Means of expression in the Russian language can be divided into:
- Lexical means
- Syntactic means
- Phonetic means
Lexical means: tropes
| Allegory - Themis (woman with scales) – justice. | Replacing an abstract concept with a concrete image. |
| Hyperbole -Bloomers as wide as the Black Sea(N. Gogol) | Artistic exaggeration. |
| Irony - Where, smart, your head is delirious. (Fable by I. Krylov). | Subtle mockery, used in the opposite sense to the direct one. |
| Lexical repetition -Lakes all around, deep lakes. | Repetition of the same word or phrase in the text |
| Litota -A man with a fingernail. | Artistic understatement of the described object or phenomenon. |
| Metaphor - Sleepy Lake of the City (A. Blok) | The figurative meaning of the word based on similarity |
| Metonymy - The class was noisy | Replacing one word with another based on the contiguity of two concepts |
| Occasionalisms -The fruits of education. | Artistic means created by the author. |
| Personification -It is raining. Nature rejoices. | The endowment of inanimate objects with the properties of living things. |
| Periphrase -Lion = king of beasts. | Substituting a word with an expression similar in lexical meaning. |
| Sarcasm -The works of Saltykov-Shchedrin are full of sarcasm. | A caustic, subtle mockery, the highest form of irony. |
| Comparison -Says a word - the nightingale sings. | In comparison there is also what is being compared, and then what is it compared to?. Conjunctions are often used: as if, as if. |
| Synecdoche -Every a penny brings (money) into the house. | Transferring values by quantitative characteristic. |
| Epithet -“Ruddy dawn”, “Golden hands”, “Silver voice”. | A colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison. |
| Synonyms -1) run - rush. 2)The noise (rustle) of leaves. | 1) Words that are different in spelling, but close in meaning. 2) Contextual synonyms - words that are similar in meaning in the same context |
| Antonyms - original - fake, stale - responsive | Words with opposite meanings |
| Archaism -eyes - eyes, cheeks - cheeks | An obsolete word or figure of speech |
Syntactic means
| Anaphora -It was not in vain that the storm came. | Repeating words or combinations of words at the beginning of sentences or lines of poetry. |
| Antithesis -Long hair, short mind;. | Opposition. |
| Gradation -I came, I saw, I conquered! | Arrangement of words and expressions in increasing (ascending) or decreasing (descending) significance. |
| Inversion -Once upon a time there lived a grandfather and a woman. | Reverse word order. |
| Compositional junction (lexical repetition) -It was a wonderful sound. It was the best voice I've heard in years. | Repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of words from the previous sentence, usually ending it. |
| Multi-union -The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded away. | Intentional use of a repeated conjunction. |
| Oxymoron -Dead Souls. | A combination of words that are not compatible in meaning. |
| Parcellation -He saw me and froze. I was surprised. He fell silent. | The deliberate division of a sentence into meaningful segments. |
| Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal -What a summer, what a summer! Who hasn’t cursed the stationmasters, who hasn’t sworn at them? Citizens, let's make our city green and cozy! | Expressing a statement in interrogative form; to attract attention; increased emotional impact. |
| Rows, pairwise combination of homogeneous members -Nature helps to fight loneliness, overcome despair, powerlessness, forget hostility, envy, and the treachery of friends. | Using homogeneous members for greater artistic expressiveness of the text |
| Syntactic parallelism -To be able to speak is an art. Listening is a culture.(D. Likhachev) | Similar, parallel construction of phrases and lines. |
| Default -But listen: if I owe you... I own a dagger, / I was born near the Caucasus. | The author deliberately understates something, interrupts the hero’s thoughts so that the reader can think for himself what he wanted to say. |
| Ellipsis -Guys - for the axes! (the word “taken” is missing) | Omission of some part of the sentence that is easily restored from the context |
| Epiphora -I've been coming to you all my life. I believed in you all my life. | Same ending for several sentences. |
Phonetic means: sound recording
Solve the Unified State Exam in Russian with answers.
Metaphor(Greek metaphora - transfer) – a type of trail formed by principle of similarity; one of the means of enhancing the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech. The first attempts at scientific interpretation of mathematics date back to antiquity (the doctrine of the so-called dhvani in Indian poetics, the judgments of Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, etc.). Subsequently, a revival of interest in metallurgy arose already in the 19th century. due to development will compare. linguistics and poetics. Some authors are primarily interested in the genesis and evolution of M. (the works of A. A. Potebnya, A. Bizet, K. Werner, etc.), others - the “statics” of this phenomenon, its internal. structure and functions.M. is based on the ability of a word to undergo a kind of doubling (multiplication) in speech, denoting functions. So, in the phrase: “The crew... was... like... thick-cheeked convex watermelon , placed on wheels... The watermelon was filled with chintz pillows..., stuffed with bags of bread, rolls...” (N.V. Gogol, “Dead Souls”) - the word “watermelon” (in the second case) means simultaneously two items: “crew” (only in this context) and “watermelon”. The role of the first and second objects can be any figuratively assimilated facts of reality - phenomena of inanimate nature, plants, animals, people, their internals. world. Paired into “subject pairs”, they form combinations characterized by great diversity.
