Etc.), materials, etc. Number of chemicals. conn. huge and growing all the time; since chemistry itself creates its object; to the end 20th century known approx. 10 million chemical connections.
X The industry as a science and industry does not exist for long (about 400 years). However, chem. knowledge and chemistry practice (as a craft) can be traced back thousands of years, and in a primitive form they appeared together with Homo sapiens in the process of his interaction. With . Therefore, a strict definition of chemistry can be based on a broad, timeless, universal sense - as a field of natural science and human practice associated with chemistry. elements and their combinations.
The word "chemistry" comes either from the name of Ancient Egypt "Hem" ("dark", "black" - apparently, from the color of the soil in the Nile River valley; the meaning of the name is "Egyptian science"), or from the ancient Greek. chemeia - the art of smelting. Modern name chemistry is produced from late lat. chimia and is international, e.g. German Chemie, French chimie, English chemistry The term "chemistry" was first used in the 5th century. Greek alchemist
History of chemistry. As an experiential practice, chemistry arose with the beginnings of human society (the use of fire, cooking, skins) and, in the form of crafts, reached early sophistication (the production of poisons and medicines). In the beginning, people used chemicals. changes . objects (, rotting), and with the complete development of fire and - chemical. processes and fusion (pottery and glass production), smelting. The composition of ancient Egyptian glass (4 thousand years BC) does not differ significantly from the composition of modern glass. bottle glass. In Egypt already 3 thousand years BC. e. smelted in large quantities, using it as a material (native has been used since time immemorial). According to cuneiform sources, developed production also existed in Mesopotamia 3 thousand years BC. e. Mastering chemistry processes of production and, and then were steps not only, but civilization as a whole, changed the living conditions of people, influenced their aspirations.
At the same time, theoretical theories arose. generalizations. For example, Chinese manuscripts from the 12th century. BC e. report "theoretical" building systems of “basic elements” (fire, wood, and earth); in Mesopotamia the idea of series of opposites, interaction, was born. which “make up the world”: male and female, heat and cold, moisture and dryness, etc. The idea (of astrological origin) of the unity of the phenomena of macrocosm and microcosm was very important.
Conceptual values also include atomistic values. a doctrine that was developed in the 5th century. BC e. Ancient Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus. They proposed analog semantic. a model of the structure of a thing, which has a deep combinatorial meaning: combinations, according to certain rules, of a small number of indivisible elements (and letters) into compounds (and words) create information wealth and diversity (of things and languages).
In the 4th century. BC e. Aristotle created chem. a system based on the “principles”: dryness - and cold - heat, with the help of pairwise combinations of which in “primary matter” he derived 4 basic elements (earth and fire). This system existed almost unchanged for 2 thousand years.
After Aristotle, leadership in chemistry. knowledge gradually passed from Athens to Alexandria. Since that time, recipes for obtaining chemicals have been created. in-institutions arise (like the temple of Serapis in Alexandria, Egypt), engaged in activities that the Arabs would later call “al-chemistry”.
In the 4th-5th centuries. chem. knowledge penetrates into Asia Minor (together with Nestorianism), philosophical schools arise in Syria, translating the Greek. natural philosophy and transmitted chemistry. knowledge to the Arabs.
In the 3rd-4th centuries. arose - a philosophical and cultural movement combining mysticism and magic with craft and art. I mean I contributed. contribution to the lab. skill and technique, obtaining many pure chemicals. in-in. Alchemists supplemented Aristotle's elements with 4 principles (, and); combinations of these mystical elements and principles determined the individuality of each island. had a noticeable influence on the formation of Western European culture (the combination of rationalism with mysticism, knowledge with creation, specific cult), but did not spread in other cultural regions.
, or in European, Ibn (Avicenna), Abu ar-Razi and other alchemists introduced chemistry. everyday life (from), pl. , NaOH, HNO3. Books translated into Latin were extremely popular. From the 12th century Arabic begins to lose practicality. direction, and with it leadership. Penetrating through Spain and Sicily into Europe, it stimulates the work of European alchemists, the most famous of whom were R. Bacon and R. Lull. From the 16th century practical development is developing. European, stimulated by the needs (G. Agricola) and medicine (T. Paracelsus). The latter founded the pharmacological branch of chemistry - iatrochemistry, and together with Agricola acted as the first reformer.
X science as a science arose during the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, when a new civilization arose in Western Europe as a result of closely related revolutions: religious (Reformation), which gave a new interpretation of the godly nature of earthly affairs; scientific, which gave a new, mechanistic. picture of the world (heliocentrism, infinity, subordination to natural laws, description in the language of mathematics); industrial (the emergence of the factory as a system of machines using fossil energy); social (destruction of feudal and formation of bourgeois society).
X Science, following the physics of G. Galileo and I. Newton, could become a science only along the path of mechanism, which set the basic norms and sciences. In chemistry it was much more difficult than in physics. Mechanics is easily abstracted from the characteristics of an individual object. In chemistry, each particular object (object) is an individual, qualitatively different from others. Chemistry could not express its subject purely quantitatively and throughout its history remained a bridge between the world of quantity and the world of quality. However, the hopes of anti-mechanists (from D. Diderot to W. Ostwald) are that chemistry will lay the foundations for a different, non-mechanistic approach. sciences did not materialize, and chemistry developed within the framework defined by Newton’s picture of the world.
For more than two centuries, chemistry has been developing an idea of the material nature of its object. R. Boyle, who laid the foundations of rationalism and experimentation. method in chemistry, in his work “The Skeptical Chemist” (1661) he developed ideas about chemistry. (corpuscles), differences in the shape and mass of which explain the qualities of individual substances. Atomistic ideas in chemistry were reinforced ideologically. the role of atomism in European culture: man-atom is a model of man, which forms the basis of a new social philosophy.
Metallurgical chemistry, which dealt with processes, and calcination - calcination (chemistry was called pyrotechnics, i.e. fiery art) - attracted attention to the products formed during this process. J. van Helmont, who introduced the concept of "" and discovered (1620), laid the foundation for pneumatic. chemistry. Boyle in his work “Fire and Flame Suspended on” (1672), repeating the experiments of J. Rey (1630) on increasing mass at , came to the conclusion that this occurs due to the “capture of weighty particles of flame.” On the border of the 16th-17th centuries. G. Stahl formulates the general theory of chemistry - the theory (of caloric, i.e., “substances” removed with the help of substances when they are used), which liberated chemistry from the Aristotelian system that lasted 2 thousand years. Although M.V. Lomonosov, having repeated experiments on, discovered in chemistry. p-tions (1748) and was able to give the correct explanation of the processes and how the interaction. in-va with particles (1756), knowledge was impossible without the development of pneumatics. chemistry. In 1754 J. Black discovered (rediscovered) ("fixed"); J. Priestley (1774) -, G. Cavendish (1766) - ("flammable"). These discoveries provided all the information necessary to explain the processes , and , which is what A. Lavoisier did in the 1770-90s, thereby effectively burying the theory and gaining the fame of the “father of modern chemistry.”
To the beginning 19th century pneumatochemistry and studies of the composition of substances have brought chemists closer to understanding that chemistry. elements are combined in certain, equivalent ratios; were formulated (J. Proust, 1799-1806) and volumetric relations (J. Gay-Luc-sac, 1808). Finally, J. Dalton, Most. who fully outlined his concept in the essay “The New System of Chemical Philosophy” (1808-27), convinced his contemporaries of the existence of , introduced the concept (of mass) and brought back to life the concept of an element, but in a completely different sense - as a collection of one type.
The hypothesis of A. Avogadro (1811, accepted by the scientific community under the influence of S. Cannizzaro in 1860) that simple particles are made up of two identical ones, resolved a number of contradictions. Picture of the material nature of chemistry. the facility was completed with the opening of periodic. chemical law elements (D.I. Mendeleev, 1869). He linked the quantities. measure () with quality (chemical properties), revealed the meaning of the concept of chemical. element, gave the chemist a theory of great predictive power. Chemistry has become modern. science. Periodic the law legitimized its own place of chemistry in the system of sciences, resolving the latent conflict of chemistry. reality with the norms of mechanism.
At the same time, there was a search for the causes and forces of chemicals. interactions. Dualism has emerged. (electrochemical) theory (I. Berzelius, 1812-19); the concepts "" and "chemical bond" were introduced, which were filled with physical meaning with the development of the theory of structure and. They were preceded by intensive research into org. in-in the 1st half. 19th century, which led to the division of chemistry into 3 parts: , and (until the 1st half of the 19th century, the latter was the main section of chemistry). New empiric. the material (replacement substitutions) did not fit into Berzelius’s theory, so ideas were introduced about groups acting in the substitutions as a whole - radicals (F. Wöhler, J. Liebig, 1832). These ideas were developed by C. Gerard (1853) into (4 types), the value of the cut was that it was easily associated with the concept (E. Frankland, 1852).
In the 1st half. 19th century one of the most important phenomena of chemistry was discovered - (the term itself was proposed by Berzelius in 1835), which very soon found widespread practical use. application. IN . 19th century Along with important discoveries of such new substances (and classes) as (V. Perkin, 1856), concepts important for the further development of chemistry were put forward. In 1857-58, F. Kekule developed the theory as applied to org. in-you, established tetravalency and its ability to communicate with each other. This paved the way for the theory of chemistry. structures of org. conn. (), built by A. M. Butlerov (1861). In 1865 Kekule explained the nature of aromatics. conn. J. van't Hoff and J. Le Bel, postulating tetrahedral. structures (1874), paved the way for a three-dimensional view of the structure of matter, laying the foundations as an important branch of chemistry.
