In this article you will learn:

Civil War is the greatest event in the world of Marvel comics, in the original universe. This is a confrontation between superheroes and each other, led by two leaders who were former friends: Captain America and Iron Man. (The Civil War will be a storyline in the new film Captain America: Civil War).

The Birth of War:

In the arena of confrontation between superheroes, a government team, the Thunderbolts, appeared, which included supervillains. Nanorobots were introduced to the villains so that they would not accidentally kill anyone. The “Initiative” project was also launched. The government built camps and trained new heroes, catching Steve Rogers' supporters. The captured heroes were sent to the Negative Zone, to a parallel dimension, to prison 42.

The Secret Avengers wanted to rescue those imprisoned, but were again ambushed by Iron Man. Tony brought all the heroes and villains with him, but the Avengers managed to open the cells and release the prisoners, leveling the forces. A colossal battle of heroes began.

Last fight:

A hero named Cloak teleported everyone to New York, where the battle continued.

Namor called on the Atlanteans to help the Avengers, and Stark ordered new heroes from the Initiative to appear.

Hercules destroyed the cyborg Thor who killed Goliath. Vision disabled Stark's armor, after which Rogers broke it. Iron Man lost.

“What are you waiting for, Steve? Kill me"

Rogers wanted to hit Stark, but civilians attacked him. At that moment, the Captain realized that people no longer believed the Avengers, because they fought against the country, against the people, breaking all laws. He gave the order to surrender, ending the Civil War.

Consequences of the war:

After this event, Stark became director of S.H.I.E.L.D. His dream of uniting all the heroes came true.

Many heroes registered after receiving forgiveness. And many still fought a guerrilla war, such as: Spider-Man, Spider-Woman, Luke Cage, Doctor Strange, Iron Fist. This team became known as the New Avengers. Iron Fist created his own group of Mighty Avengers from: Wasp, Ares, Sentry, Black Widow, Ms. Marvel.

It seems that everything ended well. If it weren't for the murder, who was shot at the courthouse. Bending over his friend’s body he said:

"It wasn't worth it."

Age of Ultron (Earth 616) Marvel - Zombie Universe (Earth 2149)
How Wolverine died in the comics Events of Civil War 2 Spoilers! Infinity War plot

In June, the first issue of Marvel's global crossover, Civil War 2, hit American store shelves. So far, 4 of the 8 issues of the main series have been published (5 including issue zero). "World of Fantasy" takes a break mid-distance to figure out: what's going on in Marvel comics right now?

What is Civil War 2?

“Civil War 2” is an event that tells the story of the discord between Iron Man Tony Stark (not yet a black girl) and Captain Marvel Carol Danvers (not yet Brie Larson). The quarrel involves an Inhuman named Ulysses, who has not appeared in comics before. Ulysses is able to see the future, and Stark and Danvers disagree about him. Can a prophet be trusted? Is it possible to prevent predicted crimes before they occur? Will superheroes in Civil War 3 kill each other because some like cats and others like dogs?

The title tries to convince us of the 2006 Civil War, but don't fall for it. The only connection to the original is a short dialogue between Tony Stark and Steve Rogers on the topic “do you remember, we also once had a moral dispute.”

The author and screenwriter of the event is Brian Michael Bendis, one of the leading comics artists of our time. His pencillers account for the lion's share of the Ultimate imprint's comics, including Ultimate Spider-Man. He also worked on the classic Spider-Man and Daredevil series, created Jessica Jones, wrote Age of Ultron, which served as the basis for the film of the same name, and much more.

For all his cult status, Brian often generates controversy among fans, not shunning controversial turns and from time to time engaging in outright trolling. Fortunately, his sense of humor is in place, and Bendis knows how to twist a plot.

Beware, spoilers ahead!

You have been warned!

Who's on whose side?

The camps, under the pretentious names Protect the Future and Change the Future, are led by Tony Stark and Carol Danvers, respectively.

They quarreled, as already mentioned, Ulysses - a young non-human who is able to see the future, and invariably bad (a typical teenager!). Stark is not ready to blindly believe the guy’s visions and does not approve of the idea of ​​punishing future crimes. Danvers, on the other hand, can’t wait to step on the worn-out sci-fi rake, and she sets about heroically changing the future. There are also Inhumans, but for the most part they remain observers - they say, “this is not our war.”