Basic types M.: 1) inanimate - inanimate (about the month: “hanging behind the woman’s hut crust of bread ...", mystery); 2) alive - alive (about a girl: “a nimble and thin snake”, M. Gorky); 3) living – non-living (about muscles: “cast iron”); 4) nonliving – living (“wave ridges”). More complex are those based on synesthesia, that is, bringing together phenomena perceived by different senses (“to the colors on the canvas”, etc.). The objective similarity between objects, which makes it possible to create m., most often consists of such properties as: 1) color - “trees in winter silver” (A. S. Pushkin); 2) form – “blade of the month” (M. A. Sholokhov), “ring” (about a snake); 3) size (often in combination with other properties) - “crumb”, “bug” (about a child), “filled his nose with tobacco from both entrances” (Gogol; about large nostrils); 4) density - “gas” (about light fabric), “milk” (about thick fog), cf. also “bronze of muscles” (V.V. Mayakovsky); 5) dynamism - “a heap of fat body crushed by sleep” (Gorky), “idol” (about a motionless person), cf. “lightning”, “give lightning” (about a telegram). A common property in the first object (image object) may be. both constant and variable; in the second (means of likening) - only constant. Often objects in M. are compared several times at the same time. signs: “a thick macaron glitters on an epaulette - generality” (Gogol; color and shape).
Metonymy(Greek metonymia - renaming) – a type of trail based on contiguity principle. Like metaphor, M. is a word that, in order to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, simultaneously denotes two (or more) phenomena that are actually connected with each other. Thus, in the phrase “Everything flags
will come to visit us” (A.S. Pushkin, “The Bronze Horseman”) the word “flags” means: ships with the flags of various states, the merchants and sailors sailing on them, as well as these flags themselves, - thus preserving. and its usual meaning.
Several can be distinguished. types of metonymic subject pairs. 1) The whole is a part, i.e. synecdoche; the subject as a whole is denoted by k.-l. a striking detail (it becomes a representative of this item). Wed. about man: “no human foot has set foot here”; “Hey, beard! and how to get from here to Plyushkin?..." (N.V. Gogol); about the royal gendarmes - “And you, blue uniforms...” (M. Yu. Lermontov); “a detachment of two hundred sabers” (cavalry). 2) Thing – material. About dishes: “It’s not like eating on silver, I ate on gold” (A. S. Griboyedov); about the pipe: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (Pushkin). 3) Content – containing. “I ate three plates” (I. A. Krylov); about wood in the stove: “The flooded stove is cracking” (Pushkin); “No, my Moscow did not go to him with a guilty head” (Pushkin). 4) The carrier of the property is the property. Instead of a thing, a person is indicated. internal its property, which is, as it were, abstracted from its bearer and objectified. About brave people: “The city takes courage” (last); in addresses: “my joy” (about a person who brings joy). 5) The product of the action is the producer of the action. “A man... Belinsky and Gogol will carry away from the market” (N. A. Nekrasov). 6) Product of action - place of production. Wed. in Gogol - Captain Kopeikin in the St. Petersburg reception room “huddled... in a corner so as not to push with his elbow... some America or India - a gilded, you know, porcelain vase of sorts” (M. with its immediate “decoding”). 7) Action is an instrument of action. “For the violent raid he doomed their villages and fields to swords and fires” (i.e., destruction and burning; Pushkin).
Multi-Union(from the Greek polysyndeton - multi-union), - special the use of conjunctions in stylistics. purposes; such a construction of a phrase in which all homogeneous members of the sentence are connected by conjunctions, while usually only the last two homogeneous members are connected by a conjunction. P. is often associated with anaphora and usually emphasizes internal. enumerable connection:
AND
more insidious than the northern night,
AND
more intoxicated than golden ai,
AND
gypsy love in short
Your caresses were terrible... (A. Blok).
P. also enhances the perception of the unity of the events described: “And finally, they screamed at him, and laid him down, and the whole thing was over” (Yu. Tynyanov).
Fine-expressive language means of fiction include:
Epithet- an artistic and figurative definition of an object or phenomenon.
Example: sadness - "inexpressible" eyes - "huge" May - "solar", fingers - "the finest"(O. Mandel-shtam “Inexpressible sadness...")
Hyperbola- artistic exaggeration.
Example: The earth was shaking— like our breasts; Horses, people, and volleys mixed in a heap thousands of guns Merged into a long howl... (M.Yu. Lermontov “Borodino”)
Litotes- artistic understatement (“reverse hyperbole”).
Example: “The youngest son was as tall as a finger..."(A.A. Akh-matova. “Lullaby”).
Trails- words or phrases used not in a literal, but in a figurative meaning. The trails include allegory, allusion, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrase, symbol, symphora, synecdoche, comparison, euphemism.
Allegory- allegory, depiction of an abstract idea through a concrete, clearly represented image. The allegory is unambiguous and directly points to a strictly defined concept.
Example: fox- cunning wolf- cruelty, donkey - stupidity (in fables); gloomy Albion- England (A.S. Pushkin “When you squeeze your hand again...”).
Allusion- one of the tropes that consists in using a transparent hint of some well-known everyday, literary or historical fact instead of mentioning this fact itself.
Example: A. S. Pushkin’s mention of the Patriotic War of 1812:
Why? be responsible: for whether,
What's on the ruins of burning Moscow
We did not recognize the arrogant will
The one under whom you trembled?