IN . 19th century At the same time, research began in the field of and. L. Wilhelmy studied kinetics (for the first time giving the equation for speed; 1850), and K. Guldberg and P. Waage formulated in 1864-67. G. I. Hess discovered the fundamental law in 1840, M. Berthelot and V. F. Luginin investigated the heats of plurality. districts. At the same time, work was developing on, and, the Crimea began back in the 18th century.
The work of J. Gibbs, Van't Hoff, V. Nernst and others is created. Studies of the electrical conductivity of solutions led to the discovery of electrolytic. (S. Arrhenius, 1887). In the same year, Ostwald and Van't Hoff founded the first journal dedicated to it, and it took shape as an independent discipline. TO . 19th century it is customary to attribute the origin of and, especially in connection with the pioneering work of Liebig (1840s) on the study of, and.
19th century by right m.b. called the century of chemical discoveries. elements. During these 100 years, more than half (50) of the elements existing on Earth were discovered. For comparison: in the 20th century. 6 elements were discovered, in the 18th century - 18, before the 18th century - 14.
Outstanding discoveries in physics at the end. 19th century (X-rays, ) and the development of theoretical. ideas (quantum theory) led to the discovery of new (radioactive) elements and the phenomenon of isotopy, the emergence and, new ideas about the structure and nature of chemistry. connections, giving rise to the development of modern chemistry (chemistry of the 20th century).
Advances in chemistry of the 20th century. associated with the progress of the analyte. chemistry and physics methods for studying substances and influencing them, penetration into the mechanisms of processes, with the synthesis of new classes of substances and new materials, differentiation of chemicals. disciplines and the integration of chemistry with other sciences, meeting the needs of modern times. industry, engineering and technology, medicine, construction, agriculture and other spheres of human activity in new chemicals. knowledge, processes and products. Successful application of new physical methods of influence led to the formation of new important areas of chemistry, for example. , as well as using ideas. Methods that simulate biochemistry are being further developed. districts. Advances (including scanning tunneling) have opened up prospects for “designing” products at the pier. level, led to the creation of a new direction in chemistry - the so-called. nanotechnology. To control chemical processes both in the laboratory and in industry. scale, the principles are beginning to be used. and prayer. organizing ensembles of responders (including approaches based on ).
Chemistry as a knowledge system about substances and their transformations. This knowledge is contained in a stock of facts - reliably established and verified information about chemistry. elements and compounds, their conditions and behavior in natural and arts. environments The criteria for facts and methods for systematizing them are constantly evolving. Large generalizations that reliably connect large sets of facts become scientific laws, the formulation of which opens up new stages of chemistry (for example, energy, Mendeleev’s periodic law). Theories using specific concepts, explain and predict facts of a more specific subject area. In fact, experimental knowledge becomes a fact only when it receives theoretical knowledge. interpretation. So, the first chem. theory - theory, being incorrect, contributed to the development of chemistry, because it connected facts into a system and made it possible to formulate new questions. (Butlerov, Kekule) organized and explained the huge material of the org. chemistry and led to the rapid development of chemistry. synthesis and study of the structure of org. connections.
X Knowledge as knowledge is a very dynamic system. The evolutionary accumulation of knowledge is interrupted by revolutions - a deep restructuring of the system of facts, theories and methods, with the emergence of a new set of concepts or even a new style of thinking. Thus, the revolution was caused by the works of Lavoisier (materialistic theory, the introduction of quantitative experimental methods, the development of chemical nomenclature), the discovery of periodicity. Mendeleev's law, creation in the beginning. 20th century new analytes methods (microanalysis, ). The emergence of new areas that develop a new vision of the subject of chemistry and influence all its areas (for example, the emergence of physical chemistry on the basis of chemical and chemical kinetics) can also be considered a revolution.
Chem. knowledge has a developed structure. The framework of chemistry consists of basic chemistry. disciplines that developed in the 19th century: analytical, non-org., org. and physical chemistry. Subsequently, in the course of the structure of chemistry, a large number of new disciplines were formed (for example,), as well as a new engineering branch -.
A large set of research areas grows on the framework of disciplines, some of which are included in one discipline or another (for example, the chemistry of elemental compounds is part of organic chemistry), others are multidisciplinary in nature, i.e., they require combination in one study scientists from different disciplines (for example, the study of structure using a complex of complex methods). Still others are interdisciplinary, i.e., they require the training of a specialist in a new profile (for example, chemistry of the nerve impulse).
Since almost all practical human activity is associated with the use of matter as substances, chemicals. knowledge is necessary in all areas of science and technology that master the material world. Therefore, today chemistry has become, on a par with mathematics,
To understand the essence of a particular science, you must first of all receive pleasure from knowledge, discovering something new for yourself. In this case it is chemistry. Believe me, it can give those who study it true pleasure. And this is not just an accumulation of knowledge with a dry remainder of facts. Chemical transformations are very interesting to observe, and visual examples in the laboratory can awaken the brightest interest in a student! Because chemistry is the basis of all substances, those from which the world around us is created. Welcome to this interesting world!
What does chemistry study
Let's figure out what the subject of study is. Simply put, chemistry is the science of matter (and, as we know, it occupies volume and has a certain mass). So, this science studies the structure and properties of substances and all the changes that occur with them. Any of them is either pure or may consist of a mixture of elements. And the transformation of one into another is called a chemical reaction. A new substance is formed - and it’s like magic! It is not for nothing that in ancient times alchemists were treated as wizards, believing that they could obtain gold from other metals.
General classification
Chemistry is a mighty tree with powerful branches - sections of this science. They are quite different in their tasks and methods, but are strongly connected. :
- Analytical. Tells how much and what substances are contained in a certain mixture. Performs analysis (quantitative and qualitative) using a wide range of tools.
- Biochemistry. Its subject of study is chemical reactions occurring in organisms. Metabolism and digestion, respiration and reproduction - all this is the prerogative of this science. Research is carried out by scientists at the microscopic or molecular level.
- Inorganic. It is associated with research in the field of inorganics (for example, salts). The structures and properties of these compounds and their individual components are analyzed. All elements of the periodic table are also studied here (excluding carbon, which “got to” organic chemistry).
- Organic. This is chemistry, the study of carbon compounds. Scientists know a great many (millions!) of such compounds, but every year more and more are discovered and created. They find application in petrochemistry, polymer production, and pharmaceuticals.
- Physical. Here the subject of study is the patterns of reactions in relation to physical phenomena. This branch deals with the physical properties and behavior of substances and develops models and theories of action.
Biotechnology
A fairly new branch, related to chemistry and biology. The subject of study is the modification or creation of genetic material (or organisms) for certain scientific purposes. The latest technologies and research in this area are used in cloning, in obtaining new crops, in developing resistance to diseases and negative heredity in living organisms.
Ancient history
The meaning of the word “chemistry” for human civilization can be learned by tracing the stages of development of this science. Since time immemorial, people, sometimes without realizing it, have used them to obtain metals from ore, to dye fabrics and tan leather. Thus, at the dawn of cultural life and the development of the civilized world, chemical teaching arose.
Middle Ages and Renaissance
And already in the new era, alchemy appears. Her main task is to acquire the so-called “philosopher’s stone”, and a secondary task is to transform metals into gold. By the way, many historians believe that it was alchemy that gave a huge impetus to the development of chemical science.
During the Renaissance, such research began to be used for practical problems (in metallurgy, the production of ceramics and paints, glassmaking); A specialized branch of alchemy emerges - medical.
17th-19th centuries
In the second half of the 17th century, R. Boyle first gave a scientific definition of the concept of “chemical element”.
In the second half of the 18th, the transformation of chemistry into a science was already coming to an end. By this time, the laws of conservation of mass in chemical reactions had been formulated.
In the 19th century, lays the foundation for chemical atomism, and Amedeo Avogadro introduces the term "molecule". Atomic-molecular chemistry was established in the 60s of the 19th century. A. M. Butlerov creates a theory of the construction of chemical compounds. D.I. periodic law and table.
Terminology
Many of them have been established throughout the development of chemistry. Below are presented only the main ones.
Substance is a type of matter that has certain chemical as well as physical properties. This is a collection of atoms and molecules that is in a state of aggregation. All physical bodies are made of substances.
An atom is a chemically indivisible, smallest particle of substances. It includes a core and an electron shell.
What can you say about chemical elements? Each of them has its own name, its own serial number, and location in the periodic table. Today, 118 elements are known in the natural environment (the extreme Uuo is ununoctium). Elements are designated by symbols that represent 1 or 2 letters of the Latin name (for example, hydrogen - H, Latin name Hydrogenium).
Chemical element, simple and complex substance, allotropy. Relative atomic and molecular masses, mole, molar mass. Valency, oxidation state, chemical bond, structural formula.
Workshop: Calculations using chemical formulas, chemical equations. Solving problems to find the chemical formula of a substance. Solving problems using the concept of “molar mass”. Calculations using chemical equations, if one of the substances is taken in excess, if one of the substances contains impurities. Solving problems to determine the yield of a reaction product.
Chemistry is the science of substances, their properties and transformations that occur as a result of chemical reactions, as well as the fundamental laws to which these transformations are subject. Since all substances are composed of atoms, which, thanks to chemical bonds, are able to form molecules, chemistry is mainly concerned with the study of interactions between atoms and molecules obtained as a result of such interactions.
A chemical element - a certain type of atom that has a name, serial number, and position in the periodic table is called a chemical element. Currently, 118 chemical elements are known, ending with Uuo (Ununoctium). Each element is designated by a symbol that represents one or two letters from its Latin name (hydrogen is symbolized by H, the first letter of its Latin name Hydrogenium).
Substance is a type of matter with certain chemical and physical properties. A collection of atoms, atomic particles or molecules located in a certain state of aggregation. Physical bodies are made of substances (copper is a substance, and a copper coin is a physical body).
