had contacts with the Roman Church, however, around 957 accepted Christianity from Constantinople. Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich defeated in the 60s. 10th century Khazar Khaganate, but could not gain a foothold on the Danube. In the Old Russian state, 3 socio-economic structures coexisted: primitive communal, slaveholding and emerging feudal. Princes and representatives of the senior squad (boyars) became landowners. Slaves served in private households, performed various functions in the princely domain, were used as artisans and were introduced to agriculture. In the presence of communal ownership of land, the foundations of state, church and private hereditary (princely, boyar, peasant, etc.) land ownership were laid, which had some regional and temporary features. A special type of feudal land ownership arose - fiefdom. Cities became major centers of crafts and trade. Having established himself in Kyiv in 980, Vladimir I Svyatoslavich tried to establish an all-Russian pagan pantheon, which included Perun, who was considered the patron of the prince and his squad, Horse, Simargl and other deities. Continuing the policy of state consolidation, Vladimir came to the conclusion that it was necessary to establish monotheism in Rus'. The baptism of Rus' in 988-89 through the adoption of Christianity from Byzantium predetermined the spiritual development of Russia for many centuries. The Russian Orthodox Church strengthened the authority of the princely authorities. Vladimir managed to eliminate the previous federal structure and annexed the southwestern and western lands to his state. From among the senior warriors, a circle of permanent advisers to the prince was formed, the prototype of the so-called. Boyar Duma. During his lifetime, Vladimir distributed control of individual lands to his sons. During the civil strife that arose after the death of Vladimir (1015), on the orders of Svyatopolk I the Accursed, his half-brothers Boris and Gleb were killed. Yaroslav the Wise, who expelled Svyatopolk, became prince in Kyiv in 1019. After the death of his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich (1036), who ruled the lands along the left bank of the Dnieper, Yaroslav became the sole head of state, which occupied a vast territory from the Taman Peninsula to the Northern Dvina and from the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula to the upper reaches of the Volga and Don. The foreign policy ties of the princely house were sealed by marriage alliances with the rulers of Poland, France, Hungary, and the Scandinavian countries. Rus' successfully fought against Byzantium's claims to dominance in the Northern Black Sea region and the Dnieper region, as well as against the expansion of nomads: the Pechenegs, Torcans, and Polovtsians. Yaroslav appointed the Russian priest Hilarion as metropolitan. The Grand Duke of Kiev promoted the development of books, invited builders, architects and painters. Monasteries became spiritual and cultural centers. The tendency towards disunity of Russian lands emerged after the death of Yaroslav (1054). This was facilitated by the growth of economic independence of cities - centers of land (Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk, etc.). In 1073, Yaroslav's sons Svyatoslav and Vsevolod expelled their elder brother Izyaslav from Kyiv. In the 2nd half of the 11th century. princely civil strife engulfed the Volyn, Galician, Rostov, Suzdal, Ryazan, and Tmutarakan lands. The external danger from the Polovtsian, Polish, Hungarian and other rulers increased. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes in the city of Lyubech made a decision on the inheritance of the lands of their fathers and on the independence of the domains. The Kyiv princes Vladimir II Monomakh (ruled 1113-25) and his son Mstislav (ruled 1125-32) tried to strengthen the state, but in the 2nd quarter of the 12th century. it has entered the final phase of its development. At the end of the 10th-12th centuries. Old Russian culture reached a high level. Original and translated written monuments were created, which became a model for the subsequent development of Russian literature and books ("The Tale of Bygone Years" and other chronicle collections, the lives of Saints Boris and Gleb, Theodosius of Pechersk, etc., the works of Metropolitan Hilarion, Abbot Daniel, Vladimir II Monomakh; Russian Truth). In the era of the Old Russian state, on the basis of the East Slavic and some other tribes, the Old Russian nationality emerged. Novgorod occupied a special place in the history of Ancient and Medieval Rus'. In the 9th-11th centuries. the power of the Novgorod boyars was based on large state corporate land ownership. The institutions of the veche system were formed. Relations with the princes were regulated by tradition, dating back to the agreement with the princes invited in the mid-9th century. At the same time, a hereditary reign did not develop in Novgorod. During the 11th century. the will of the veche was repeatedly decisive in leaving one or another prince on the Novgorod table. Under Vladimir II Monomakh, the last attempt was made to keep the Novgorod boyars in obedience. In 1118, the boyars were summoned to Kyiv, sworn allegiance, some of them were accused of abuses and imprisoned. In 1136, the boyars and merchant elite, taking advantage of popular discontent, expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich from Novgorod. The supreme power in the Novgorod Republic belonged to the veche, which elected the mayor, the thousand (previously appointed by the princes), and the archbishop (from 1156). Princes were invited to perform mainly military functions. Later, the boyars created their own government body - the “council of masters”, the true government of the Novgorod Republic. In the 11th-15th centuries. Novgorod expanded its territory to the East and North-East. Obonezhye, the Northern Dvina basin, the shores of the White Sea and other lands were developed. Until the mid-13th century, legally until 1348, the Pskov land was part of the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod landowners supplied furs, walrus tusk, hemp, wax and other goods to Western Europe. Cloths, metals, weapons, wines, and jewelry were imported. Novgorod was not only a trading center, but also a highly developed craft center. Novgorod culture was distinguished by its striking originality. There are 900 known birch bark letters, which indicate a high degree of literacy among Novgorodians. In the 10th century On a branch of the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” in the basin of the Western Dvina, Berezina, and Neman rivers, the Principality of Polotsk arose. At the end of the 10th century. Vladimir Svyatoslavich killed Prince Rogvolod of Polotsk. Around 1021, under Vladimir's grandson Bryachislav Izyaslavich, the separation of Polotsk from Kyiv began. Prince Vseslav Bryachislavich (reigned 1044-1101), during an internecine war with Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod Yaroslavich, was captured by deception and imprisoned in Kyiv. Liberated by the rebels of Kiev, he ruled in Kyiv in 1068-69. In the 12th century in the Polotsk land, along with Polotsk, the Minsk, Vitebsk and other principalities