(“To the slanderers of Russia”)
Metaphor- this is a hidden comparison based on some characteristics common to the compared objects or phenomena.
Example: The east is burning with a new dawn(A.S. Pushkin “Poltava”).
Personification- endowing objects and phenomena of non-living nature with the features of a living being (most often a person).
Example: “The night thickened, flew nearby, grabbed those jumping by the cloaks and, tearing them off their shoulders, exposed the deceptions(M. A. Bulgakov “The Master and Margarita”).
Metonymy- a poetic trope consisting of replacing one word or concept with another that has a causal connection with the first.
Example: There is a Museum of Ethnography in this city
Over the Neva, wide as the Nile,
(N. S. Gumilyov “Abyssinia”)
Synecdoche- one of the tropes that is built on the relationship of quantity; more instead of less or vice versa.
Example: Say: how soon will we Warsaw Will the proud man prescribe his own law? (A. S. Pushkin “Borodin Anniversary”)
Periphrase- a trope that is built on the principle of expanded metonymy and consists of replacing a word or phrase with a descriptive figure of speech, which indicates the characteristics of an object not directly named.
Example: in the poem by A. A. Akhmatova “The dark-skinned youth wandered through the alleys...” using periphrasis, A. S. Pushkin himself is depicted:
Here lay his cocked hat and the disheveled volume of Guys.
Euphemism- replacement of a rude, indecent or intimate word or statement with others that transparently hint at the true meaning (close to periphrasis in stylistic organization).
Example: woman in an interesting position instead of pregnant, recovered instead of getting fat, borrowed instead he stole it, etc.
Symbol- hidden comparison, in which the object being compared is not named, but is implied to a certain extent
variability (multiple meanings). A symbol only points to some reality, but is not compared with it unambiguously and directly; this contains the fundamental difference between a symbol and a metaphor, with which it is often confused.
Example: I'm just a cloud full of fire(K.D. Balmont “I do not know wisdom”). The only point of contact between the poet and the cloud is “fleetingness.”
Anaphora (unity of principle)- this is the repetition of similar sounds, words, syntactic and rhythmic repetitions at the beginning of adjacent verses, stanzas (in poetic works) or closely spaced phrases in a paragraph or at the beginning of adjacent paragraphs (in prose).
Example: Kohl love so crazy Kohl threaten, so seriously, Kohl scold, so rashly, Kohl chop, just like that! (A.K. Tolstoy “If you love, you go crazy...”)
Multi-Union- such a construction of a stanza, episode, verse, paragraph, when all the main logically significant phrases (segments) included in it are connected by the same conjunction:
Example: And the wind, and the rain, and the darkness
Above the cold desert of water. (I. A. Bunin “Loneliness”)
Gradation- gradual, consistent strengthening or weakening of images, comparisons, epithets and other means of artistic expression.
Example: No one will give us deliverance, Neither God, nor king, nor hero...
(E. Pothier “Internationale”)
Oxymoron (or oxymoron)- a contrasting combination of words with opposite meanings in order to create an ethical effect.
Example: “I love lush nature fading..."(A.S. Pushkin “Autumn”).
Alliteration- a technique of sound writing that gives lines of verse or parts of prose a special sound through the repetition of certain consonant sounds.
Example: “Katya, Katya,” they are cutting out the horseshoes for my race...” In I. Selvinsky’s poem “The Black-Eyed Cossack Woman,” the repetition of the sound “k” imitates the clatter of hooves.
Antiphrasis- the use of a word or expression in a sense opposite to its semantics, most often ironic.
Example: ...He sang faded color of life"Almost at eighteen years old. (A. S. Pushkin “Eugene Onegin”)
Stylization- this is a technique that consists in the fact that the author deliberately imitates the style, manner, poetics of some other famous work or group of works.
Example: in the poem “Tsarskoye Selo Statue” A. S. Pushkin resorts to stylization of ancient poetry:
Having dropped the urn with water, the maiden broke it on a cliff. The virgin sits sadly, idle holding a shard. Miracle! The water does not dry up, pouring out from the broken urn, the Virgin sits eternally sad over the eternal stream.
Anthology- the use of words and expressions in the work in their direct, immediate, everyday meaning. This is neutral, “prosaic” speech.
Example: Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet a Servant bringing me a cup of tea in the morning with questions: is it warm? Has the snowstorm subsided? (A.S. Pushkin “Winter. What should we do in the village?..”)
Antithesis- artistic contrast of images, concepts, positions, situations, etc.
Example: here is a fragment of the historical song “Choice of Er-mak as Ataman”:
Unclear falcons flew together - They gathered and gathered Good fellows...
Expressiveness of Russian speech. Means of expression.