A simple substance is a substance consisting of atoms of one chemical element: hydrogen, oxygen, etc.
A complex substance is a substance consisting of atoms of different chemical elements: acids, water, etc.
Allotropy is the ability of some chemical elements to exist in the form of two or more simple substances, different in structure and properties. For example: diamond and coal are made of the same element - carbon.
Relative atomic mass. The relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the absolute mass of an atom to 1/12 of the absolute mass of an atom of the carbon isotope 12C. The relative atomic mass of an element is designated by the symbol Ar, where r is the initial letter of the English word relative.
Relative molecular weight. Relative molecular mass Mr is the ratio of the absolute mass of a molecule to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the carbon isotope 12C.
Note that relative masses are, by definition, dimensionless quantities.
Thus, the measure of relative atomic and molecular masses is 1/12 of the mass of an atom of the carbon isotope 12C, which is called the atomic mass unit (amu):
Mol. In chemistry, a special quantity is of extreme importance - the amount of a substance.
The amount of a substance is determined by the number of structural units (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) of this substance, it is usually denoted n and expressed in moles (mol).
A mole is a unit of quantity of a substance containing the same number of structural units of a given substance as there are atoms contained in 12 g of carbon, consisting only of the 12C isotope.
Avogadro's number. The definition of a mole is based on the number of structural units contained in 12 g of carbon. It has been established that this mass of carbon contains 6.02 × 1023 carbon atoms. Consequently, any substance with an amount of 1 mole contains 6.02 × 1023 structural units (atoms, molecules, ions).
The number of particles 6.02 × 1023 is called Avogadro's number or Avogadro's constant and is denoted NA:
N A = 6.02 × 10 23 mol -1
Molar mass. For the convenience of calculations carried out on the basis of chemical reactions and taking into account the amounts of initial reagents and reaction products in moles, the concept of molar mass of a substance is introduced.
The molar mass M of a substance is the ratio of its mass to the amount of substance:
where g is the mass in grams, n is the amount of substance in moles, M is the molar mass in g/mol - a constant value for each given substance.
The molar mass value is numerically the same as the relative molecular mass of a substance or the relative atomic mass of an element.
Valence is the ability of atoms of chemical elements to form a certain number of chemical bonds with atoms of other elements or the number of bonds that a substance can form.
Oxidation state (oxidation number, formal charge) - an auxiliary conventional value for recording the processes of oxidation, reduction and redox reactions, the numerical value of the electrical charge assigned to an atom in a molecule under the assumption that the electron pairs that carry out the bond are completely shifted towards more electronegative ones atoms.
Ideas about the degree of oxidation form the basis for the classification and nomenclature of inorganic compounds.
The oxidation number corresponds to the charge of an ion or the formal charge of an atom in a molecule or formula unit, for example:
Na + Cl - , Mg 2+ Cl 2 - , N -3 H 3 - , C +2 O -2 , C +4 O 2 -2 , Cl + F - , H + N +5 O -2 3 , C -4 H 4 + , K +1 Mn +7 O -2 4 .
The oxidation number is indicated above the element symbol. Unlike indicating the charge of an ion, when indicating the oxidation state, the sign is given first, and then the numerical value, and not vice versa.
H + N +3 O -2 2 - oxidation state, H + N 3+ O 2- 2 - charges.
The oxidation state of an atom in a simple substance is zero, for example:
O 0 3, Br 0 2, C 0.
The algebraic sum of the oxidation states of atoms in a molecule is always zero:
H + 2 S +6 O -2 4 , (+1 2) + (+6 1) + (-2 4) = +2 +6 -8 = 0
Chemical bond, mutual attraction of atoms leading to the formation of molecules and crystals. It is commonly said that in a molecule or in a crystal there are chemical bonds between neighboring atoms. A chemical bond is determined by the interaction between charged particles (nuclei and electrons). The main characteristics of a chemical bond are strength, length, polarity.
Properties are a set of characteristics by which some substances differ from others; they can be chemical and physical.
Physical properties are characteristics of a substance, when characterized, the substance does not change its chemical composition (density, state of aggregation, melting and boiling points, etc.)
Chemical properties are the ability of substances to interact with other substances or change under the influence of certain conditions. The result is the transformation of one substance or substances into other substances.
Physical phenomena - new substances are not formed.
Chemical phenomena - new substances are formed.
“Chemistry is a science that studies the properties and transformations of substances, accompanied by changes in their composition and structure.” She studies the nature and properties of various chemical bonds, the energy of chemical reactions, the reactivity of substances, the properties of catalysts, etc. A unique program for the study of chemical phenomena was first formulated and adopted by chemists at the first International Congress of Chemists in Germany in 1860. They proceeded from the fact that: - all substances consist of molecules that are in continuous and spontaneous movement; - all molecules are made up of atoms; - atoms and molecules are in continuous motion; - atoms are the smallest, further indivisible components of molecules.
Chemistry is one of the branches of natural science, the subject of study of which is chemical elements (atoms), the simple and complex substances (molecules) they form, their transformations and the laws to which these transformations are subject.
Chemistry is the science of chemical elements, their compounds and transformations that occur as a result of chemical reactions. She studies what substances this or that object consists of; why and how iron rusts, and why tin does not rust; what happens to food in the body; why does a salt solution conduct electricity, but a sugar solution does not; why some chemical changes occur quickly and others slowly.
Chemistry - Greek, science dealing with the study of the composition of bodies; it teaches what simple substances (chemical elements) bodies are made of, how they can be decomposed (chemical analysis) into their component parts and obtained again from these components (chemical synthesis).
Chemistry - The science of composition, structure, changes and transformations, as well as the formation of new simple and complex substances. Chemistry, says Engels, can be called the science of qualitative changes in bodies that occur under the influence of changes in quantitative composition.
Chemistry - Greek the science of the decomposition and composition of substances, bodies, and the search for non-decomposable elements and foundations.
Chemical view of nature, origins and current state.
Chemistry is a very ancient science. There are several explanations for the word "chemistry". According to one of the existing theories, it comes from the ancient name of Egypt - Kham and, therefore, should mean “Egyptian art”. According to another theory, the word "chemistry" comes from the Greek word cumoz (plant juice) and means "the art of extracting juices." This juice may be molten metal, so that in such an extended interpretation of the term the art of metallurgy must be included in it.
The subject of chemistry is chemical elements and their compounds, as well as the laws that govern various chemical reactions. Chemistry is sometimes called the central science because of its special position among the natural sciences. It connects physico-mathematical and biological-social sciences. This makes chemistry a “giant science”. Modern chemistry is the most extensive of all the natural sciences.
According to the definition of D.I. Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich (1871), “chemistry in its modern state can ... be called the study of elements.” The origin of the word “chemistry” has not been fully clarified. Many researchers believe that it comes from the ancient name of Egypt - Chemia (Greek Chemía, found in Plutarch), which is derived from "hem" or "hame" - black and means "science of the black earth" (Egypt), "Egyptian science" .
The main task of chemistry is to clarify the nature of matter; the main approach to solving this problem is the decomposition of matter into simpler components and the synthesis of new substances. Using this approach, chemists have learned to reproduce many natural chemical substances and create materials that do not exist in nature. At chemical plants, coal, oil, ores, water, and atmospheric oxygen are converted into detergents and dyes, plastics and polymers, drugs and metal alloys, fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides, etc. A living organism can also be considered as a complex chemical plant, in which thousands of substances enter into precisely regulated chemical reactions.
Modern chemistry is a wide complex of sciences that gradually emerged during its long historical development. Man's practical acquaintance with chemical processes dates back to ancient times. For many centuries, the theoretical explanation of chemical processes was based on the natural philosophical doctrine of elements-qualities. In a modified form, it served as the basis for alchemy, which arose around the 3rd-4th centuries. AD and sought to solve the problem of converting base metals into noble ones. Having failed to achieve success in solving this problem, alchemists, however, developed a number of techniques for studying substances, discovered some chemical compounds, which to a certain extent contributed to the emergence of scientific chemistry.
The most important features of modern chemistry are as follows.
1. In chemistry, primarily in physical chemistry, numerous independent scientific disciplines appear (chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, thermochemistry, radiation chemistry, photochemistry, plasma chemistry, laser chemistry).
2. Chemistry is actively integrated with other sciences, which resulted in the emergence of biochemistry, molecular biology, cosmochemistry, geochemistry, and biogeochemistry. The former study chemical processes in living organisms, geochemistry - the patterns of behavior of chemical elements in the earth's crust. Biogeochemistry is the science of the processes of movement, distribution, dispersion and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere with the participation of organisms. The founder of biogeochemistry is V.I. Vernadsky. Cosmochemistry studies the chemical composition of matter in the Universe, its abundance and distribution among individual cosmic bodies.
3. Fundamentally new research methods are appearing in chemistry (structural X-ray analysis, mass spectroscopy, radio spectroscopy, etc.).
Chemistry has contributed to the intensive development of certain areas of human activity. For example, chemistry provided surgery with three main means, thanks to which modern operations became painless and generally possible: 1) the introduction into practice of ether anesthesia, and then other narcotic substances; 2) use of antiseptics to prevent infection; 3) obtaining new alloplastic materials-polymers that do not exist in nature.
In chemistry, the inequality of individual chemical elements is very clearly manifested. The vast majority of chemical compounds (96% of more than 8.5 thousand currently known) are organic compounds. They are based on 18 elements), and only 6 of them are more widespread). This occurs due to the fact that, firstly, chemical bonds are strong (energy-intensive) and, secondly, they are also labile. Carbon, like no other element, meets all these requirements for energy intensity and bond lability. It combines chemical opposites, realizing their unity.