arose. Principality of Kiev in the 12th century. included about 80 urban centers and was the most important outpost protecting Southern Rus' from nomads. Despite the weakening influence of the Kyiv princes on other principalities, Kyiv was still considered by the princes as the main center of Rus'. The most important feature of the struggle for the Kiev table was the fierce rivalry between the two princely dynasties of the Monomakhovichs - descendants of Vladimir II Monomakh and the Olgovichi - descendants of Oleg, the son of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. In the 1st half of the 13th century. In connection with the strengthening of the Galician-Volyn principality, as well as the devastation of the Kyiv land by the troops of Khan Batu, the influence of Kyiv on Southern Rus' was lost. In North-Eastern Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries. The Rostov-Suzdal principality dominated. Prince Yuri Dolgoruky (reigned 1125-57) waged a stubborn struggle with the southern Russian princes for the Kiev table. In 1157, in connection with the transfer of the capital from Suzdal to Vladimir, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir was formed on Klyazma. Grand Dukes Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest had a significant influence on the politics of the Murom, Ryazan, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kyiv principalities and the Novgorod Republic. In the 60-80s. 12th century A number of campaigns were made against Volga-Kama Bulgaria. The Grand Duke of Vladimir became the eldest in North-Eastern Rus'. At the end of the 12th century. The druzhina organization in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and other principalities of North-Eastern Rus' was replaced by the so-called. courtyard (later the Sovereign's courtyard) with a staff of military servants, which marked the beginning of the formation of the nobility.
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QUESTION 1. What are the features of the culture and religion of the ancient Slavs?
Culture (Latin cultura - “cultivation, processing”) is all material and spiritual values that are created by the physical and mental labor of people. Material culture usually means technology, tools, machines, homes, household items, i.e. the totality of means of production and material goods created by human labor. Spiritual culture includes education, science, literature, folk art, and art.
Even before the adoption of Christianity, the East Slavic tribes had a developed culture. Material culture was associated with basic occupations and included tools, processing of raw products, production technologies and preservation of various products and products. Wooden construction (houses, fortifications, passages and bridges over rivers) was supplemented by the production of many wooden products. Oral folk art was associated with pagan religion and the everyday sphere.
Pagan beliefs included the cult of ancestors, the worship of natural phenomena and agricultural cults.
The origin of pagan cults occurred in ancient times - in the Upper Paleolithic era, about 30 thousand years BC. With the transition to new types of economic management, pagan cults were transformed, reflecting the evolution of human social life. At the same time, the most ancient layers of beliefs were not supplanted by newer ones, but were layered on top of each other. Therefore, restoring information about Slavic paganism is extremely difficult. Reconstructing a picture of the paganism of the Slavs is also difficult because practically no written sources have survived to this day. For the most part these are Christian anti-pagan works.
Gods. In ancient times, the Slavs had a widespread cult of the Family and women in labor, closely associated with the worship of ancestors. The clan - the divine image of the clan community - contained the entire Universe - heaven, earth and the underground abode of the ancestors. Each East Slavic tribe had its own patron god.
Later, the cult of the great Svarog, the god of the sky, and his sons Dazhdbog and Stribog, the gods of the sun and wind, became especially significant. Over time, Perun - the god of thunderstorms, the creator of lightning, who was especially revered as the god of war and weapons in the princely militia - began to play an increasingly important role. Perun was not the head of the pantheon of gods; only later, during the formation of statehood and the increasing importance of the prince and his squad, the cult of Perun began to strengthen. The pagan pantheon also included Veles, or Volos, the patron of cattle breeding and guardian of the underworld of the ancestors, Makosh, the goddess of fertility, and others. Totemic ideas associated with the belief in the mystical connection of the clan with any animal, plant or even object were also preserved. In addition, the world of the Eastern Slavs was “populated” by numerous bereginyas, mermaids, goblins, and so on.
Priests. There is no exact information about the pagan priests; apparently they were the chronicle “magi” who fought Christianity in the 11th century. During cult rituals that took place in special places - temples (from the Old Slavonic “kap” - image, idol), sacrifices were made to the gods, including human ones. A funeral feast was held for the dead, and then the corpse was burned on a large bonfire. Pagan beliefs determined the spiritual life of the Slavs.
In general, Slavic paganism did not meet the needs of the emerging Slavic states, because it did not have a developed social doctrine capable of explaining the realities of the new life. The fragmented nature of mythology prevented the Eastern Slavs from holistically understanding their natural and social environment. The Slavs never developed a mythology that explained the origin of the world and man, telling about the victory of heroes over the forces of nature, etc. By the 10th century. The need to modernize the religious system became obvious.
The adoption of Christianity in 988 enriched Russian culture
In the XI-XII centuries. appeared: chronicles (The Tale of Bygone Years, Pskov and other chronicles); translated books, original ancient Russian literature, mainly lives and teachings (“The Tale of Law and Grace”, “The Tale of Igor’s Host”, “Prayer” by Daniel the Prisoner, “Teaching” by Vladimir Monomakh, etc.) Writing (Cyrillic alphabet) has become widespread ), which is reflected in inscriptions on dishes, handicrafts, on the walls of cathedrals, and in birch bark letters. The first schools appeared at princely courts and monasteries. Children were also taught by home teachers who gave private lessons. Monasteries were important centers of culture and education. With the adoption of Christianity, the family became monogamous. After 988, the following were built: the twenty-five-domed Tithe Church in Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedrals in Kyiv, Novgorod and Polotsk, the Assumption and Dmitrov Cathedrals in Vladimir, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, etc., most of which have survived to this day. During construction, a cross-dome structure, an altar, apses, and other new elements were used. Cathedrals were decorated with icons, frescoes, and mosaics. During the service, church hymns appeared.