Visual and expressive means of language
TRAILS -using the word figuratively. Lexical argument
|
List of tropes |
Meaning of the term |
Example |
|
Allegory |
Allegory. A trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. |
In fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed - in the form of a wolf. |
|
Hyperbola |
A means of artistic representation based on exaggeration |
Huge eyes, like spotlights (V. Mayakovsky) |
|
Grotesque |
Extreme exaggeration, giving the image a fantastic character |
The mayor with a stuffed head at Saltykov-Shchedrin. |
|
Irony |
Ridicule, which contains an assessment of what is being ridiculed. A sign of irony is a double meaning, where the truth is not what is directly expressed, but its opposite, implied. |
Where are you getting your head from, smart one? (I. Krylov). |
|
Litotes |
A means of artistic representation based on understatement (as opposed to hyperbole) |
The waist is no thicker than a bottle neck (N. Gogol). |
|
Metaphor, extended metaphor |
Hidden comparison. A type of trope in which individual words or expressions are brought together by the similarity of their meanings or by contrast. Sometimes the entire poem is an expanded poetic image |
With a sheaf of your oat hair You belong to me forever. (S. Yesenin.) |
|
Metonymy |
A type of trope in which words are brought together by the contiguity of the concepts they denote. A phenomenon or object is depicted using other words or concepts. For example, the name of the profession is replaced by the name of the instrument of activity. There are many examples: transfer from a vessel to its contents, from a person to his clothes, from a locality to residents, from an organization to participants, from an author to works |
When will the shore of hell take me forever, When will Pero, my joy, fall asleep forever... (A. Pushkin.) I ate on silver and gold. Well, eat another plate, son. |
|
Personification |
Such an image of inanimate objects in which they are endowed with the properties of living beings, the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel |
What are you howling about, wind? night, Why are you complaining so madly? (F. Tyutchev.) |
|
Periphrase (or paraphrase) |
One of the tropes in which the name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by an indication of its most characteristic features, enhancing the figurativeness of speech |
King of beasts (instead of lion) |
|
Synecdoche |
A type of metonymy consisting in transferring the meaning of one object to another based on the quantitative relationship between them: part instead of the whole; whole in the meaning of part; singular in the meaning of general; replacing a number with a set; replacing a species concept with a generic concept |
All flags will be visiting us. (A. Pushkin.); Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. We all look at Nap oleons. |
|
Epithet |
Figurative definition; a word that defines an object and emphasizes its properties |
The grove dissuaded golden with Birch's cheerful tongue. |
|
Comparison |
A technique based on comparing a phenomenon or concept with another phenomenon |
The fragile ice lies on the chilly river like melting sugar. (N. Nekrasov.) |
FIGURES OF SPEECH
A generalized name for stylistic devices in which a word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily have a figurative meaning. Grammatical argument.
|
Figure |
Meaning of the term |
Example |
|
Anaphora (or unity) |
Repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of sentences, poetic lines, stanzas. |
I love you, Petra’s creation, I love your strict, slender appearance... |
|
Antithesis |
Stylistic device of contrast, opposition of phenomena and concepts. Often based on the use of antonyms |
And the new so denies the old!.. It ages before our eyes! Already shorter than the skirt. It's already longer! The leaders are younger. It's already older! Kinder morals. |
|
Gradation |
(graduality) - a stylistic means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development, in increasing or decreasing significance |
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry, Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees. |
|
Inversion |
Rearrangement; a stylistic figure consisting of a violation of the general grammatical sequence of speech |
He passed the doorman like an arrow and flew up the marble steps. |
|
Lexical repetition |
Intentional repetition of the same word in the text |
Forgive me, forgive me, forgive me! And I forgive you, and I forgive you. I don’t hold any grudges, I promise you that, But only you will forgive me too! |
|
Pleonasm |
Repetition of similar words and phrases, the intensification of which creates a particular stylistic effect. |
My friend, my friend, I am very, very sick. |
|
Oxymoron |
A combination of words with opposite meanings that do not go together. |
Dead souls, bitter joy, sweet sorrow, ringing silence. |
|
Rhetorical question, exclamation, appeal |
Techniques used to enhance the expressiveness of speech. A rhetorical question is asked not with the goal of getting an answer, but for the emotional impact on the reader. Exclamations and addresses enhance emotional perception |
Where will you gallop, proud horse, and where will you land your hooves? (A. Pushkin.) What a summer! What a summer! Yes, this is just witchcraft. (F. Tyutchev.) |
|
Syntactic parallelism |
A technique consisting in similar construction of sentences, lines or stanzas. |
I lookI look at the future with fear, I look at the past with longing... |
|
Default |
A figure that leaves the listener to guess and think about what will be discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement. |
You'll be going home soon: Look... So what? my To tell the truth, no one is very concerned about fate. |
|
Ellipsis |
A figure of poetic syntax based on the omission of one of the members of a sentence, easily restored in meaning |
We turned villages into ashes, cities into dust, and swords into sickles and plows. (V. Zhukovsky.) |
|
Epiphora |
A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora; repetition of a word or phrase at the end of poetic lines |
Dear friend, and in this quiet At home. The fever hits me. I can't find a quiet place HomeNear the peaceful fire. (A. Blok.) |
VISUAL POSSIBILITIES OF VOCABULARY
Lexical argument
|
Terms |
Meaning |
Examples |
|
Antonyms, contextual antonyms |
Words with opposite meanings. Contextual antonyms - it is in the context that they are opposite. Outside the context, this opposition is lost. |
Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire... (A. Pushkin.) |
|
Synonyms, contextual synonyms |
Words that are close in meaning. Contextual synonyms - it is in the context that they are close. Without context, intimacy is lost. |
To desire - to want, to have a desire, to strive, to dream, to crave, to hunger |
|
Homonyms |
Words that sound the same but have different meanings. |
Knee - a joint connecting the thigh and lower leg; passage in birdsong |
|
Homographs |