However, we emphasize that the material basis of life cannot be reduced to any, even the most complex, chemical formations. It is not just an aggregate of a certain chemical composition, but at the same time a structure that has functions and carries out processes. Therefore, it is impossible to give life only a functional definition.
Modern chemistry studies transformations in which molecules of one compound exchange atoms with molecules of other compounds, break up into molecules with fewer atoms, and also enter into chemical reactions that result in the formation of new substances. Atoms undergo some changes in chemical processes only in their outer electron shells; the atomic nucleus and inner electron shells do not change.
When defining the subject of chemistry, attention is often focused on the fact that it consists, first of all, of compounds of atoms and the transformations of these compounds, which occur with the rupture of some and the formation of other interatomic bonds.
Various chemical sciences differ in that they study either different classes of compounds (this difference forms the basis for the distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry), or different types of reactions (radiochemistry, radiation chemistry, catalytic synthesis, polymer chemistry), or the use of different research methods ( physical chemistry in its various directions). The delimitation of one chemical discipline from another, which in current conditions preserves the historically established demarcation lines, is of a relative nature.
Until the end of the 19th century, chemistry was basically an integral, unified science. Its internal division into organic and inorganic did not violate this unity. But the numerous discoveries that soon followed, both in chemistry itself and in biology and physics, marked the beginning of its rapid differentiation.
Modern chemical science, based on strong theoretical foundations, is continuously developing in breadth and depth. In particular, new, qualitatively different discrete chemical particles are being discovered and studied. Thus, back in the first half of the 19th century, when studying electrolysis, ions were discovered - special particles formed from atoms and molecules, but electrically charged. Ions are structural units of many crystals, crystal lattices of metals; they exist in the atmosphere, in solutions, etc.
At the beginning of the 20th century. chemists discovered radicals as one of the active forms of a chemical substance. They are formed from molecules by the elimination of individual atoms or groups and contain atoms of elements in an unusual valence state for them, which is associated with the presence of single (unpaired) electrons, which explains their exceptional chemical activity.
Special forms of a chemical also include macromolecules. They consist of hundreds and thousands of atoms and, as a result, acquire, in contrast to an ordinary molecule, qualitatively new properties.
Characteristic of modern chemistry, as well as of all science of the 20th century, the process of deep internal differentiation is largely associated with the discovery of this qualitative diversity of chemical substances. Their structure, transformations and properties have become the subject of study in special branches of chemistry: electrochemistry, chemical kinetics, polymer chemistry, chemistry of complex compounds, colloidal chemistry, chemistry of macromolecular compounds.
Already by the beginning of the 20th century. Within chemistry itself, there is a clear distinction between general and inorganic chemistry, and organic chemistry. The subject of the study of general and closely related inorganic chemistry was the chemical elements, the simplest inorganic compounds they form and their general laws (primarily the Periodic Law of D.I. Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev).
A strong impetus to the development of inorganic chemistry was given by penetration into the depths of the atom and the study of nuclear processes. The search for elements most suitable for fission in nuclear reactors contributed to the study of little-studied elements and the synthesis of new elements using nuclear reactions. Radiochemistry, which arose in the second quarter of the 20th century, began studying their properties, as well as the physicochemical principles and chemical properties of radioactive isotopes, and the methods of their isolation and concentration.
Organic chemistry finally emerged as an independent science in the second half of the 19th century. This was facilitated by the acquisition of a large amount of empirical and theoretical material about carbon compounds and its derivatives. The determining factor for all organic compounds is the characteristics of the valence state of carbon - the ability of its atoms to bond with each other using both single, double, and triple bonds into long linear and branched chains. Due to the infinite variety of forms of linkage of carbon atoms, the presence of isomerism and homologous series in almost all classes of organic compounds, the possibilities for obtaining these compounds are almost limitless.
In the 20th century many branches of organic chemistry began to gradually turn into large, relatively independent branches with their own objects of study. This is how the chemistry of organoelement compounds, the chemistry of polymers, the chemistry of high-molecular compounds, the chemistry of antibiotics, dyes, aromatic compounds, pharmacochemistry, etc. appeared.
At the end of the 20th century. the chemistry of organometallic compounds arises, that is, compounds containing one (or more) direct metal-carbon bond. Before the end of the century, organic compounds of mercury, cadmium, zinc, lead, etc. were discovered. Currently, carbon compounds with a significant content of not only metals, but also non-metals (phosphorus, borax, silicon, arsenic, etc.) have been obtained. Now this area of chemistry has come to be called the chemistry of organoelement compounds; it is at the intersection of organic and inorganic chemistry.
An independent field of chemistry is the science of methods for determining the composition of a substance - analytical chemistry. Its main task - determining the chemical elements or their compounds that make up the substance under study - is solved through analysis. Without modern methods of analysis, the synthesis of new chemical compounds, effective constant monitoring of the progress of the technological process and the quality of the resulting products would be impossible.
Chemistry of our days constitutes one of the most extensive areas of human knowledge and plays an extremely important role in the national economy. The objects and methods of chemistry research are so diverse that many of its sections are essentially independent scientific disciplines. Modern chemistry is usually divided in the most general terms into at least 5 sections: inorganic, organic, physical, analytical and chemistry of macromolecular compounds. However, there are no clear boundaries between these sections. For example, coordination and organoelement compounds are objects that are in the field of research in both inorganic and organic chemistry. The development of these sections is impossible without the widespread use of methods and ideas of physical and analytical chemistry.
The most important features of modern chemistry include:
1. Differentiation of the main branches of chemistry into separate, largely independent scientific disciplines. This differentiation is based on the difference in objects and research methods. Thus, physical chemistry is divided into a significant number of rapidly developing disciplines.
2. Integration of chemistry with other sciences. As a result of this process, biochemistry, bioorganic chemistry and molecular biology emerged, which study chemical processes in living organisms. At the border of chemistry and geology, geochemistry is developing, studying the patterns of behavior of chemical elements in the earth's crust. The objectives of cosmochemistry are the study of the characteristics of the elemental composition of cosmic bodies (planets and meteorites) and various compounds contained in these objects.
3. The emergence of new, mainly physicochemical and physical research methods (structural X-ray analysis, mass spectroscopy, radiospectroscopy methods, etc.)
The relationship between chemistry and physics
Along with the processes of differentiation of chemical science itself, integration processes of chemistry with other branches of natural science are currently underway. The relationships between physics and chemistry are developing especially intensively. This process is accompanied by the emergence of more and more related physical and chemical branches of knowledge.
The entire history of interaction between chemistry and physics is full of examples of the exchange of ideas, objects and research methods. At different stages of its development, physics supplied chemistry with concepts and theoretical concepts that had a strong impact on the development of chemistry. Moreover, the more complex chemical research became, the more the equipment and calculation methods of physics penetrated into chemistry. The need to measure the thermal effects of a reaction, the development of spectral and X-ray diffraction analysis, the study of isotopes and radioactive chemical elements, crystal lattices of matter, and molecular structures required the creation and led to the use of complex physical instruments: espectroscopes, mass spectrographs, diffraction gratings, electron microscopes, etc.
The development of modern science has confirmed the deep connection between physics and chemistry. This connection is of a genetic nature, that is, the formation of atoms of chemical elements and their combination into molecules of matter occurred at a certain stage in the development of the inorganic world. Also, this connection is based on the common structure of specific types of matter, including molecules of substances, which ultimately consist of the same chemical elements, atoms and elementary particles. The emergence of a chemical form of motion in nature caused the further development of ideas about electromagnetic interaction, studied by physics. On the basis of the periodic law, progress is now being made not only in chemistry, but also in nuclear physics, on the border of which such mixed physical and chemical theories as the chemistry of isotopes and radiation chemistry arose.
Chemistry and physics study practically the same objects, but only each of them sees in these objects its own side, its own subject of study. Thus, a molecule is the subject of study not only of chemistry, but also of molecular physics. If the former studies it from the point of view of the laws of formation, composition, chemical properties, bonds, conditions of its dissociation into constituent atoms, then the latter statistically studies the behavior of molecular masses, which determines thermal phenomena, various states of aggregation, transitions from gaseous to liquid and solid phases and back , phenomena not associated with changes in the composition of molecules and their internal chemical structure. The accompaniment of each chemical reaction by the mechanical movement of masses of reagent molecules, the release or absorption of heat due to the breaking or formation of bonds in new molecules, convincingly indicates the close connection of chemical and physical phenomena. Thus, the energy of chemical processes is closely related to the laws of thermodynamics. Chemical reactions that occur with the release of energy, usually in the form of heat and light, are called exothermic. There are also endothermic reactions that occur with the absorption of energy. All of the above does not contradict the laws of thermodynamics: in the case of combustion, energy is released simultaneously with a decrease in the internal energy of the system. In endothermic reactions, the internal energy of the system increases due to the influx of heat. By measuring the amount of energy released during a reaction (the thermal effect of a chemical reaction), one can judge the change in the internal energy of the system. It is measured in kilojoules per mole (kJ/mol).
One more example. A special case of the first law of thermodynamics is Hess's law. It states that the thermal effect of a reaction depends only on the initial and final states of the substances and does not depend on the intermediate stages of the process. Hess's law allows us to calculate the thermal effect of a reaction in cases where its direct measurement is for some reason impossible.
With the emergence of the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics and the study of elementary particles, even deeper connections between physics and chemistry were revealed. It turned out that the solution to the explanation of the essence of the properties of chemical compounds, the very mechanism of transformation of substances lies in the structure of atoms, in the quantum mechanical processes of its elementary particles and especially the electrons of the outer shell. It is the latest physics that has been able to solve such questions of chemistry as the nature of the chemical bond, features of the chemical structure molecules of organic and inorganic compounds, etc.