It is difficult to understand who is on which side. In the first four issues, most of the heroes do not show obvious sympathy for one camp or another. Only at the end of the fourth volume do we see how the teams split up.

Team Stark (Protect the Future):

Captain America (Steve Rogers), another Captain America (Sam Wilson), Spider-Man (Miles Morales), Thor (Jane Foster), Vision, Nova, Doctor Strange, Ms. Marvel (Kamala Khan), Luke Cage, Cyclops, Human -ice.

Team Danvers (Change the Future):

Ultimates, Alpha Team, S.H.I.E.L.D., Guardians of the Galaxy, Jean Gray, Storm, Thing, Agent Venom, Iceman (oddly enough).

And yes, you didn’t think so: the teams were presented differently in the promotional art.

The motives of the characters and the choice of sides this time are taken outside the main series and scattered across tie-ins. But do you really need logic in the actions of the heroes? They are going to fight over a person who can see the future, even though there are characters in this world who can fly off into the future and return with fresh news (Cable, Bishop). Let's get straight to the plot.

Who are Inhumans and what are tie-ins?

The Inhumans are a fictional race from Marvel comics. It differs from people by the prefix “non-” and superpowers (some also by appearance, but these are few). They differ from mutants in that they were bred by the alien race Kree, developed separately from humanity and live separately in their own kingdom. That is, almost nothing.

Recently, Marvel has been putting a lot of effort into their popularization, simultaneously exterminating the X-Men. A virus is spreading across the Earth, creating favorable conditions for non-humans and killing mutants. So the role of the X-Men in big events is minimized, and the Inhumans stand at the center of Civil War. Of course, this has nothing to do with the fact that the X-Men movie rights are owned by rival studio Fox, right?

Tay-ins are parts of a global event related to the main series. Included in the series of heroes who participate in the event. They are needed to leave such rudiments as logic, motivation and character development outside the main plot brackets. For example, if Spider-Man struggles for a long time when choosing sides, the authors would be more likely to include his throwing in his own comic, rather than in the main series. An issue of a Spider-Man comic tied to the main event is called a tie-in.

So, how is the war going there?

On Earth, New York City is attacked by an unknown force capable of turning everything into radioactive ash. But dozens of superheroes are already ready to fight back. A powerful something was defeated, since the heroes knew where and when to wait for it - information was kindly provided by the Inhumans.

How do they know about the attack? They were enlightened by Ulysses, who at times sees the future. Stark wonders how these visions work and whether they can be trusted. And Danvers only needs one averted apocalypse to not doubt Ulysses.

Then James Rhodes, aka War Machine, dies. He dies under the command of Danvers, who, on a tip from Ulysses, attacked Thanos. Also in a coma is She-Hulk, Danvers' friend. The death of his friend unsettles Tony slightly, and he kidnaps the clairvoyant to scan his brain.

Danvers and the Inhumans attack Stark Tower, but are stopped from brawling by a vision of Ulysses, which this time is broadcast to everyone present. The vision shows the Hulk killing a bunch of heroes, including Stark and Danvers. This is what Stark was afraid of: what if the vision accuses one of us?

Superheroes are coming in droves to Bruce Banner, who has not turned into the Hulk for a year (instead, Amadeus Cho, a young man of Asian appearance, who has not yet found a place in “Citizen”), works as the Hulk. They do everything to prevent Banner from losing his temper: they break into his home with a threatening look, accuse him of a crime that has not yet been committed and put him under arrest. But for some reason this still infuriates Banner.

And then Bruce is killed by Hawkeye (Clint Barton). However, at the trial it turns out that Banner himself asked to kill him if he began to turn into the Hulk, and even gave Barton a special tip. At the moment of the shot, Barton was sure that green appeared in Banner's eyes. No one else saw it, but Hawkeye's vision is legendary. The court acquits Barton (apparently, in the Marvel world you don’t get imprisoned for “good” murders).

Meanwhile, Stark figures out how Ulysses' abilities work. His brain absorbs information, analyzes it and reproduces the worst-case scenario. Lest we doubt it, the information is confirmed by Hank McCoy, aka the Beast, who plays the role of Morgan Freeman in this comic: he knows everything and explains everything.

Thus, the entire original conflict is annulled, because we are not talking about the future, but only about one of the many probabilities of the future. But Danvers is inspired by the example of Batman-Affleck and decides that if there is even a percentage chance of a crime, it must be stopped. Stark decides that this will not happen, and the heroes finally go head to head. Thus ends the fourth issue.