Different words that match in spelling but not in pronunciation. |
Castle (palace) – lock (on the door), Flour (torment) – flour (product) |
|
Paronyms |
Words that are similar in sound but different in meaning |
Heroic - heroic, double - dual, effective - valid |
|
Words in figurative meaning |
In contrast to the direct meaning of the word, which is stylistically neutral and devoid of imagery, the figurative meaning is figurative, stylistically colored. |
Sword of justice, sea of light |
|
Dialectisms |
A word or phrase that exists in a certain area and is used in speech by the residents of this area |
Draniki, shanezhki, beetroot |
|
Jargonisms |
Words and expressions that are outside the literary norm, belonging to some kind of jargon - a type of speech used by people united by common interests, habits, and activities. |
Head - watermelon, globe, pan, basket, pumpkin... |
|
Professionalisms |
Words used by people of the same profession |
Galley, boatswain, watercolor, easel |
|
Terms |
Words intended to denote special concepts of science, technology, and others. |
Grammar, surgical, optics |
|
Book vocabulary |
Words that are characteristic of written speech and have a special stylistic connotation. |
Immortality, incentive, prevail... |
|
Prostorechnaya vocabulary |
Words, colloquial use, characterized by some roughness, reduced character. |
Blockhead, fidgety, wobble |
|
Neologisms (new words) |
New words emerging to represent new concepts that have just emerged. Individual author's neologisms also arise. |
There will be a storm - we will argue And let's be brave with her. |
|
Obsolete words (archaisms) |
Words displaced from modern language others denoting the same concepts. |
Fair - excellent, zealous - caring, stranger - foreigner |
|
Borrowed |
Words transferred from words in other languages. |
Parliament, Senate, deputy, consensus |
|
Phraseologisms |
Stable combinations of words, constant in their meaning, composition and structure, reproduced in speech as entire lexical units. |
To be disingenuous - to be a hypocrite, to beat the crap - to mess around, to hastily - quickly |
EXPRESSIVE-EMOTIONAL VOCABULARY
|
Conversational. |
Words that have a slightly reduced stylistic coloring compared to neutral vocabulary, are characteristic of spoken language, and are emotionally charged. |
Dirty, loud, bearded |
|
Emotionally charged words |
Estimatedcharacter, having both positive and negative connotations. |
Adorable, wonderful, disgusting, villain |
|
Words with suffixes of emotional evaluation. |
Cute, little bunny, little brain, brainchild |
PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF MORPHOLOGY
Grammatical argument
|
1. Expressive usage case, gender, animation, etc. |
Something air it is not enough for me, I drink the wind, I swallow the fog... (V. Vysotsky.) We are relaxing in Sochach. How many Plyushkins divorced! |
|
2. Direct and figurative use of verb tense forms |
I'm comingI went to school yesterday and I see announcement: “Quarantine.” Oh and was delighted I! |
|
3. Expressive use of words from different parts of speech. |
Happened to me most amazing story! I got unpleasant message. I was visiting at her place. The cup will not pass you by this. |
|
4. Use of interjections and onomatopoeic words. |
Here's closer! They gallop... and into the yard Evgeniy! "Oh!"- and lighter than the shadow Tatyana jump to the other entrance. (A. Pushkin.) |
SOUND EXPRESSIVENESS
|
Means |
Meaning of the term |
Example |
|
Alliteration |
A technique for enhancing imagery by repeating consonant sounds |
Hissingfoamy glasses and blue flames of punch... |
|
Alternation |
Alternation of sounds. Change of sounds that occupy the same place in a morpheme in different cases of its use. |
Tangent - touch, shine - shine. |
|
Assonance |
A technique to enhance imagery by repeating vowel sounds |
The thaw is boring to me: the stench, the dirt, in the spring I am sick. (A. Pushkin.) |
|
Sound recording |
A technique for enhancing the visual quality of a text by constructing phrases and lines in such a way that would correspond to the reproduced picture |
For three days I could hear how on a boring, long road They tapped the joints: east, east, east... (P. Antokolsky reproduces the sound of carriage wheels.) |
|
Onomatopoeia |
Using the sounds of language to imitate the sounds of living and inanimate nature |
When the mazurka thunder roared... (A. Pushkin.) |
PICTURE POSSIBILITIES OF SYNTAX
Grammatical argument
|
1. Rows of homogeneous members of a sentence. |
When empty And weak a person hears flattering feedback about his dubious merits, he revels in with your vanity, gets arrogant and completely loses your tiny ability to be critical of your own actions and to your person.(D. Pisarev.) |
|
2. Sentences with introductory words, appeals, isolated members. |
Probably,there, in their native places, just as in my childhood and youth, the ashes bloom in the swampy backwaters and the reeds rustle, who made me, with their rustling, their prophetic whispers, that poet, who I have become, who I was, who I will be when I die. (K. Balmont.) |
|
3. Expressive use of sentences of various types (complex, complex, non-union, single-component, incomplete, etc.). |
They speak Russian everywhere; this is the language of my father and my mother, this is the language of my nanny, my childhood, my first love, almost all moments of my life, which entered my past as an integral property, as the basis of my personality. (K. Balmont.) |
|
4. Dialogic presentation. |
- Well? Is it true that he is so good-looking? - Surprisingly good, handsome, one might say. Slender, tall, blush all over his cheek... - Right? And I thought his face was pale. What? What did he look like to you? Sad, thoughtful? - What do you? I've never seen such a mad person in my life. He decided to run with us into the burners. - Run into the burners with you! Impossible!(A. Pushkin.) |
|
5. Parcellation - a stylistic technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even individual words in a work in order to give the speech intonation expression through its abrupt pronunciation. Parcel words are separated from each other by dots or exclamation marks, subject to other syntactic and grammatical rules. |
Liberty and Fraternity. There will be no equality. Nobody. No one. Not equal. Never.(A. Volodin.) He saw me and froze. Numb. He fell silent. |
|
6. Non-union or asyndeton - deliberate omission of conjunctions, which gives the text dynamism and swiftness. |
Swede, Russian stabs, chops, cuts. People knew: somewhere, very far from them, there was a war going on. To be afraid of wolves, don’t go into the forest. |
|
7. Polyconjunction or polysyndeton - repeating conjunctions serve to logically and intonationally emphasize the parts of the sentence connected by the conjunctions. |
The ocean walked before my eyes, and swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and glowed, and went somewhere into infinity. I will either burst into tears, or scream, or faint. |
Tests.