When drawing up the body of Russian legislation - the Russian Truth (the first half of the 11th century) - not only common law and princely decisions (precedents), but also Byzantine canon law and the norms of international treaties were widely used. The church had special status and jurisdiction.
The Christianization of Russian culture and Russian consciousness continued for a long time. Some pagan, pre-Christian customs and rituals have survived to this day. Slavic paganism and Orthodoxy were guided by the same moral criteria. But religious content implied different areas of activity. Christianity primarily regulated social relations, and paganism regulated human relations with nature.
Ancient Rus' in its heyday was a single ancient Russian state with a single ancient Russian language, a single ancient Russian culture.
QUESTION 2. What was the social organization of squads in the 10th-12th centuries?
As is known, the Old Russian state was formed according to the Varangian type, and therefore the military organization was of decisive importance. The formation process was basically completed by the beginning of the 11th century. At the first stage, the princes received income through military booty, then through the collection of tribute, and only later did the collection of taxes appear. The squad for the prince is the basis of power. Russian princes are, first of all, the leaders of the squad. The vigilantes were a socially heterogeneous organization. The top of the squad consisted of noble warriors close in family to the prince. They wore clothing appropriate to their social status and enjoyed privileges and honors. Each senior warrior was subordinate to “gridi” - junior warriors, or “otraki” (the name reflects not age, but social status), who had the right to a smaller share of military spoils. As a rule, there were much more otraks in the squad. In peacetime, the squad gathered in full force, spending time in feasts, gathering in the princely gridnitsa according to strict ritual rules. Until the feudal-land form of the state was sufficiently strengthened, the prince depended on the squad and therefore was “first among equals.” There is a version that it was dependence on the squad, for example, that did not allow Svyatoslav to accept Christianity. Not only large and small princes had a squad, but later also local boyars.
QUESTION 3. What role did Russian-Polovtsian ties play in the foreign policy of the Russian lands in the 12-13th centuries?
At the beginning of the 21st century, the Polovtsians advanced from the Trans-Volga region to the Black Sea steppes, displacing the Pechenegs from there. Having subjugated these tribes, the Polovtsians crossed the Dnieper and reached the mouth of the Danube, thus becoming the masters of the Great Steppe from the Danube to the Irtysh, which went down in history as Dasht and Kypchak or, in Russian sources, the Polovtsian steppe. Rus' could not ignore such a force.
In 1068 the first Polovtsian invasion of Rus' took place. In September, the Polovtsians defeated the Yaroslavich army in the Battle of Alta and ravaged the border lands. In November, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, having 3 thousand warriors, defeated 12 thousand Polovtsy in the battle on the river. Again. After this, the military campaigns of the Polovtsians on Russian lands (often in alliance with one of the princes) became regular. The Polovtsians, brought by Oleg Svyatoslavich and Boris Vyacheslavich in 1078, defeated Vsevolod Yaroslavich on the Sozhitsa (Orzhitsa) River. In the battle with the Polovtsians on Nezhatina Niva in 1078, Izyaslav Yaroslavich of Kiev died.
In 1091, the Polovtsians, together with the Russian prince Vasilko Rostislavich, assisted Byzantium in the war with the Pechenegs, who were defeated at the Battle of Leburn. Already in 1092, during the illness of Vsevolod Yaroslavich, the Polovtsians launched a second large-scale attack on Rus'. In 1093-1125. In 1093, the Polovtsians won a victory in the battle on the Stugna River over the united troops of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich of Kyiv, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh and Rostislav Vsevolodovich Pereyaslavsky, and the latter drowned in the river while fleeing. The repeated battle near Kiev in the same 1093 also ended in defeat. In 1094, the Polovtsy, together with Oleg Svyatoslavich, besieged Vladimir Monomakh in Chernigov, and he was forced to leave the city. In 1096, the Polovtsians suffered their first crushing defeat from the Russians, Khan Tugorkan died.
In 1099, Davyd Igorevich on the Vigor River, not far from Przemysl, with the help of the Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Altunopa, defeated the Hungarian army led by Prince Koloman.
At the beginning of the 12th century, the Polovtsians were driven out by Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh to the Caucasus, beyond the Volga and Don.
After the death of Vladimir Monomakh (1125), the Russian princes again began to attract Polovtsian forces to the internecine struggle. Then, from 1190, there began a short period of generally peaceful coexistence and partial Christianization of the Polovtsian nobility. In 1222-1223 the Cumans were defeated by the Mongol army, first on the Don, then on the Kalka.
In 1223, at the request of the Polovtsians, the Russian princes set out to meet the Mongols and were defeated in the Battle of Kalka. After Batu’s European campaign of 1236-1242, the Polovtsians ceased to exist as an independent political unit, but they formed the bulk of the Turkic population of the Golden Horde; some of the Polovtsians settled in Rus'.
Thus, we see that relations with the Polovtsians have always played an important role for Rus'. The Polovtsians were both enemies and allies - they defended the southern borders of Rus'. Such a foreign policy turned out to be more beneficial for Rus'. The princes also used the Polovtsians in their internal politics, “driving” the Polovtsian armies against each other in civil strife. It was considered good luck and an honor to consolidate princely influence among the Polovtsians through dynastic marriages of Russian princes with Polovtsian khans:
· 1094 - the Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, having made peace with the Polovtsians, took as his wife the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Tugorkan.
· 1107 - Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky married the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa. Thus, an alliance was concluded between Khan Aepa and Yuri’s father Vladimir Monomakh. In the same year, Svyatoslav, the son of Oleg Svyatoslavich, married the daughter of the Polovtsian khan.
· 1117 - Andrei Vladimirovich married the granddaughter of Tugorkan.