Is Civil War 2 worth reading?

The choice is yours.

Of course, the comic is full of weak points. Firstly, it cannot stand comparison with the first "Citizen". The fight between Iron Man and Captain America was awesome. The battle between Iron Man and Carol Danvers... Let's just say: no one expected it. The second cannot reach the emotional intensity of the first “citizen”.

Secondly, the cause of the conflict is not impressive. The dilemma from “Minority Report” will give food for thought only to young people; Older readers have chewed and chewed it. The Superhero Registration Act of 2006 was something new and asked difficult questions: Can uncontrolled superheroes be trusted? Can the state trust superheroes? Are the freedoms of the heroes violated when signing the act?

Thirdly, this is an Iron Man comic. Forget about equality and choosing sides: there is a clear protagonist Stark and a clear antagonist Danvers. We look at most events through Tony's eyes; only he analyzes the situation. Yes, Stark is simply more interesting: while he jokes, looks for arguments in his favor and the strength to survive the death of his friends, Carol plays a typical martinet, rushes ahead and coins functional proposals.

But there are also positive aspects. By revealing the true abilities of Ulysses, Bendis, although he killed the severity of the conflict, managed to refresh the social implications. By replacing the future with a worst-case future, he moved from the fantasy problem of punishment before crime to the real problem of freedom and control in society. How to ensure the safety of citizens without violating their rights and freedoms is one of the most difficult issues of our time. Is it possible to detain a person if there is a 10% chance that he will commit a crime?

Among Bendis’s successful discoveries, one can note the conflict of generations. Young heroes Nova and Miles Morales stand for Stark, and this correlates with the real state of affairs. Most young readers will choose the side of Tony, who this time preaches freedom of choice. Older, more conservative readers will find truth in Danvers's choice of security over freedom.

So why all this?

Marvel is trying to straddle two stools. The first is the cinematic universe in its current form, from which you need to get maximum income. It doesn't take a genius, a playboy, or a philanthropist to see the connection between the premiere of the Civil War movie and the release of a comic book with the same name and a two at the end.

The calculation is for people who, after watching the fight between Downey Jr. and Evans, will think: “Shouldn’t I go to a comic book store?” A continuation of what they saw in the movies awaits them in the store, Stark is in the main characters, and even Steve Rogers is lurking somewhere. And the adult Peter Parker is relegated to the background so as not to discord with the Schoolboy Spider from the film.

On the other chair is the cinematic universe of tomorrow. The studio is laying the foundation for heroes who will receive their own films or TV series in the future. Therefore, the Inhumans and Captain Marvel are at the center of the plot. You may ask, why are these foundations needed, since people went to see “Guardians of the Galaxy” and “Ant-Man” without them? But among the Inhumans there is no raccoon who speaks in the voice of Bradley Cooper. And films about female superheroes in general, as we know, are a risky business.

One of the important consequences of the “citizen” will be the disappearance of Tony Stark. Whether to the next world or not, we don’t know yet, but he most likely won’t be Iron Man anytime soon. This is also work for the future. Robert Downey Jr. has been trying to leave Marvel for a long time, and his fees are a nightmare for studio bosses. By the 2020s, Riri Williams should gain popularity in comics, and it will be possible to put her on the silver screen. And the second Iron Man will be Doctor Doom.

Overall, Civil War 2 is positioned as a pivotal event that will change the balance of power in Marvel comics. But it’s too early to say how. Judging by the teasers, the heroes will have to work on opposite sides of the barricades even after the end of the event.

Starting in the fall, Marvel comics will be published under the Marvel NOW! logo. The main goal of the rebranding is to bring little-known heroes to the forefront so that films can be made about them. Those sold to Fox will be cold-bloodedly replaced with Inhumans in the next big event - Death of X.

The Great Russian Revolution of 1917 was the impetus for the development of armed struggle between different groups of the population. The revolution deprived some of everything, while to others it seemed to give everything, but did not say how they could get it. There were more dissatisfied people than one could imagine. The military-political structures formed during the days of the revolution and state formations on the territory of the former Russian Empire were divided into two groups, to which the names “white” and “red” were assigned. The spontaneously emerging military and socio-political groups, which were called the “third force” (rebel, partisan detachments and others), did not stand aside. Foreign states or interventionists did not remain aloof from the civil confrontation in Russia.