1. Choose the correct answer:
1) On that white April night Petersburg I saw Blok for the last time... (E. Zamyatin).
a) metaphorb) hyperbole) metonymy
2.You'll freeze in the shine of moonlight,
You're moaning, doused with foam wounds.
(V. Mayakovsky)
a) alliterationb) assonancec) anaphora
3. I drag myself in the dust and soar in the skies;
Strange to everyone in the world - and ready to embrace the world. (F. Petrarch).
a) oxymoronb) antonymc) antithesis
4. Let it fill up with years
life quota,
costs
only
remember this miracle
tears apart
mouth
yawn
wider than the Gulf of Mexico.
(V. Mayakovsky)
a) hyperbolab) litotav) personification
5. Choose the correct answer:
1) It was drizzling with beaded rain, so airy that it seemed that it did not reach the ground and mist of water mist floated in the air. (V. Pasternak).
a) epithetb) similec) metaphor
6.And in autumn days The flame that flows from life and blood does not go out. (K. Batyushkov)
a) metaphorb) personificationc) hyperbole
7. Sometimes he falls in love passionately
In my elegant sadness.
(M. Yu. Lermontov)
a) antithesis) oxymoronc) epithet
8.The diamond is polished with a diamond,
The line is dictated by the line.
a) anaphora b) comparison c) parallelism
9. At the mere suggestion of such a case, you would have to tear out the hair from your head by the roots and let go streams... what am I saying! rivers, lakes, seas, oceans tears!
(F.M. Dostoevsky)
a) metonymy b) gradation c) allegory
10. Choose the correct answer:
1) Black tailcoats rushed about separately and in heaps here and there. (N. Gogol)
a) metaphorb) metonymy c) personification
11. The quitter sits at the gate,
With my mouth wide open,
And no one will understand
Where is the gate and where is the mouth.
a) hyperbolab) litotav) comparison
12. C insolent modesty looks into the eyes. (A. Blok).
a) epithetb) metaphorc) oxymoron
|
Option |
Answer |
1. Leading.
2. Expressive means of language
3. Conclusion
4. References
Introduction
The word is the subtlest touch to the heart; it can become a tender, fragrant flower, and living water, restoring faith in goodness, and a sharp knife, picking at the delicate tissue of the soul, and a red-hot iron, and lumps of dirt... A wise and kind word brings joy, a stupid and evil, thoughtless and tactless - brings misfortune, a word can kill - and revive, wound - and heal, sow confusion and hopelessness - and spiritualize, dispel doubts - and plunge into despondency, create a smile - and cause tears, generate faith in a person - and instill mistrust, inspire to work - and numb the strength of the soul.
V.A. Sukhomlinsky
Expressive means of language
The lexical system of a language is complex and multifaceted. The possibilities of constant updating in speech of the principles, methods, and signs of combining words taken from different groups within the whole text also conceal the possibility of updating speech expressiveness and its types.
The expressive capabilities of the word are supported and strengthened by the associativity of the reader’s figurative thinking, which largely depends on his previous life experience and the psychological characteristics of the work of thought and consciousness in general.
Expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). Linguistics has not developed a complete typology of expressiveness, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades. But we can speak quite definitely about the conditions under which speech will be expressive:
The first is the independence of thinking, consciousness and activity of the author of the speech.
The second is his interest in what he talks or writes about. Third, a good knowledge of the expressive capabilities of the language. Fourth - systematic conscious training of speech skills.
The main source of increased expressiveness is vocabulary, which provides a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymies, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrases, allegory, irony. Syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, have great potential to enhance the expressiveness of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.
Lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, tropes are used by authors of works of art when describing nature and the appearance of heroes.
These visual and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, helping him to gain an individual style. However, there are also general language tropes that arose as the author’s own, but over time became familiar, entrenched in the language: “time heals,” “battle for the harvest,” “military thunderstorm,” “conscience has spoken,” “curl up,” “like two drops.” water ".
In them, the direct meaning of words is erased, and sometimes completely lost. Their use in speech does not give rise to an artistic image in our imagination. The trope can develop into a speech cliche if used too often. Compare expressions that define the value of resources using the figurative meaning of the word “gold” - “white gold” (cotton), “black gold” (oil), “soft gold” (fur), etc.