In the area of contact between physics and chemistry, such a relatively young section among the main branches of chemistry as physical chemistry, which took shape at the end of the 19th century, has arisen and is successfully developing. as a result of successful attempts to quantitatively study the physical properties of chemical substances and mixtures, and theoretically explain molecular structures. The experimental and theoretical basis for this was the work of D.I. Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (discovery of the Periodic Law), Van't Hoff (thermodynamics of chemical processes), S. Arrhenius (theory of electrolytic dissociation), etc. The subject of her study was general theoretical issues relating to the structure and properties of molecules of chemical compounds, the processes of transformation of substances in connection with the mutual dependence of their physical properties, the study of the conditions for the occurrence of chemical reactions and the physical phenomena occurring during this process. Now physical chemistry is a diverse science that closely connects physics and chemistry.
In physical chemistry itself, electrochemistry, the study of solutions, photochemistry, and crystal chemistry have now emerged and fully developed as independent sections with their own special methods and objects of research. At the beginning of the 20th century. Colloidal chemistry, which grew in the depths of physical chemistry, also emerged as an independent science. From the second half of the 20th century. In connection with the intensive development of nuclear energy problems, the newest branches of physical chemistry arose and received great development - high-energy chemistry, radiation chemistry (the subject of its study are reactions occurring under the influence of ionizing radiation), and isotope chemistry.
Physical chemistry is now considered as the broadest general theoretical foundation of all chemical science. Many of her teachings and theories are of great importance for the development of inorganic and especially organic chemistry. With the emergence of physical chemistry, the study of matter began to be carried out not only by traditional chemical research methods, not only from the point of view of its composition and properties, but also from the structure, thermodynamics and kinetics of the chemical process, as well as from the connection and dependence of the latter on the influence of phenomena inherent in other forms of movement (light and radiation exposure, light and heat exposure, etc.).
It is noteworthy that in the first half of the 20th century. A science bordering between chemistry and new branches of physics (quantum mechanics, electronic theory of atoms and molecules) developed, which later became known as chemical physics. She widely applied theoretical and experimental methods of modern physics to the study of the structure of chemical elements and compounds and especially the mechanism of reactions. Chemical physics studies the relationship and mutual transition of chemical and subatomic forms of motion of matter.
In the hierarchy of basic sciences given by F. Engels, chemistry is directly adjacent to physics. This proximity provided the speed and depth with which many branches of physics fruitfully wedge into chemistry. Chemistry borders, on the one hand, with macroscopic physics - thermodynamics, continuum physics, and on the other - with microphysics - static physics, quantum mechanics.
It is well known how fruitful these contacts were for chemistry. Thermodynamics gave rise to chemical thermodynamics - the study of chemical equilibria. Static physics formed the basis of chemical kinetics - the study of the rates of chemical transformations. Quantum mechanics revealed the essence of the Periodic Law of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev. The modern theory of chemical structure and reactivity is quantum chemistry, i.e. application of the principles of quantum mechanics to the study of molecules and “X transformations.
Another evidence of the fruitful influence of physics on chemical science is the ever-expanding use of physical methods in chemical research. Amazing progress in this area is especially clearly visible in the example of spectroscopic methods. Until quite recently, from the infinite range of electromagnetic radiation, chemists used only a narrow region of the visible and adjacent areas of the infrared and ultraviolet ranges. The discovery by physicists of the phenomenon of magnetic resonance absorption led to the emergence of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, the most informative modern analytical method and method for studying the electronic structure of molecules, and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy, a unique method for studying unstable intermediate particles - free radicals. The development of synchrotron radiation has opened up new prospects for the development of this high-energy branch of spectroscopy.
It would seem that the entire electromagnetic range has been mastered, and it is difficult to expect further progress in this area. However, lasers have appeared - sources unique in their spectral intensity - and with them fundamentally new analytical capabilities. Among them is laser magnetic resonance, a rapidly developing highly sensitive method for detecting radicals in gases. Another, truly fantastic possibility is the individual registration of atoms using a laser - a technique based on selective excitation, which makes it possible to register only a few atoms of foreign matter in a cell. Amazing opportunities for studying the mechanisms of radical reactions were provided by the discovery of the phenomenon of chemical polarization of nuclei.
Now it is difficult to name an area of modern physics that does not directly or indirectly influence chemistry. Take, for example, the physics of unstable elementary particles, which is far from the world of molecules built from nuclei and electrons. It may seem surprising that special international conferences discuss the chemical behavior of atoms containing a positron or muon, which, in principle, cannot produce stable compounds. However, the unique information about ultrafast reactions that such atoms make it possible to obtain fully justifies this interest.
The relationship between chemistry and biology
It is well known that for a long time chemistry and biology each followed their own path, although the long-standing dream of chemists was to create a living organism in laboratory conditions.
A sharp strengthening of the relationship between chemistry and biology occurred as a result of the creation of A.M. Butlerov's theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds. Guided by this theory, organic chemists entered into competition with nature. Subsequent generations of chemists showed great ingenuity, work, imagination and creative search for the directed synthesis of substances. Their intention was not only to imitate nature, they wanted to surpass it. And today we can confidently say that in many cases this was successful.
The importance of chemistry among the sciences that study life is extremely great. It was chemistry that revealed the most important role of chlorophyll as the chemical basis of photosynthesis, hemoglobin as the basis of the respiration process, established the chemical nature of the transmission of nervous excitation, determined the structure of nucleic acids, etc. But the main thing is that, objectively, chemical mechanisms lie at the very basis of biological processes and functions of living things. All functions and processes occurring in a living organism can be expressed in the language of chemistry, in the form of specific chemical processes.
Other sciences that arose at the intersection of biology, chemistry and physics: biochemistry - the science of metabolism and chemical processes in living organisms; bioorganic chemistry - the science of the structure, functions and pathways of synthesis of compounds that make up living organisms; physical and chemical biology as the science of the functioning of complex information transmission systems and the regulation of biological processes at the molecular level, as well as biophysics, biophysical chemistry and radiation biology.
Nowadays, the application of biological principles, which concentrate the experience of adapting living organisms to the conditions of the Earth for many millions of years, and the experience of creating the most advanced mechanisms and processes, is becoming especially important for chemistry. There have already been certain achievements along this path.
Currently, prospects for the emergence and development of new chemistry are already visible, on the basis of which low-waste, non-waste and energy-saving industrial technologies will be created.
Today, chemists have come to the conclusion that, using the same principles on which the chemistry of organisms is built, in the future (without repeating nature exactly) it will be possible to build a fundamentally new chemistry, a new control of chemical processes, where the principles of the synthesis of similar molecules will begin to be applied. It is envisaged to create converters that use sunlight with high efficiency, converting it into chemical and electrical energy, as well as chemical energy into high-intensity light.
To master the catalytic experience of living nature and implement the acquired knowledge in the industrial index. Chemists have outlined a number of promising ways for production.
The first is the development of research in the field of metal complex catalysis with a focus on relevant objects of living nature. This catalysis is enriched by techniques used by living organisms in enzymatic reactions, as well as by methods of classical heterogeneous catalysis.
The second way is to model biocatalysts. Currently, through artificial selection of structures, it has been possible to construct models of many enzymes characterized by high activity and selectivity, sometimes almost the same as the originals, or with greater structural simplicity.
Sections of modern chemistry
Modern chemistry is such a vast area of natural science that many of its sections essentially represent independent, although closely interrelated, scientific disciplines.
Based on the objects (substances) being studied, chemistry is usually divided into inorganic and organic. Physical chemistry, including quantum chemistry, electrochemistry, chemical thermodynamics, and chemical kinetics, is engaged in explaining the essence of chemical phenomena and establishing their general laws on the basis of physical principles and experimental data. Analytical and colloidal chemistry are also independent sections (see list of sections below).
The technological foundations of modern production are laid out by chemical technology - the science of economical methods and means of industrial chemical processing of finished natural materials and the artificial production of chemical products not found in the surrounding nature.
The combination of chemistry with other related natural sciences is biochemistry, bioorganic chemistry, geochemistry, radiation chemistry, photochemistry, etc.
The general scientific foundations of chemical methods are developed in the theory of knowledge and methodology of science.
Agrochemistry
Analytical chemistry deals with the study of substances in order to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure; within the framework of this discipline, experimental methods of chemical analysis are being developed.
Bioorganic chemistry
Biochemistry studies chemical substances, their transformations and the phenomena accompanying these transformations in living organisms. Closely related to organic chemistry, drug chemistry, neurochemistry, molecular biology and genetics.
Computational chemistry
Geochemistry is the science of the chemical composition of the Earth and planets (cosmochemistry), the laws of distribution of elements and isotopes, the processes of formation of rocks, soils and natural waters.
Quantum chemistry
Colloid chemistry
Computational chemistry
Cosmetic chemistry
Cosmochemistry
Mathematical chemistry
Materials Science
Organometallic chemistry
Inorganic chemistry studies the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. There is no clear boundary between organic and inorganic chemistry; on the contrary, there are disciplines at the intersection of these sciences, for example, organometallic chemistry.
Organic chemistry focuses on substances built on the basis of a carbon skeleton.
Neurochemistry is the subject of the study of mediators, peptides, proteins, fats, sugars and nucleic acids, their interactions and the role they play in the formation, formation and change of the nervous system.
Petrochemistry
general chemistry
Preparative chemistry
Radiochemistry
Supramolecular chemistry
Theoretical chemistry
Pharmaceuticals
Physical chemistry studies the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. Important areas of research include chemical thermodynamics, kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has much in common with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of the infinitesimal method. Physical chemistry is a separate discipline from chemical physics.