Stages and chronology of the Civil War

To date, historians have no consensus on how to determine the chronology of the Civil War. There are experts who believe that the war began with the February bourgeois revolution, others defend May 1918. There is also no definitive opinion on when the war ended.

The next stage can be called the period until April 1919, when the Entente intervention expanded. The Entente set its main task to support the anti-Bolshevik forces, strengthen its interests and resolve the issue that had been bothering it for many years: the fear of socialist influence.

The next stage is the most active on all fronts. Soviet Russia simultaneously fought both against the interventionists and against the White armies.

Causes of the Civil War

Naturally, the beginning of the Civil War cannot be reduced to one reason. The contradictions that had accumulated in society by this time were off scale. The First World War aggravated them to the extreme; the values ​​of human life were devalued.

Of no small importance in the aggravation of the situation were changes in the state political system, especially the dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks, the creation of which many had highly counted on. Great confusion was caused by the actions of the Bolsheviks in the countryside. A Decree on Land was announced, but new decrees reduced it to zero. Nationalization and confiscation of land plots from landowners gave rise to severe resistance from the owners. The bourgeoisie was also extremely dissatisfied with the nationalization that had taken place and sought to return factories and factories.

The actual exit from the war, the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty - all this played against the Bolsheviks, which made it possible to accuse them of the “destruction of Russia.”

The right of peoples to self-determination, which was proclaimed by the Bolsheviks, contributed to the emergence of independent states. This also caused irritation as a betrayal of Russian interests.

Not everyone agreed with the policies of the new government, which was breaking with its past and ancient traditions. Anti-church policies caused particular rejection.

There were many forms of the Civil War. Uprisings, armed clashes, large-scale operations involving regular armies. Guerrilla actions, terror, sabotage. The war was bloody and extremely long.

Main events of the Civil War

We offer you the following chronicle of the events of the Civil War:

1917

	Uprising in Petrograd. Fraternization of workers and soldiers. The rebels captured the arsenal, a number of public buildings, and the Winter Palace. Arrest of the Tsar's ministers. Formation of the Petrograd Council of Workers' Deputies, to which elected representatives of soldiers adjoin.
	The Executive Committee of the Petrograd Council concluded an agreement with the Provisional Committee of the State Duma on the formation of the Provisional Government, one of the tasks of which was to govern the country until the convening of the Constituent Assembly.
	Since May 1917, on the Southwestern Front, the commander of the 8th Shock Army, General L. G. Kornilov, began the formation of volunteer units ( "Kornilovites", "drummers").
	Speech by General L. G. Kornilov, who sent the 3rd Corps of General A. M. Krymov (“Wild Division”) to Petrograd in order to prevent a possible Bolshevik attack. The general demanded the resignation of socialist ministers and a toughening of the internal political course.
	Resignation of cadet ministers. Kerensky removes Kornilov from his duties as commander in chief and declares him a traitor. He turns for support to the Soviets, who send Red Guard detachments to repel the military units sent to Petrograd.
	Kerensky takes command of the troops. The attempted military coup was finally foiled.
	An open break between the Petrograd Soviet and the Provisional Government. The beginning of the uprising: the capture of the most important points of Petrograd by Red Guards, soldiers and sailors. Kerensky's departure for reinforcements.
	The rebels control almost all of Petrograd, except for the Winter Palace. The Military Revolutionary Committee declares the Provisional Government deposed. On the night of October 26, the rebels occupied the Winter Palace. At the same time, the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets opened its meetings (out of 650 delegates, 390 were Bolsheviks and 150 left Socialist Revolutionaries). The Mensheviks and Right Socialist Revolutionaries, in protest against the beginning of the seizure of the Winter Palace, leave the congress, thereby making it easier for the Bolsheviks to make decisions affirming the victory of the rebels.
	The beginning of an armed uprising in Moscow.
	Unsuccessful attack of General Krasnov's troops (prepared by Kerensky) on Petrograd.
	Organization of the first counter-revolutionary military formations in the south of Russia (in particular, the Volunteer Army of Generals Alekseev and Kornilov).