· 1163 - the son of the great Kyiv prince Rostislav Mstislavich Rurik married the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Belok.
· 1187 - the son of Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich (hero of the Lay of Igor's Campaign) Vladimir married the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Konchak.
· 1205 - the son of the Vladimir prince Vsevolodovich Yuryevich Yaroslav married the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Yuri Konchakovich.
· Mstislav Udatny was married to the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Kotyan.
QUESTION 4. How did the fight against the aggression of the Crusaders go?
At a time when Rus' was bleeding from the invasion of Batu Khan, its northwestern borders began to be threatened by a new danger - German-Swedish aggression.
Back in the 12th century, German crusading knights, with the support of Rome and the German Empire, began to penetrate into the Eastern Baltic, inhabited by Lithuanian, Latvian and Finno-Ugric tribes. In 1201, the Riga fortress was founded at the captured mouth of the western Dvina, which turned into an outpost of the Crusaders' expansion. In 1202, the Order of the Swordsmen was created, which, after uniting with the Teutonic Order in 1237, became known as the Livonian Order. The goals of the orders were to seize new lands and spread Catholicism.
The population of the Baltic states resisted conquest and forced Christianization, finding in this the support of Rus'. True, enmity that periodically flared up, for example, between the Lithuanian and Western Russian princes, interfered with the organization of joint actions and contributed to German expansion. It especially intensified after the unification of the Orders and the weakening of Rus' as a result of the Mongol invasion, which served as a kind of signal for an attack on the North-Western lands.
In 1240, a Swedish detachment landed at the mouth of the Neva. He was met and defeated by the squad of Alexander Yaroslavich, who at that time reigned in Novgorod. For his victory he received the nickname "Nevsky". However, the danger from the West remained.
Livonian knights captured Pskov and invaded the Novgorod possessions. Prince Alexander, having forgotten about the quarrel with the Novgorodians (immediately after the victory over the Swedes, he was forced to leave the city), at their request, he brought his squad. Having united it with the Novgorod militia and concluding an alliance with the tribes of Izhora, he expelled the Germans from Koporye, Pskov and Izborsk. On April 5, 1242, the knights were finally defeated on the ice of Lake Peipus (“Battle of the Ice”), and in 1243 the Livonian Order concluded a peace treaty with Novgorod. This victory stopped Western aggression and stopped attempts to impose Catholicism on Rus'. Subsequently, relying on the help of the Mongols, who were distinguished by religious tolerance, the Russian princes more than once resisted the Western danger.
QUESTION 5. How was the class system of organizing society formed under Ivan the Terrible?
To trace changes in the class organization of society under Ivan the Terrible, it is necessary to briefly outline the Tsar’s reforms.
In January 1547, Ivan IV took the title of Tsar. From this moment on, he is actively involved in government.
The beginning of the reforms was the convening in 1549 of the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of the country, which consisted of the Boyar Duma, court circles, the top clergy and nobility. In his speech, the Tsar accused the boyars of abuses that occurred “before his royal age,” but in the end he called on everyone, in the spirit of Christian morality, to mutual forgiveness. Thus, a course was set to achieve agreement between various groups at the top of Russian society and their unification around the central government.
Based on the decisions of the Council, in 1550 a new Code of Law was adopted, which provided for punishments for boyars and clerks for official crimes (for example, bribery), and also limited the rights of governors, primarily in relation to nobles. “St. George’s Day” was preserved, although the peasants’ exit was made more difficult due to the increase in the “elderly”.
In 1551, a church council was convened, called the Stoglavy Council, which was attended, along with the clergy, by the top nobility and boyars. In addition to purely religious issues, national issues were also discussed. Thus, it was decided to review the ownership rights of the church to the lands received by it after 1533.
In the 1550s The formation of the order system is completed.
In 1552, a complete list of the Sovereign's court was compiled, which, along with the princely and boyar aristocracy, included the upper classes of the nobility. The persons included in it (initially about 4 thousand people) began to be called nobles. The lower layer of service people continued to bear the old name “Children of the Boyars.” It was from among the nobles that many appointments to command, military and administrative positions now came. The creation of orders and the expansion of the Sovereign's court strengthened the central government.
The completion of the labial and implementation of the zemstvo reform changed local government, and the feeding system was abolished. Nobles and “children of the boyars” elected provincial elders, peasants and townspeople elected zemstvo elders.
In 1556, the “Code of Service” was adopted, establishing a unified procedure for organizing military forces. Now, from a certain amount of land (100 quarters), an armed warrior on horseback had to be deployed. The military reform equalized the boyar patrimony and estate in service, increased the number of armed forces, and increased their combat effectiveness. In addition, she somewhat streamlined the relations between service people, who were now divided into two main groups: servicemen “by fatherland” (i.e. by inheritance - boyars and nobles) and “by instrument” (i.e. by recruitment - archers , gunners, city Cossacks, recruited for cash salaries).
Those who in the West are called feudal lords were service “ranks” that varied greatly in status and income. In the first place were appanage and “service” princes - vassals of the king and owners of their own principalities (by the beginning of the 17th century, this category disappeared). Next came the ranks of the Sovereign's court: Boyars, okolnichy, Duma nobles, stewards, solicitors, "Moscow nobles." And at the very bottom of this system were the “children of the boyars” or “police nobles” - small-scale nobles who “with the whole city” went to war.
The sovereign endowed service people with estates and estates, sent them to “parcels”, awarded them or put them in disgrace, and they were obliged to serve him indefinitely and unconditionally and apply to the royal name, regardless of their position on the social ladder, nothing less than “your serf Ivashka with his brow.” beats" regardless of whether the person served "for the fatherland" or "for the device."