Epithets (from the Greek epitheton - application - blind love, foggy moon) artistically define an object or action and can be expressed by full and short adjectives, nouns and adverbs: “Whether I wander along noisy streets, or enter a crowded temple...” (A.S. Pushkin)
“She is as restless as leaves, she is like a harp, multi-stringed...” (A.K. Tolstoy) “Frost the governor patrols his possessions...” (N. Nekrasov) “Uncontrollably, uniquely, everything flew far and past ..." (S. Yesenin). Epithets are classified as follows:
1) constant (characteristic of oral folk art) - “kind
well done”, “pretty maiden”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “dense forest”
“the mother of cheese is the earth”;
2) pictorial (visually draw objects and actions, give
the opportunity to see them as the author sees them) -
“a crowd of motley-haired fast cats” (V. Mayakovsky), “the grass is full of transparent tears” (A. Blok);
3) emotional (convey the author’s feelings, mood) -
“The evening raised black eyebrows...” - “A blue fire began to sweep...”, “Uncomfortable, liquid moonlight...” (S. Yesenin), “... and the young city ascended magnificently, proudly” (A. Pushkin ).
Comparison is matching (parallelism) or
opposition (negative parallelism) of two objects according to one or more common characteristics: “Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains"
(V. Bryusov) - “It is not the wind that rages over the forest, it is not the streams that run from the mountains - Voivode Frost is patrolling his possessions” (N. Nekrasov). Comparison gives the description a special clarity and imagery. This trope, unlike others, is always two-part - it names both compared or contrasted objects. 2 In comparison, three necessary existing elements are distinguished - the subject of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.
1 Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2002. p. 171
2 Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: 2000 p. 67.
For example, in the line by M. Lermontov “Whiteer than the snowy mountains, the clouds go to the west...” the subject of comparison is the clouds, the image of comparison is the snowy mountains, the sign of similarity is the whiteness of the clouds - The comparison can be expressed:
1) comparative phrase with conjunctions “as”, “as if”, “as if”, “like”
as if”, “exactly”, “than... that”: “Crazy years of faded fun
It’s hard for me, like a vague hangover, “But, like wine, the sadness of days gone by In my soul, the older, the stronger” (A. Pushkin);
2) comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: “there is no beast worse than a cat”;
3) a noun in the instrumental case: “The white drifting snow rushes along the ground like a snake...” (S. Marshak);
“Dear hands - a pair of swans - dive into the gold of my hair...” (S. Yesenin);
“I looked at her with all my might, like children look...” (V. Vysotsky);
“I will never forget this battle, the air is saturated with death.
And the stars fell from the sky like silent rain” (V. Vysotsky).
“These stars in the sky are like fish in ponds...” (V. Vysotsky).
“Like Eternal Fire, the peak sparkles with emerald ice during the day...” (V.
Vysotsky).
Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora) means transferring the name of an object
(actions, qualities) based on similarity, this is a phrase that has the semantics of a hidden comparison. If an epithet is not a word in the dictionary, but a word in speech, then all the more true is the statement: metaphor is not a word in the dictionary, but a combination of words in speech. You can hammer a nail into a wall. You can hammer thoughts into your head - a metaphor arises, rough but expressive.
There are three elements in a metaphor: information about what is being compared; information about what it is being compared with; information about the basis of comparison, i.e. about a characteristic common to the objects (phenomena) being compared.
Speech actualization of the semantics of metaphor is explained by the need for such guessing. And the more effort a metaphor requires for consciousness to turn a hidden comparison into an open one, the more expressive, obviously, the metaphor itself is. Unlike a binary comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared with are given, a metaphor contains only the second component. This gives imagery and
compactness of the path. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects and phenomena can be based on a wide variety of features: color, shape, size, purpose.
The metaphor may be simple, detailed and lexical (dead, erased, petrified). A simple metaphor is built on the convergence of objects and phenomena according to one common feature - “the dawn is blazing,” “the talk of the waves,” “the sunset of life.”
The extended metaphor is built on various associations of similarity: “Here the wind embraces flocks of waves in a strong embrace and throws them with wild anger onto the cliffs, smashing the emerald masses into dust and splashes” (M. Gorky).
Lexical metaphor is a word in which the initial transfer is no longer perceived - “steel pen”, “clock hand”, “door handle”, “sheet of paper”. Close to metaphor is metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them. Communication may be
1) between the object and the material from which the object is made: “The amber in his mouth was smoking” (A. Pushkin);
3) between the action and the instrument of this action: “The pen is his revenge
breathes"
5) between the place and the people located in this place: “The theater is already full, the boxes are shining” (A. Pushkin).
A type of metonymy is synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - co-implication) - the transfer of meaning from one to another based on the quantitative relationship between them:
1) part instead of the whole: “All flags will come to visit us” (A. Pushkin); 2) generic name instead of specific name: “Well, why, sit down, luminary!” (V. Mayakovsky);
3) the specific name instead of the generic name: “Take care of the penny above all else” (N. Gogol);
4) singular instead of plural: “And it was heard until
dawn, how the Frenchman rejoiced” (M. Lermontov);
5) plural instead of singular: “Not even a bird flies to him, and
the beast is not coming” (A. Pushkin).