1918

	In Brest-Litovsk, General Hoffmann, in the form of an ultimatum, presents the peace conditions put forward by the Central European powers (Russia is deprived of its western territories).
	The Council of People's Commissars adopted Decree on the organization of the Red Army- The Bolsheviks began to recreate the previously destroyed Russian army. It is organized by Trotsky, and soon it will become a truly powerful and disciplined army. A large number of experienced military specialists were recruited, officer elections were canceled, and political commissars appeared in units).
	After presenting an ultimatum to Russia, an Austro-German offensive was launched along the entire front; despite the fact that the Soviet side accepted the peace terms on the night of February 18-19, the offensive continued.
	The volunteer army, after failures on the Don (loss of Rostov and Novocherkassk), was forced to retreat to Kuban (Ice Campaign).
	In Brest-Litovsk, the Brest Peace Treaty was signed between Soviet Russia and the Central European powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary) and Turkey. Under the agreement, Russia loses Poland, Finland, the Baltic states, Ukraine and part of Belarus, and also cedes Kars, Ardahan and Batum to Turkey. In general, losses amount to 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of cultivated land, and about 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries. After the signing of the agreement, Trotsky resigned from the post of People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and on April 8 became People's Commissar for Naval Affairs.
	At the end of March, an anti-Bolshevik uprising of Cossacks began on the Don under the leadership of General Krasnov
	The landing of the British in Murmansk (initially this landing was planned to repel the offensive of the Germans and their allies - the Finns).
	The landing of Japanese troops in Vladivostok has begun, the Japanese will be followed by the Americans, British and French.
	A coup took place in Ukraine, as a result of which Hetman Skoropadsky came to power with the support of the German occupation army.
	The Czechoslovak Legion (formed from approximately 50 thousand former prisoners of war who were supposed to be evacuated through Vladivostok) sides with opponents of the Soviet regime.
	Decree on general mobilization into the Red Army.
	The 8,000-strong Volunteer Army began its second campaign (Second Kuban Campaign)
	The uprising of the Terek Cossacks began under the leadership of Bicherakhov. The Cossacks defeated the Red troops and blocked their remnants in Grozny and Kizlyar.
	The beginning of the White offensive against Tsaritsyn.
	The Yaroslavl rebellion began - an anti-Soviet armed uprising in Yaroslavl (lasted from July 6 to July 21 and was brutally suppressed).
	The first major victory of the Red Army: it captured Kazan.
	A coup in Omsk carried out by Admiral Kolchak: overthrows the Ufa Directory, declares himself the supreme ruler of Russia. The beginning of the Red Army's offensive in the Baltic states, which lasted until January 1919. With the support of the RSFSR, ephemeral Soviet regimes are established in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

1919

	General A. Denikin unites the Volunteer Army and the Don and Kuban formations under his command.
	The Red Army occupies Kyiv (the Ukrainian directorate of Semyon Petlyura accepts the patronage of France).
	The beginning of the offensive of the troops of Admiral A.V. Kolchak, which are advancing in the direction of Simbirsk and Samara.
	The offensive of the Eastern Front begins - the fighting of the Reds against the White troops of Admiral A.V. Kolchak.
	The White Guards' attack on Petrograd. It is reflected at the end of June.
	The beginning of General Denikin's offensive in Ukraine and towards the Volga.
	The Red Army drives Kolchak's troops out of Ufa, who continues to retreat and completely loses the Urals in July - August.
	The August offensive of the Southern Front begins against the white armies of General Denikin (about 115-120 thousand bayonets and sabers, 300-350 guns). The main blow was delivered by the left wing of the front - the Special Group of V.I. Shorin (9th and 10th armies).
	Denikin launches an attack on Moscow. Kursk (September 20) and Orel (October 13) were taken, and a threat loomed over Tula.
	The beginning of the Red Army's counteroffensive against A. Denikin.
	The First Cavalry Army was created from two cavalry corps and one rifle division. S. M. Budyonny was appointed commander, K. E. Voroshilov and E. A. Shchadenko were appointed as members of the Revolutionary Military Council.