The peasants were divided into palace, boyar, church and black sowing peasants. Among the townspeople, “privileged guests” and “living room and cloth hundreds” stood out; the rest of the “black” townspeople were divided into “best”, “average” and “young” according to their level of prosperity. All of them were obliged to “pull taxes” - pay taxes and perform other duties (“city affairs”, maintaining order on the streets, building the voivode’s yard, etc.).
The system of military-service statehood, promoting the political unification of the country in the absence of a developed urban economy, monetary connections, self-governing guilds, workshops, and universities, became the basis for the formation of the Russian political tradition. As a result, a society emerged in which the main social groups in the 16th - 17th centuries. became “service classes” - all of them were united not so much by the presence of special rights and freedoms, but by compulsory service, in one form or another, to the state.
QUESTION 6. How was the Russian market formed in the 17th century?
The main task of the country's economy in the first half of the 17th century was to overcome the consequences of the “great Moscow ruin” caused by the turmoil. This decision was complicated by the following factors: heavy human and material losses; low fertility of non-black soil soils, the strengthening of serfdom, the consumer nature of the peasant economy and the increasing tax burden.
From the middle of the 17th century, there was an increase in agricultural production due to the development of black soil lands in the center of Russia, where productivity was higher, as well as in the Middle Volga region. But the tools of labor did not undergo any significant changes; the arable land was cultivated with a plow and harrow, and the harvest was harvested with a sickle. Three-field farming predominated, although undercutting remained in the north. They sowed rye, oats, barley, and to a lesser extent wheat.
Handicraft production in the city gradually reoriented from order to sale, that is, it became small-scale goods. The growth of production aimed at the market was caused by the specialization of individual regions. For example, the Volga region was famous for leather processing, Pomorie - for wood products and salt, Novgorod - for linen, Tula and Kashira - for iron products. Such examples were also known in our region - vegetables in Beloozero, iron smelting in Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya.
At the same time, the growth in the number of artisans and craft specialties (up to 250 by the middle of the 17th century) was combined with the seasonal nature of craft labor. The craftsman did not break with agriculture, which interfered with the productivity of his craft labor, the accumulation of funds and the consolidation of production. The Russian city differed from Western European ones in its agricultural appearance.
Large-scale production also appeared in the form of the first Russian manufactories based on manual labor. In total, by the end of the 17th century, there were about 30 manufactories (metallurgical, linen, weapons). An important place among them was occupied by enterprises of foreigners (Vinnius, Marcelis, Butenant).
Their distinctive feature was that they worked for the treasury and were not associated with the market, and also used the labor of serfs. That is why manufacturing in Russia did not become a source of early bourgeois relations, unlike Western Europe.
Trade ties, based on the natural-geographic division of labor and the development of urban crafts, gradually covered the entire country. Moscow was the largest trading center; fairs played a huge role. However, in general, domestic trade did not affect the natural basis of the domestic economy; only elements of market relations were formed, and commodity production and circulation served mainly only the upper crust of society and the urban population.
In foreign trade, the export structure remained traditional, reflecting the nature and level of economic development. Furs, grain, flax, hemp, leather, and lard were exported, while Russia imported industrial products, metal, cloth, luxury goods, and tea. Transportation of agricultural products was profitable only in large quantities, which could only be accomplished by sea transport. In general, only large-scale wholesale trade gave profit in that era, but at that level of transport development it could only exist as a maritime trade, and land trade could only be small-scale wholesale.
Sea trade with Europe was carried out through a single port - Arkhangelsk, and with eastern countries - through Astrakhan. Arkhangelsk, operating only for a few months a year, could not satisfy the economic needs of the country, which was faced with an urgent need to access seas convenient for trade. In addition, Russia did not have its own fleet, and its already limited foreign trade was almost entirely in the hands of foreign merchants.
The government, taking into account the interests of its own economy and the Russian merchants, began to pursue a policy of protectionism. In 1653, the Trade Charter was adopted, which established a 5% duty on the price of imported goods, and in 1667, the New Trade Charter, which introduced a 10% duty on foreign goods that were sold within the country. In addition, this measure increased revenues from the collection of duties from foreign merchants.
In general, the pace of economic development in Russia looks modest against the backdrop of the massive development of manufactories in Holland and England, the emergence of farm leases and the intensification of agriculture, the development of maritime trade and the development of overseas colonies in the East and West Indies. Elements of bourgeois relations appeared in the country, but they were “grabbed” and deformed by the serfdom system and state control.
QUESTION 7. What are the features of the reform activities of Catherine the Second?
Catherine's reform activities acquired a truly specific character in life. This is due both to the personality characteristics of the empress herself and to the characteristics of Russian history, primarily its economic and social development.
The ideas of “enlightened absolutism” in Russia looked completely different from those in Russia, where the confrontation between the nobility and new social forces did not reach great intensity, and the authorities still had a fairly large margin of safety for maneuvering. Catherine understood that modernization is impossible without the development of industry and trade, without bringing the management system and the level of cultural development in line with the “spirit of the times.” She so sought to strengthen the absolutist state. The Empress believed that word and persuasion were more effective means of modernization than brute force. However, under the influence of the obstacles encountered on the way to achieving this goal, the policy of “enlightened absolutism” was extremely contradictory: education and liberal measures were combined with reactionary government measures and the use of violent methods.
In history, there are views that reduce the activities of the ruler to sophisticated hypocrisy. However, it is not. The facts suggest that Catherine sincerely tried to modernize Russia, which she loved very much. Catherine had a natural calculating mind and strong-willed character. Catherine pursued a policy that was emphatically patriotic in nature, both domestic and foreign. As one researcher noted, if “Peter made Germans out of Russians, then she, a German, made Russians out of Russians.” Catherine was power-hungry, but also hardworking, she knew how to attract talented people to carry out state tasks. However, its favorites, unlike previous reigns, influenced only the resolution of private issues and were never omnipotent.