Photochemistry
Chemistry of macromolecular compounds
Chemistry of one-carbon molecules
Polymer chemistry
Soil chemistry
Theoretical chemistry aims to theoretically generalize and substantiate knowledge of chemistry through fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually in the field of mathematics or physics).
Thermochemistry
Toxicological chemistry
Electrochemistry
Environmental chemistry; environmental chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the study of nuclear reactions and the chemical consequences of nuclear reactions.
CHEMISTRY
a science that studies the structure of substances and their transformations, accompanied by changes in composition and (or) structure. Chem. holy things (their transformations; see Chemical reactions) are determined by Ch. arr. external condition electronic shells of atoms and molecules forming substances; state of nuclei and internal electrons in chemistry processes remain almost unchanged. Chemical object research are chemical elements and their combinations, i.e. atoms, simple (single-element) and complex (molecules, radical ions, carbenes, free radicals) chemical. compounds, their combinations (associates, solvates, etc.), materials, etc. Number of chemicals. conn. huge and growing all the time; since X itself creates its object; to the end 20th century known approx. 10 million chemical connections.
X. as a science and industry does not exist for long (about 400 years). However, chem. knowledge and chemistry practice (as a craft) can be traced back thousands of years, and in a primitive form they appeared together with Homo sapiens in the process of his interaction. with the environment. Therefore, a strict definition of X. can be based on a broad, timeless, universal meaning - as a field of natural science and human practice associated with chemistry. elements and their combinations.
The word "chemistry" comes either from the name of Ancient Egypt "Hem" ("dark", "black" - apparently, from the color of the soil in the Nile River valley; the meaning of the name is "Egyptian science"), or from the ancient Greek. Chemeia - the art of smelting metals. Modern name X. is derived from Late Lat. chimia and is international, e.g. German Chemie, French chimie, English chemistry The term "X." first used in the 5th century. Greek alchemist Zosima.
History of chemistry. As an experiential practice, Xing arose with the beginnings of human society (the use of fire, cooking, tanning hides) and, in the form of crafts, early achieved sophistication (the production of paints and enamels, poisons and medicines). In the beginning, people used chemicals. changes in biol. objects (, rotting), and with the complete mastery of fire and combustion - chemical. sintering and fusion processes (pottery and glass production), metal smelting. The composition of ancient Egyptian glass (4 thousand years BC) does not differ significantly from the composition of modern glass. bottle glass. In Egypt already 3 thousand years BC. e. smelted in large quantities using coal as a reducing agent (native copper has been used since time immemorial). According to cuneiform sources, developed production of iron, copper, silver and lead existed in Mesopotamia also 3 thousand years BC. e. Mastering chemistry the processes of producing copper and, and then iron, were stages in the evolution of not only metallurgy, but civilization as a whole, changing the living conditions of people, influencing their aspirations.
At the same time, theoretical theories arose. generalizations. For example, Chinese manuscripts from the 12th century. BC e. report "theoretical" building systems of “basic elements” (fire, wood, and earth); In Mesopotamia, the idea of rows of pairs of opposites, interaction, was born. which “make up the world”: male and female, heat and cold, moisture and dryness, etc. The idea (of astrological origin) of the unity of the phenomena of macrocosm and microcosm was very important.
Conceptual values also include atomistic values. a doctrine that was developed in the 5th century. BC e. Ancient Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus. They proposed analog semantic. a model of the structure of a thing, which has a deep combinatorial meaning: combinations, according to certain rules, of a small number of indivisible elements (atoms and letters) into compounds (molecules and words) create information wealth and diversity (of things and languages).
In the 4th century. BC e. Aristotle created chem. a system based on the “principles”: dryness - and cold - heat, with the help of pairwise combinations of which in “primary matter” he derived 4 basic elements (earth, water and fire). This system existed almost unchanged for 2 thousand years.
After Aristotle, leadership in chemistry. knowledge gradually passed from Athens to Alexandria. Since that time, recipes for obtaining chemicals have been created. in-institutions arise (like the temple of Serapis in Alexandria, Egypt), engaged in activities that the Arabs would later call “al-chemistry”.
In the 4th-5th centuries. chem. knowledge penetrates into Asia Minor (together with Nestorianism), philosophical schools arise in Syria, translating the Greek. natural philosophy and transmitted chemistry. knowledge to the Arabs.
In the 3rd-4th centuries. arose alchemy - a philosophical and cultural movement that combines mysticism and magic with craft and art. Alchemy brought it in. contribution to the lab. skill and technique, obtaining many pure chemicals. in-in. Alchemists supplemented Aristotle's elements with 4 principles (oil, moisture, and sulfur); combinations of these mystical elements and principles determined the individuality of each island. Alchemy had a noticeable influence on the formation of Western European culture (the combination of rationalism with mysticism, knowledge with creation, the specific cult of gold), but did not spread in other cultural regions.
Jabir ibn Hayyan, or in European Geber, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Abu ar-Razi and other alchemists introduced chemistry. everyday life (from urine), gunpowder, pl. , NaOH, HNO3. Geber's books, translated into Latin, enjoyed enormous popularity. From the 12th century Arabic alchemy begins to lose practicality. direction, and with it leadership. Penetrating through Spain and Sicily into Europe, it stimulates the work of European alchemists, the most famous of whom were R. Bacon and R. Lull. From the 16th century practical development is developing. European alchemy, stimulated by the needs of metallurgy (G. Agricola) and medicine (T. Paracelsus). The latter founded the pharmacological branch of chemistry - iatrochemistry, and together with Agricola, he actually acted as the first reformer of alchemy.
X. as a science arose during the scientific revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, when a new civilization arose in Western Europe as a result of a series of closely related revolutions: religious (Reformation), which gave a new interpretation of the godliness of earthly affairs; scientific, which gave a new, mechanistic. picture of the world (heliocentrism, infinity, subordination to natural laws, description in the language of mathematics); industrial (the emergence of the factory as a system of machines using fossil energy); social (destruction of feudal and formation of bourgeois society).
X., following the physics of G. Galileo and I. Newton, could become a science only along the path of mechanism, which set the basic norms and ideals of science. In X. it was much more difficult than in physics. Mechanics is easily abstracted from the characteristics of an individual object. In X. each private object (in-in) is an individuality, qualitatively different from others. X. could not express its subject purely quantitatively and throughout its history remained a bridge between the world of quantity and the world of quality. However, the hopes of anti-mechanists (from D. Diderot to W. Ostwald) that X. will lay the foundations of a different, non-mechanistic. sciences did not materialize, and X. developed within the framework defined by Newton’s picture of the world.
For more than two centuries X. developed an idea of the material nature of its object. R. Boyle, who laid the foundations of rationalism and experimentation. method in X., in his work “The Skeptical Chemist” (1661) developed ideas about chemistry. atoms (corpuscles), differences in the shape and mass of which explain the qualities of individual substances. Atomistic ideas in X. were reinforced ideologically. the role of atomism in European culture: man-atom is a model of man, which forms the basis of a new social philosophy.
Metallurgical X., which dealt with the processes of combustion, oxidation and reduction, calcination - calcination of metals (X. was called pyrotechnics, that is, fiery art) - drew attention to the gases formed during this process. J. van Helmont, who introduced the concept of "gas" and discovered it (1620), laid the foundation for pneumatics. chemistry. Boyle in his work “Fire and Flame Weighed on Balances” (1672), repeating the experiments of J. Rey (1630) on increasing the mass of metal during firing, came to the conclusion that this occurs due to “the capture of weighty particles of flame by the metal.” On the border of the 16th-17th centuries. G. Stahl formulates the general theory of X. - the theory of phlogiston (caloric, i.e., the “flammability substance” removed with the help of air from substances during their combustion), which freed X. from lasting 2 thousand years Aristotle's systems. Although M.V. Lomonosov, having repeated the firing experiments, discovered the law of conservation of mass in chemistry. p-tions (1748) and was able to give a correct explanation of the processes of combustion and oxidation as an interaction. in-va with air particles (1756), the knowledge of combustion and oxidation was impossible without the development of pneumatic. chemistry. In 1754 J. Black (re)discovered carbon dioxide ("fixed air"); J. Priestley (1774) - , G. Cavendish (1766) - ("flammable air"). These discoveries provided all the information necessary to explain the processes of combustion, oxidation and respiration, which is what A. Lavoisier did in the 1770-90s, thereby effectively burying the theory of phlogiston and gaining the fame of “the father of modern X.”
To the beginning 19th century pneumatochemistry and studies of the composition of substances have brought chemists closer to understanding that chemistry. elements are combined in certain, equivalent ratios; the laws of constancy of composition (J. Proust, 1799-1806) and volumetric relations (J. Gay-Luc-sac, 1808) were formulated. Finally, J. Dalton, Most. fully outlined his concept in the essay “New System of Chemical Philosophy” (1808-27), convinced his contemporaries of the existence of atoms, introduced the concept of atomic weight (mass) and brought back to life the concept of an element, but in a completely different sense - as a collection of atoms of the same type .
The hypothesis of A. Avogadro (1811, accepted by the scientific community under the influence of S. Cannizzaro in 1860) that the particles of simple gases are molecules of two identical atoms, resolved a number of contradictions. Picture of the material nature of chemistry. the facility was completed with the opening of periodic. chemical law elements (D.I. Mendeleev, 1869). He linked the quantities. measure () with quality (chemical properties), revealed the meaning of the concept of chemical. element, gave the chemist a theory of great predictive power. X. became modern. science. Periodic the law legitimized X.’s own place in the system of sciences, resolving the latent conflict of chemistry. reality with the norms of mechanism.