The essence of personification is to attribute to inanimate objects and abstract concepts the qualities of living beings - “I will whistle, and bloody villainy will obediently, timidly crawl towards me, and will lick my hand, and look into my eyes, in them is a sign of my will, reading my will” (A. Pushkin); “And the heart is ready to run from the chest to the top...” (V. Vysotsky).
Hyperbole (from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - stylistic
a figure consisting of figurative exaggeration - “they swept a stack above the clouds”, “the wine flowed like a river” (I. Krylov), “The sunset burned in one hundred and forty suns” (V. Mayakovsky), “The whole world is in the palm of your hand...” (In Vysotsky). Like other tropes, hyperboles can be proprietary and general language. In everyday speech, we often use such general linguistic hyperboles - seen (heard) a hundred times, “be scared to death”, “strangle in your arms”, “dance until you drop”, “repeat twenty times”, etc. The opposite stylistic device to hyperbole is - litotes (from the Greek litotes - simplicity, thinness) is a stylistic figure consisting of emphasized understatement, humiliation, reticence: “a little boy”, “...You should bow your head to a low blade of grass...” (N. Nekrasov).
Litota is a type of meiosis (from the Greek meiosis - decrease, decrease).
MEIOSIS represents the trope of understatement
intensity of properties (signs) of objects, phenomena, processes: “wow”, “will do”, “decent*, “tolerable” (about good), “unimportant”, “hardly suitable”, “leaving much to be desired” (about bad ). In these cases, meiosis is a mitigating version of the ethically unacceptable direct name: cf. “old woman” - “a woman of Balzac’s age”, “not in her first youth”; “an ugly man” - “it’s hard to call him handsome.” Hyperbole and litotes characterize a deviation in one direction or another in the quantitative assessment of an object and can be combined in speech, giving it additional expressiveness. In the comic Russian song “Dunya the Thin-Spinner” it is sung that “Dunya spun a tow for three hours, spun three threads,” and these threads were “thinner than a knee, thicker than a log.” In addition to the author’s, there are also general linguistic litotes - “the cat cried”, “just a stone’s throw”, “can’t see beyond your own nose”.
Periphrasis (from the Greek periphrasis - from around and I speak) is called
a descriptive expression used instead of one word or another (“the one who writes these lines” instead of “I”), or a trope consisting of replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of their essential features or an indication of their characteristic features (“the king of beasts is the lion” , “foggy Albion” - England, “Northern Venice” - St. Petersburg, “the sun of Russian poetry” - A. Pushkin).
Allegory (from the Greek allegoria - allegory) consists of an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a concrete, life-like image. Allegories appear in literature in the Middle Ages and owe their origin to ancient customs, cultural traditions and folklore. The main source of allegories is tales about animals, in which the fox is an allegory of cunning, the wolf is an allegory of anger and greed, the ram is stupidity, the lion is power, the snake is wisdom, etc. From ancient times to our time, allegories are most often used in fables, parables, and other humorous and satirical works. In Russian classical literature, allegories were used by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.S. Griboyedov, N.V. Gogol, I.A. Krylov, V.V. Mayakovsky.
Irony (from the Greek eironeia - pretense) is a trope that consists in the use of a name or an entire statement in an indirect sense, directly opposite to the direct one, this is a transfer by contrast, by polarity. Most often, irony is used in statements containing a positive assessment, which the speaker (writer) rejects. “Where are you, smart one, are you delusional?” - asks the hero of one of I.A.’s fables. Krylova at Donkey's. Praise in the form of censure can also be ironic (see A.P. Chekhov’s story “Chameleon”, characterization of a dog).
Anaphora (from the Greek anaphora -ana again + phoros bearing) - unity of beginning, repetition of sounds, morphemes, words, phrases, rhythmic and speech structures at the beginning of parallel syntactic periods or poetic lines.
Bridges demolished by thunderstorms,
A coffin from a washed-out cemetery (A.S. Pushkin) (repetition of sounds) ...A black-eyed maiden, a black-maned horse! (M.Yu. Lermontov) (repetition of morphemes)
It was not in vain that the winds blew,
It was not in vain that the storm came. (S.A. Yesenin) (repetition of words)
I swear by odd and even,
I swear by the sword and the right battle. (A.S. Pushkin)
Conclusion
In conclusion of this work, I would like to note that the means of expression, the stylistic figures that make our speech expressive, are diverse, and it is very useful to know them. A word, speech is an indicator of a person’s general culture, his intelligence, his speech culture. That is why mastering the culture of speech and its improvement, especially at the present time, is so necessary for the current generation. Each of us is obliged to cultivate a respectful, reverent and caring attitude towards our native language, and each of us must consider it our duty to contribute to the preservation of the Russian nation, language, and culture.
List of used literature
1. Golovin I.B. Fundamentals of speech culture. St. Petersburg: Slovo, 1983.
2. Rosenthal D.E. Practical style. M.: Knowledge, 1987.
3. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B. Secrets of stylistics: rules of good speech M.: Znanie, 1991.
4. Farmina L.G. Let's learn to speak correctly. M.: Mir, 1992.
5. Dantsev D.D., Nefedova N.V. Russian language and speech culture for technical universities. - Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2002.
6. Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook / ed. V.I. Maksimova - M.: Gardariki, 2000.
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