The obstacles that Catherine encountered in her reform activities (it is enough to recall her Statutory Commission, when the empress tried to abolish serfdom, but met opposition from the nobility) were caused by objective reasons: - immaturity of social and spiritual prerequisites (the virtual absence of a national bourgeoisie, lack of enlightenment of the main the masses of the nobility, the patriarchal nature of the urban population and peasantry), and most importantly - the very nature of autocracy, the sovereignty of the monarch, unable to limit his power.
The reform activities of Catherine II can be divided into the following areas.
Measures to improve the public administration system. Catherine, based on Montesquieu’s ideas that the natural environment, the size of the country and the character of its population determine the form of the state system, argued for the need for autocracy in Russia. She believed that autocracy, based on the law, to which the monarch himself must obey, is fundamentally different from despotism. In fact, the “omnipotence of the law” was ignored by officials and Catherine herself. Therefore, Catherine rejected the idea of creating an “Imperial Council” that limited the power of the monarch and in 1763 reformed the Senate, dividing it into 6 departments, thereby depriving this body of many powers and turning it into a judicial appellate institution.
The most important mechanism of government was Catherine's Cabinet with its secretaries of state. In general, the bureaucratic apparatus in the country became stronger.
The power of the treasury and the state strengthened even after Catherine’s war in 1763-1764. secularization of church lands.
In order to strengthen the management of the outskirts, the hetmanate in Ukraine was eliminated, and the privileges of the Cossacks were limited. In 1775, the Zaporozhye army was abolished, and the usual system of provincial institutions was introduced on the Don, which deprived the Cossacks of the remnants of autonomy. All these measures strengthened the centralization of the country.
In 1768, Catherine convened the Legislative Commission, which was called upon to develop a new set of laws. The Empress herself prepared the “Order” with the aim of easing serfdom. However, the activities of the commission led Catherine to the conclusion that it was impossible to achieve coordination of the interests of the classes without the risk of losing the throne.
The reform of local government was a response to the shock that the empire experienced as a result of a strong social explosion - the “Pugachevschina”. It was intended to strengthen state power locally, transfer some functions of state bodies there and thereby increase their efficiency and strengthen the position of the nobility, which was assessed as the only reliable support of power. Russia was divided into 50 provinces, each of them 10-15 districts.
Policy in the socio-economic sphere was also extremely contradictory. There was a strengthening of serfdom, which was expressed in the widespread practice of distributing state peasants into the hands of landowners, in the elimination of the remnants of the rights of serfs, in increasing the zone of serfdom, as well as in increasing the privileges of the nobility - they received the right not to serve, if they did not want this, as well as monopoly right to own land and peasants. The last transformation was a liberal measure, because it emancipated the nobles from the state. Liberal measures include the granting of the “Charter of Grant to Cities” in 1785, which was intended to strengthen the position of the third estate and complement the measures of “economic liberalism” of the ruler.
The results of Catherine’s activities are also contradictory.
The autocracy was strengthened and modernized.
Public life revived and the beginnings of civil society appeared.
Serfdom intensified, but for the first time the question of softening or even abolishing serfdom was raised.
The situation of the urban population has improved, and its economic activity has intensified.
The concept of freedom and individual rights arose, although their distribution did not go beyond the spiritual elite of society.
The policy of “economic liberalism” contributed to the emergence of the capitalist system.
Some negative consequences of the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, the inability to implement what was declared, led to the disappointment of part of society and the emergence of revolutionary ideas.
QUESTION 8. What was the significance of the peasant reform of 1861?
Serfdom was abolished only 150 years ago! That is, 150 years ago our great-great-great grandparents were slaves!
The significance of the abolition of serfdom was as follows.
1. The reform was the greatest progressive event in Russian history. It marked the beginning of the accelerated modernization of the country, that is, the transition, and at a high pace, from an agricultural to an industrial society.
2. The “Great Reform” gave freedom to millions of people. At the same time, its implementation proved the possibility and fruitfulness of peaceful transformations in Russia, carried out on the initiative of the authorities. It is significant that in the United States the abolition of slavery, which took place around the same time, became possible only as a result of the Civil War.
3. The reform gave a powerful impetus to the economic and social progress of the country and opened up the opportunity for the broad development of market relations.
4. It created the conditions for liberal reforms in the spheres of governance, justice, education, etc., and laid the foundation for the formation of civil society.
5. The liberation of the peasants changed the moral climate in the country and influenced the development of social thought and culture as a whole.
6. However, the interests of the landowners and, especially, the state were taken into account more than the peasants, which predetermined the preservation of a number of fundamental remnants of serfdom and elements of traditional structures. Large landownership remained. The consequence of this was the land instability of the peasants, who did not receive land (forests, pastures, etc.), which made farming difficult. The main thing was that during the post-reform period there was an increasing shortage of land, leading to peasant land shortage, which ultimately became one of the reasons for the agrarian crisis of the early 20th century. In conditions of land “hunger,” peasants were forced to rent landowners’ lands under enslaving conditions. As a result of this, a so-called labor system was formed, which outwardly resembled corvée with all its negative consequences. The burden of redemption payments prevented the peasant from entering the market and led to impoverishment. The preservation of the rural community preserved the patriarchal character of the village. The reform strengthened the autocracy. This became one of the factors of a deep socio-political crisis.
7. In general, the results of the reforms of 1861 corresponded to the transformative potential of Russian society of the 50s and 60s; they were initiated by the top of society and did not have strong support in the country. The authorities feared, on the one hand, the indignation of the noble landowners, and on the other, the inadequate reaction of the peasants. Having removed the severity of the contradictions, the government abandoned further reforms. The shortcomings of the reform accumulated like a snowball and subsequently led to revolutionary upheavals.
QUESTION 9. What are the features of the formation of the Russian multi-party system at the beginning of the 20th century?