At the same time, there was a search for the causes and forces of chemicals. interactions. Dualism has emerged. (electrochemical) theory (I. Berzelius, 1812-19); the concepts "" and "chemical bond" were introduced, which were filled with physical meaning with the development of the theory of atomic structure and quantum X. They were preceded by intensive research into org. in-in the 1st half. 19th century, which led to the division of X. into 3 parts: inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry And analytical chemistry(until the 1st half of the 19th century, the latter was the main section of X.). New empiric. the material (substitution solutions) did not fit into Berzelius’s theory, so ideas were introduced about groups of atoms acting in solutions as a whole - radicals (F. Wöhler, J. Liebig, 1832). These ideas were developed by C. Gerard (1853) into the theory of types (4 types), the value of which was that it was easily associated with the concept of valency (E. Frankland, 1852).
In the 1st half. 19th century one of the most important phenomena of X was discovered. catalysis(the term itself was proposed by Berzelius in 1835), which very soon found widespread practical use. application. All R. 19th century Along with important discoveries of such new substances (and classes), as dyes (V. Perkin, 1856), concepts important for the further development of X. were put forward. In 1857-58, F. Kekule developed the theory of valence as applied to org. v-you, established the tetravalency of carbon and the ability of its atoms to bond with each other. This paved the way for the theory of chemistry. structures of org. conn. (structural theory), built by A. M. Butlerov (1861). In 1865 Kekule explained the nature of aromatics. conn. J. van't Hoff and J. Le Bel, postulating tetrahedral. structures (1874), paved the way for a three-dimensional view of the structure of the island, laying the foundations stereochemistry as an important section of X.
All R. 19th century At the same time, research in the field of chemical kinetics And thermochemistry. L. Wilhelmy studied the kinetics of hydrolysis of carbohydrates (for the first time giving an equation for the rate of hydrolysis; 1850), and K. Guldberg and P. Waage formulated the law of mass action in 1864-67. G. I. Hess discovered the fundamental law of thermochemistry in 1840, M. Berthelot and V. F. Luginin studied the heats of many. districts. At the same time, work on colloid chemistry, photochemistry And electrochemistry, Crimea began back in the 18th century.
The works of J. Gibbs, Van't Hoff, V. Nernst and others are creating chemical Studies of the electrical conductivity of solutions and electrolysis led to the discovery of electrolytic. dissociation (S. Arrhenius, 1887). In the same year, Ostwald and Van't Hoff founded the first magazine dedicated to physical chemistry, and it took shape as an independent discipline. K ser. 19th century it is customary to attribute the origin agrochemistry And biochemistry, especially in connection with Liebig's pioneering work (1840s) on enzymes, proteins and carbohydrates.
19th century by right m.b. called the century of chemical discoveries. elements. During these 100 years, more than half (50) of the elements existing on Earth were discovered. For comparison: in the 20th century. 6 elements were discovered, in the 18th century - 18, before the 18th century - 14.
Outstanding discoveries in physics at the end. 19th century (X-rays, electron) and the development of theoretical. ideas (quantum theory) led to the discovery of new (radioactive) elements and the phenomenon of isotopy, the emergence radiochemistry And quantum chemistry, new ideas about the structure of the atom and the nature of chemistry. connections, giving rise to the development of modern X. (chemistry of the 20th century).
Successes of the X. 20th century. associated with the progress of the analyte. X. and physical methods for studying substances and influencing them, penetration into the mechanisms of processes, with the synthesis of new classes of substances and new materials, differentiation of chemicals. disciplines and integration of X. with other sciences, meeting the needs of modern times. industry, engineering and technology, medicine, construction, agriculture and other spheres of human activity in new chemicals. knowledge, processes and products. Successful application of new physical methods of influence led to the formation of new important directions of X., for example. radiation chemistry, plasma chemistry. Together with X. low temperatures ( cryochemistry) and X. high pressures (see. Pressure), sonochemistry (see Ultrasound), laser chemistry etc. they began to form a new area - X. extreme impacts, which plays a large role in obtaining new materials (for example, for electronics) or old valuable materials with relatively cheap synthetic materials. by (eg diamonds or metal nitrides).
One of the first places in X. is given to the problems of predicting the functional properties of an item based on knowledge of its structure and determining the structure of an item (and its synthesis) based on its functional purpose. The solution to these problems is associated with the development of quantum chemical calculations. methods and new theoretical approaches, with success in non-org. and org. synthesis. Work on genetic engineering and the synthesis of compounds is being developed. with unusual structure and properties (for example, high-temperature superconductors). Methods based on matrix synthesis, and also using ideas planar technology. Methods that simulate biochemistry are being further developed. districts. Advances in spectroscopy (including scanning tunneling) have opened up prospects for the “design” of substances at the pier. level, led to the creation of a new direction in X. - the so-called. nanotechnology. To control chemical processes both in the laboratory and in industry. scale, the principles are beginning to be used. and prayer. organizing ensembles of reacting molecules (including approaches based on thermodynamics of hierarchical systems).
Chemistry as a knowledge system about substances and their transformations. This knowledge is contained in a stock of facts - reliably established and verified information about chemistry. elements and compounds, their conditions and behavior in natural and arts. environments Criteria for the reliability of facts and methods for their systematization are constantly evolving. Large generalizations that reliably connect large sets of facts become scientific laws, the formulation of which opens new stages of X. (for example, the laws of conservation of mass and energy, Dalton’s laws, Mendeleev’s periodic law). Theories using specific concepts, explain and predict facts of a more specific subject area. In fact, experimental knowledge becomes a fact only when it receives theoretical knowledge. interpretation. So, the first chem. theory - the theory of phlogiston, although incorrect, contributed to the formation of X., because it connected facts into a system and made it possible to formulate new questions. Structural theory (Butlerov, Kekule) organized and explained a huge amount of organizational material. X. and determined the rapid development of chemistry. synthesis and study of the structure of org. connections.
X. as knowledge is a very dynamic system. The evolutionary accumulation of knowledge is interrupted by revolutions - a deep restructuring of the system of facts, theories and methods, with the emergence of a new set of concepts or even a new style of thinking. Thus, the revolution was caused by the works of Lavoisier (materialistic theory of oxidation, the introduction of quantitative experimental methods, the development of chemical nomenclature), the discovery of periodic. Mendeleev's law, creation in the beginning. 20th century new analytes methods (microanalysis, ). The emergence of new areas that develop a new vision of the subject of X and influence all its areas (for example, the emergence of physical X on the basis of chemical thermodynamics and chemical kinetics) can also be considered a revolution.
Chem. knowledge has a developed structure. The framework of X. consists of basic chemicals. disciplines that developed in the 19th century: analytical, non-org., org. and physical X. Subsequently, during the evolution of the structure of A., a large number of new disciplines were formed (for example, crystal chemistry), as well as a new engineering branch - chemical Technology.
A large set of research areas grows on the framework of disciplines, some of which are included in one or another discipline (for example, X. elemental organic compound - part of org. X.), others are multidisciplinary in nature, i.e. require unification into one study by scientists from different disciplines (for example, studying the structure of biopolymers using a complex of complex methods). Still others are interdisciplinary, that is, they require the training of a specialist in a new profile (for example, X. nerve impulse).
Since almost all practical human activity is associated with the use of matter as substances, chemicals. knowledge is necessary in all areas of science and technology that master the material world. Therefore, today X. has become, along with mathematics, a repository and generator of such knowledge, which “permeates” almost the entire rest of science. That is, highlighting X. as a set of areas of knowledge, we can also talk about chemistry. aspect of most other fields of science. There are many hybrid disciplines and fields at the "frontiers" of X.
At all stages of development as a science, X. experiences the powerful influence of physical science. sciences - first Newtonian mechanics, then thermodynamics, atomic physics and quantum mechanics. Atomic physics provides knowledge that is part of the foundation of X., reveals the meaning of periodicity. law, helps to understand the patterns of prevalence and distribution of chemicals. elements in the Universe, which is the subject of nuclear astrophysics and cosmochemistry.
Fundam. X. was influenced by thermodynamics, which sets fundamental restrictions on the possibility of chemical reactions. r-tions (chemical thermodynamics). X., whose entire world was originally associated with fire, quickly mastered thermodynamics. way of thinking. Van't Hoff and Arrhenius connected the study of the speed of reactions (kinetics) -X with thermodynamics. received modern way to study the process. Study of chemistry kinetics required the involvement of many private physical scientists. disciplines to understand the processes of substance transfer (see, for example, Diffusion, Mass transfer Expansion and deepening of mathematization (for example, the use of math. modeling, graph theory) allows us to talk about the formation of mat. X. (it was predicted by Lomonosov, calling one of his books “Elements of Mathematical Chemistry”).
The language of chemistry. Information system. Subject X. - elements and their compounds, chemical. interaction of these objects - has a huge and rapidly growing diversity. The language of L. is correspondingly complex and dynamic. Its dictionary includes the name. elements, compounds, chemicals. particles and materials, as well as concepts reflecting the structure of objects and their interaction. The language of X. has a developed morphology - a system of prefixes, suffixes and endings that make it possible to express the qualitative diversity of chemistry. world with great flexibility (see Chemical nomenclature). The X. dictionary has been translated into the language of symbols (signs, ph-l, ur-nium), which make it possible to replace the text with a very compact expression or visual image (for example, spatial models). The creation of the scientific language of X. and a method of recording information (primarily on paper) is one of the great intellectual feats of European science. The international community of chemists has managed to establish constructive worldwide work in such a controversial matter as the development of terminology, classification and nomenclature. A balance was found between everyday language, historical (trivial) chemical names. compounds and their strict formula designations. The creation of the X. language is an amazing example of a combination of very high mobility and progress with stability and continuity (conservatism). Modern chem. The language allows a huge amount of information to be recorded very briefly and unambiguously and exchanged between chemists around the world. Machine-readable versions of this language have been created. The diversity of the X. object and the complexity of the language make the X. information system the most. large and sophisticated in all science. It is based on chemical journals, as well as monographs, textbooks, reference books. Thanks to the tradition of international coordination that arose early in X., more than a century ago, standards for the description of chemistry were formed. in-in and chem. districts and the beginning of a system of periodically updated indexes was laid (for example, the index of the Beilstein org. connection; see also Chemical reference books and encyclopedias). Huge scale of chemical literature already 100 years ago prompted us to look for ways to “compress” it. Abstract journals (RJ) emerged; After the 2nd World War, two maximally complete Russian Journals were published in the world: “Chemical Abstracts” and “RJ Chemistry”. Automation systems are being developed on the basis of RZh. information retrieval systems.