At the beginning of the 20th century in Russia, the process of formalizing political movements and trends in the party began intensively. The formation of the party system was greatly influenced by: firstly, significant differences (compared to Western Europe) associated with the social structure of society; secondly, the uniqueness of political power (autocracy); thirdly, the multinationality of the population.
Features of the formation of political parties
1. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. The process of forming a single political party of the working class - the RSDLP - was intensively underway.
2. The formation of the working class party accelerated the creation of other parties in Russia. During 1900-1901 The Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs) took shape, claiming to be the spokesmen for the interests of the peasants. The parties of the ruling classes emerged during the years of the first Russian revolution. And they were immediately forced to adapt to the rapidly changing situation. They needed some time to look around, develop their program and political slogans, strategy and tactics.
3. Numerous national parties were formed (in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, etc.)
4. No country in the world had as many parties as Russia. If at the end of the 19th century. Only three political parties were honored, then only in the first six years of the 20th century. - over 50, and in 1917-1920. - about 90. This is explained, first of all, by the multinational composition of the population and the different times in which the self-awareness of various segments of the population matures.
5. As in other countries, parties in Russia did not immediately appear ready-made. At first, certain ideological and political sentiments arose in the advanced groups of a class or even classes. They were most often reinforced by the creation of circles. Then directions of socio-political thought took shape, the representatives of which were grouped around magazines or newspapers of a literary, artistic or socio-political nature. Among these amorphous formations, both in the field of worldview and in organization, a class demarcation gradually occurred, and more often than not one, but several parties were formed.
In Russian historiography, it was customary to divide parties into four categories: bourgeois, petty-bourgeois, landowner-monarchist and proletarian. This classification is associated with the class approach.
Depending on their political goals, means and methods, parties should be divided into several categories:
Left: Social Democratic - Mensheviks; socialist (proletarian) - Bolsheviks; neo-populist (socialist revolutionaries) - Socialist Revolutionaries, Trudoviks, etc.;
Liberal: Cadets (constitutional democrats);
Monarchical: “Union of the Russian People”, “Russian People’s Union named after Michael the Archangel”;
Anarchist: more than 20 groups that shared the ideas of P.A. Kropotkina, M.A. Bakunin.
Thus, by the beginning of the first Russian revolution, political parties were created or were in the process of formation in the country, representing the interests of various strata of society. The features of the system of political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century were as follows:
Neither the landowners, nor the business commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, nor the peasantry had “their own parties” at that time, expressing their interests;
There was no “government” (in the Western sense) party, since the Council of Ministers was appointed not by the Duma, but personally by the Tsar, and all Russian parties were in one way or another in opposition to the government, criticizing its policies either from the left or from the right;
Not a single Russian political party had passed the test of power before October 1917;
The weak point of the Russian political system at the beginning of the 20th century. There was a mechanism for the functioning of many parties (illegal or semi-legal);
Not all parties, especially national ones, were represented in the State Duma;
Peasant Russia, the Russian “outback”, was poorly covered by the process of party-political construction, which took place mainly in the administrative and industrial centers of the country.
However, despite the specifics of the formation of both all-Russian and (especially) national political organizations, parties arose and developed in line with general patterns. This marked the beginning of a multi-party system in Russia.
QUESTION 10. Name the main directions of the foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 20s
The end of the First World War (the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919), the end of the Civil War in Russia and the existence of the Soviet state with a fundamentally new socio-political system created new conditions in international relations.
The foreign policy of the Soviet state to a certain extent preserved the continuity of the policy of the Russian Empire in the implementation of geopolitical tasks, but was distinguished by a new nature and methods of implementation. Two basic principles of Soviet foreign policy were formulated by V.I. Lenin.
The first principle is the principle of proletarian internationalism, which included assistance to the international working class and national movements in underdeveloped countries. It was based on the Bolsheviks' faith in the world socialist revolution. To implement it, the Comintern was created in 1919, which was used by the Bolsheviks to interfere in the internal affairs of other countries, which strained relations with them.
The second principle is the principle of peaceful coexistence with capitalist countries, which meant the possibility of economic cooperation with other states so that Soviet Russia could emerge from economic isolation and strengthen itself on the world stage.
As a result, the foreign policy of the Soviet state in the 1920s. was controversial. Its main directions were:
An attempt to overcome diplomatic isolation by participating in the Genoa Conference in 1922;
Conclusion of the Treaty of Rappal with Germany in 1922;
Establishing trade relations with England, France, Italy and a number of other countries;
Normalization of diplomatic relations with many countries of the world (40 treaties were concluded between 1921 and 1925);
Conclusion of a series of equal treaties with the countries of the East and Asia;
The struggle for disarmament (participation in the Lausanne Conference in 1922-1923).
QUESTION 11. How did the collectivization of agriculture take place?
By the mid-1920s. the objective course of the country's socio-economic development, primarily industrialization, required an increase in agricultural production. Theoretically, two ways of reorganizing agriculture were possible:
1) deepening the NEP, developing commodity relations and cooperation;
2) complete elimination of the private sector and the introduction of state control over the economy. The agrarian crisis and the disruption of grain procurements in the winter of 1927-1928. prompted the Stalinist leadership to take a course towards complete collectivization of agriculture, which provided for the unification of individual peasant farms into large collective farms.
In 1928-1929 benefits to existing collective farms were expanded, the creation of machine and tractor stations began, and the possibilities for the development of individual farms were limited. In the autumn of 1929, a course was set for complete and accelerated collectivization. In the main areas of commercial agriculture (Volga region, Northern Caucasus), collectivization was proposed to be completed in one year, in Ukraine, Siberia and the Central Black Earth Region - in two years, in other regions of the country - in three years. During collectivization, threats, blackmail, and violence were used against peasants who did not want to join collective farms. An integral part of collectivization was dispossession, during which several million peasants were subjected to repression (from arrests to deportation).
The violent methods of the authorities caused discontent among the peasants. Peasant uprisings took place in the North Caucasus, Lower and Middle Volga, and more than 3 thousand terrorist actions were committed against collective farm activists and representatives of the Soviet government. The Stalinist leadership was forced to admit “excesses on the ground” and suspend collectivization. By August 1930, a fifth of peasant farms remained on collective farms.
However, the respite was short-lived. In the autumn of 1930, collectivization resumed and by 1932 it was largely completed. Collective farms united 62% of peasant farms. By the end of the 1930s. About 93% of peasant farms already belonged to collective farms.
Collectivization results:
The private sector in agriculture has been destroyed;
Peasants are alienated from land and property;
The state gained full control over agriculture.
QUESTION 12. What are the reasons for the Caribbean crisis?
In the early 1960s. The international situation was characterized by the aggravation of the Cold War. The confrontation between the USSR and the USA intensified. In the spring of 1960, an American reconnaissance plane was shot down over the territory of the USSR. The Berlin Wall was erected between West and East Berlin, and the meeting of the leaders of the USSR, USA, England and France in Paris was disrupted.
The Cold War reached its climax in the fall of 1962, when the Caribbean crisis broke out. His reasons:
1) an attempt by the United States in the spring of 1961 to overthrow the regime of F. Castro with the help of mercenaries;
2) the deployment of American missiles on Turkish territory, which could threaten the USSR;
3) the decision of the USSR government to secretly deploy nuclear missiles in Cuba in order to protect the Cuban revolution and reduce the US advantage in nuclear missile weapons;
4) blockade of Cuba by US ships and threats of invasion of its territory.
The actions of the leaders of the USA and the USSR brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. It was averted as a result of a compromise. The USSR agreed to withdraw missiles from Cuba, and the United States removed missiles from Turkey and pledged not to attack Cuba.
Slav culture multi-party system president
QUESTION 13. What is the difference between the 1977 Constitution and the 1936 Constitution?
The adoption of the 1977 Constitution was due to the fact that significant changes took place in the USSR in the political and socio-economic spheres. According to the country's leadership, a mature socialist society was built in the USSR and its features should have been reflected in the new Basic Law of the country. The following new provisions were introduced into the 1977 Constitution:
A preamble appeared in which the characteristics of developed socialism and the state of the whole people were given;
The number of articles increased (from 146 to 174), only 17 articles were included in the new Constitution without changes;
It was noted that the country's economy is developing on the basis of socialist ownership of the means of production, is characterized by a high level of development, the use of scientific and technological advances;
It was argued that the social homogeneity of society had increased as a result of the unity of goals of workers, collective farmers and intelligentsia;
The Soviet state has acquired a national character because it expresses the interests of all layers of society;
It was emphasized that power in the USSR belongs to the people, but Article 6 consolidated the leading and guiding role of the CPSU in the life of Soviet society;
Issues of national-state structure were spelled out in more detail;
The rights and freedoms of Soviet citizens were significantly expanded.
QUESTION 14. Was there a national question in the USSR in the 80s?
The USSR was a unitary federation; it included 53 national-territorial entities - union and autonomous republics, autonomous regions and districts. According to the 1979 census, more than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union, which were guaranteed by the Constitution territorial autonomy, education and activities of cultural institutions in national languages, and participation of national personnel in government. The majority of the population of the multinational country spoke Russian, and interethnic marriages were common.
In this situation, the national question in the USSR was considered resolved “completely and finally”; it was assumed that under socialism there could be no conflicts and contradictions on national grounds. The country's leadership put forward the thesis that a new international community had formed in the USSR - the “Soviet people.”
In fact, national contradictions persisted. There were territorial disputes (between Armenia and Azerbaijan, Chechnya and Dagestan, Ingushetia and North Ossetia), assimilation and discrimination of small peoples by titular nations (Azerbaijan, Georgia). A number of union republics were dissatisfied with the overly rigid system of governance on the part of the union center, which was personified by Moscow. Among some of the population of the national regions of the country, there was a point of view that Russia “feeds” at their expense. However, these problems were hushed up or suppressed. Only during the years of perestroika, when the power of the CPSU and the Union center weakened, did national problems fully emerge and lead to the collapse of the USSR.
QUESTION 15. How did the 1996 presidential elections take place?
The socio-economic reforms, the implementation of which began in Russia in 1992, were controversial. On the one hand, a market economy began to take shape in the country, the commodity deficit disappeared, and privatization took place. On the other hand, industrial production continued to fall, the standard of living of the people dropped sharply, state property was concentrated in the hands of a narrow circle of people, and there was a war in Chechnya.
In this regard, the authority of President Boris Yeltsin in the eyes of a significant part of the population began to fall. On the contrary, his main competitor in the 1996 presidential elections, communist leader G. Zyuganov, gained points. A real threat arose of the communists coming to power, which the oligarchs did not want to allow, who, taking advantage of their connections with Yeltsin, actually received most of the state property for free and were afraid of losing it. The oligarchs allocated large sums of money for Yeltsin's election campaign and widely used the media, popular singers, actors, and TV presenters to increase President Yeltsin's ratings. The thesis that Zyuganov's victory would return the country to its communist past was actively used.
The first round of elections did not reveal a winner. B. Yeltsin received 35% of the votes, G. Zyuganov - 32%, General A. Lebed - 14.5%. Yeltsin managed to win over Lebed, who was appointed Secretary of the Security Council and Assistant to the President for National Security. In the second round of elections, which took place in July 1996, Boris Yeltsin received 53.8% of the votes and was elected president for a second term. His competitor G. Zyuganov scored 40.3%. Out of 108 million voters, more than 40 million did not come to the polling stations, which indicates the disappointment of many Russians with politics. Posted on Allbest.ru
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