Chemistry as a social system- the largest part of the entire community of scientists. The formation of a chemist as a type of scientist was influenced by the characteristics of the object of his science and the method of activity (chemical experiment). Difficulties mat. formalization of the object (in comparison with physics) and at the same time the variety of sensory manifestations (smell, color, biol., etc.) from the very beginning limited the dominance of mechanism in the thinking of the chemist and left it. a field for intuition and artistry. In addition, the chemist always used non-mechanical tools. nature - fire. On the other hand, in contrast to the stable, nature-given objects of a biologist, the world of a chemist has an inexhaustible and rapidly growing diversity. The irreducible mystery of the new plant imparted responsibility and caution to the chemist’s worldview (as a social type, the chemist is conservative). Chem. The laboratory has developed a strict mechanism of “natural selection”, rejecting arrogant and error-prone people. This gives originality not only to the style of thinking, but also to the spiritual and moral organization of the chemist.
The community of chemists consists of people who are professionally involved in X. and consider themselves to be in this field. About half of them work, however, in other areas, providing them with chemicals. knowledge. In addition, they are joined by many scientists and technologists - to a large extent chemists, although they no longer consider themselves chemists (mastering the skills and abilities of a chemist by scientists in other fields is difficult due to the above-mentioned features of the subject).
Like any other close-knit community, chemists have their own professional language, personnel reproduction system, communications system [magazines, congresses, etc.], their own history, their own cultural norms and style of behavior.
Research methods. Special area of chemistry. knowledge - chemical methods. experiment (analysis of composition and structure, synthesis of chemical substances). A. - most pronounced experimental the science. The range of skills and techniques that a chemist must master is very wide, and the range of methods is growing rapidly. Since chemical methods experiments (especially analysis) are used in almost all areas of science, X. develops technologies for all science and combines it methodically. On the other hand, X. shows a very high sensitivity to methods born in other areas (primarily physics). Her methods are highly interdisciplinary.
In research. For X purposes, a huge range of ways to influence things is used. At first it was thermal, chemical. and biol. impact. Then high and low pressures, mech., magnetic were added. and electric influences, flows of ions of elementary particles, laser radiation, etc. Now more and more of these methods are penetrating into production technology, which opens up a new important channel for communication between science and production.
Organizations and institutions. Chem. Research is a special type of activity that has developed an appropriate system of organizations and institutions. Chemical engineering has become a special type of institution. laboratory, the device is designed to meet the basic functions performed by a team of chemists. One of the first laboratories was created by Lomonosov in 1748, 76 years earlier than the chemist. laboratories appeared in the USA. Space The structure of the laboratory and its equipment make it possible to store and use a large number of devices, instruments and materials, including potentially very dangerous and incompatible ones (flammable, explosive and toxic).
The evolution of research methods in X. led to the differentiation of laboratories and the identification of many methodologies. laboratories and even instrument centers, which specialize in servicing a large number of teams of chemists (analyses, measurements, influence on substances, calculations, etc.). An institution that unites laboratories working in similar areas with con. 19th century became researched. int (see Chemical Institutes). Very often chem. The institute has an experimental production - a semi-industrial system. installations for the production of small batches of substances and materials, their testing and development of technology. modes.
Chemists are trained in chemistry. faculties of universities or specialties. higher educational institutions, which differ from others in the large proportion of practical work and the intensive use of demonstration experiments in theoretical studies. courses. Development of chemical workshops and lecture experiments - a special genre of chemistry. research, pedagogy and, in many ways, art. Since mid. 20th century The training of chemists began to go beyond the university and cover earlier age groups. Specialists have emerged. chem. secondary schools, clubs and olympiads. In the USSR and Russia, one of the best pre-institutional chemical systems in the world was created. preparation, the genre of popular chemistry has been developed. literature.
For storage and transfer of chemicals. knowledge there is a network of publishing houses, libraries and information centers. A special type of X. institutions consists of national and international bodies for managing and coordinating all activities in this area - state and public (see, for example, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry).
The system of institutions and organizations of X. is a complex organism, which has been “grown” for 300 years and is considered in all countries as a great national treasure. Only two countries in the world had an integral system of organizing X. in the structure of knowledge and in the structure of functions - the USA and the USSR.
Chemistry and society. X. is a science, the range of relations between the swarm and society has always been very wide - from admiration and blind faith (“chemicalization of the entire national economy”) to equally blind denial (“nitrate” boom) and chemophobia. The image of an alchemist was transferred to X. - a magician who hides his goals and has an incomprehensible power. Poisons and gunpowder in the past, nerve paralytic. and psychotropic substances today - the common consciousness associates these instruments of power with X. Since the chemical. industry is an important and necessary component of the economy, chemophobia is often deliberately incited for opportunistic purposes (artificial environmental psychosis).
In fact, X. is a system-forming factor in modern times. society, i.e. an absolutely necessary condition for its existence and reproduction. First of all, because X. participates in the formation of modern. person. The vision of the world through the prism of concepts X cannot be removed from his worldview. Moreover, in industrial civilization, a person retains his status as a member of society (is not marginalized) only if he quickly masters new chemicals. presentation (for which a whole system of popularizing X. is used). The entire technosphere - the artificially created world around humans - is increasingly becoming saturated with chemical products. production, handling of which requires a high level of chemicals. knowledge, skills and intuition.
In con. 20th century The general inadequacy of societies is increasingly felt. institutes and everyday consciousness of industrial society to the level of modern chemicalization. peace. This discrepancy gave rise to a chain of contradictions that became a global problem and created a qualitatively new danger. At all social levels, including the scientific community as a whole, the lag in chemical levels is growing. knowledge and skills from chem. reality of the technosphere and its impact on the biosphere. Chem. education and upbringing in general schools is becoming scarcer. The gap between chemical preparation of politicians and the potential danger of wrong decisions. Organization of a new, reality-appropriate system of universal chemistry. education and mastery of chemistry. culture becomes a condition for the security and sustainable development of civilization. During the crisis (which promises to be long), a reorientation of X’s priorities is inevitable: from knowledge for the sake of improving living conditions to knowledge for the sake of guarantees. preservation of life (from the criterion of “maximizing benefits” to the criterion of “minimizing damage”).
Applied chemistry. The practical, applied significance of X. is to exercise control over chemicals. processes occurring in nature and the technosphere, in the production and transformation of substances and materials needed by humans. In most industries up to the 20th century. processes inherited from the craft period dominated. X., earlier than other sciences, began to generate products, the very principle of which was based on scientific knowledge (for example, the synthesis of aniline dyes).
Chemical state industry largely determined the pace and direction of industrialization and politics. situation (such as, for example, the creation of large-scale production of ammonia and nitric acid by Germany using the Geber-Bosch method, which was not foreseen by the Entente countries, which provided it with a sufficient quantity of explosives to wage a world war). The development of the mineral industry, fertilizers, and then plant protection products sharply increased agricultural productivity, which became a condition for urbanization and rapid industrial development. Replacement of technical arts cultures. in-you and materials (fabrics, dyes, fat substitutes, etc.) means equally. increase in food supply. resources and raw materials for light industry. Condition and economic The efficiency of mechanical engineering and construction is increasingly determined by the development and production of synthetic materials. materials (plastics, rubbers, films and fibers). The development of new communication systems, which in the near future will radically change and have already begun to change the face of civilization, is determined by the development of fiber optic materials; the progress of television, computer science and computerization is associated with the development of the element base of microelectronics and piers. electronics. In general, the development of the technosphere today largely depends on the range and quantity of chemicals produced. industrial products. The quality of many chemicals products (for example, paints and varnishes) also affects the spiritual well-being of the population, that is, it participates in the formation of the highest human values.
It is impossible to overestimate the role of X. in the development of one of the most important problems facing humanity - environmental protection (see. Protection of Nature). Here, X.'s task is to develop and improve methods for detecting and determining anthropogenic pollution, studying and modeling chemistry. processes occurring in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, the creation of waste-free or low-waste chemicals. production, development of methods for neutralization and disposal of industrial products. and household waste.
Lit.: Fngurovsky N. A., Essay on the general history of chemistry, vol. 1-2, M., 1969-79; Kuznetsov V.I., Dialectics of the development of chemistry, M., 1973; Soloviev Yu. I., Trifonov D. N., Shamin A. N., History of chemistry. Development of the main directions of modern chemistry, M., 1978; Jua M., History of Chemistry, trans. from Italian, M., 1975; Legasov V. A., Buchachenko A. L., "Advances in Chemistry", 1986, v. 55, v. 12, p. 1949-78; Fremantle M., Chemistry in Action, trans. from English, parts 1-2, M., 1991; Pimentel J., Coonrod J., Possibilities of Chemistry Today and Tomorrow, trans. from English, M., 1992; Par ting ton J. R., A history of chemistry, v. 1-4, L.-N.Y., 1961-70. WITH.
G. Kara-Murza, T. A. Aizatulin. Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
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