1920

	The Red Army begins an offensive near Rostov-on-Don and Novocherkassk - the Rostov-Novocherkassk operation - and again occupies Tsaritsyn (January 3), Krasnoyarsk (January 7) and Rostov (January 10).
	Admiral Kolchak renounces his title as Supreme Ruler of Russia in favor of Denikin.
	The Red Army enters Novorossiysk. Denikin retreats to Crimea, where he transfers power to General P. Wrangel (April 4).
	The beginning of the Polish-Soviet war. The offensive of J. Pilsudski (an ally of S. Petlyura) with the aim of expanding the eastern borders of Poland and creating a Polish-Ukrainian federation.
	Polish troops occupy Kyiv.
	In the war with Poland, a counteroffensive began on the Southwestern Front. Zhitomir was taken and Kyiv was taken (June 12).
	On the Western Front, the offensive of Soviet troops under the command of M. Tukhachevsky unfolds, which approach Warsaw in early August. According to Lenin, entry into Poland should lead to the establishment of Soviet power there and cause a revolution in Germany.
	The Red Army launches an offensive against Wrangel in Northern Tavria, crosses Sivash, takes Perekop (November 7-11).
	The Red Army occupies the entire Crimea. Allied ships evacuate more than 140 thousand people - civilians and the remnants of the white army - to Constantinople.
	Japanese troops, thanks to diplomatic efforts, were withdrawn from Transbaikalia, and during the third Chita operation, troops of the Amur Front of the NRA and partisans defeated the Cossacks of Ataman Semyonov and the remnants of Kolchak’s troops.

1921

1922

Results of the Civil War

The civil war ended, its main result was the establishment of Soviet power.

During the war years, the Red Army was able to turn into a well-organized and well-armed force. She learned a lot from her opponents, but many of her own talented and original commanders emerged.

The Bolsheviks actively used the political sentiments of the masses, their propaganda set clear goals, quickly resolved issues about peace and land, etc. The government of the young republic was able to organize control over the central provinces of Russia, where the main military enterprises were located. Anti-Bolshevik forces were never able to unite until the end of the war.

The war ended, and Bolshevik power was established throughout the country, as well as in most national regions. According to various estimates, more than 15 million people died or died due to disease and starvation. More than 2.5 million people went abroad. The country was in a state of severe economic crisis. Entire social groups were on the verge of destruction, primarily the officers, intelligentsia, Cossacks, clergy and nobility.

Content

The 20th century for Russia was a time of turmoil and dramatic changes caused by the fall of the era of autocracy, the rise of the Bolshevik Party on the political Olympus, participation in a bloody fratricidal war, of course, we should not forget about the two world wars, which became a difficult test for the state, especially World War II. We should not, of course, forget about the tense relations between the USSR and the USA, framed within the framework of the Cold War, perestroika, and the fall of the great USSR.

Civil War phenomenon

The modern scientific world is plagued by doubts and contradictions when it comes to the Civil War in Russia. Historians still cannot agree among themselves and conclude the past war period within a certain time frame, as a result of which dates such as October 25, 1917 to July 16, 1923 are considered to be the approximate dating for such an event.

This event is essentially a series of armed conflicts that took place between various state entities and groups, divided in turn by ethnic, social and political nature. The war was formed from conflicts on the territory of what was by then the Russian Empire during the Bolshevik Party’s rise to power in October 1917.

The civil war was the final outcome of the crisis that arose during the revolutionary actions. This event is not only a consequence of political contradictions: the life of the common people in Russia has always been overshadowed by a difficult plight, the people were driven to extremes by the tsarist regime, class inequality, and participation in the First World War.

Transformations in the state could not pass without a trace; against the backdrop of a change of power and the establishment of new orders and rules, there must have been people who were not at all happy with the innovations; they showed with all their appearance that the old life was closer to them in spirit than the Soviet cardinal transformations.

Causes

Just as scientists do not have accurate information related to the specific chronology of military operations, there is also no consensus regarding the reasons influencing the outbreak of hostilities.

However, many historians are inclined to believe that the war could have arisen as a result of:

1. Dispersal of Kerensky and his supporters (members of the Constituent Assembly) by the Bolsheviks. The tsarist regime was overthrown, a new government had already established itself in its place, which the Bolsheviks, in turn, hastened to overthrow; of course, such a course of events could lead to similar actions. Instantly, the old nobility began to appear, which was faithful to the ideals of the imperial family; they dreamed of restoring the former regime and expelling Lenin and his associates from the state with their forcibly imposed new ideals.
2. The aspirations of the new owners of Russia (Bolsheviks) to do their best to stay in their new position. Naturally, the adherents of Lenin’s teachings wanted to firmly take root in the field they occupied, so they tried as best they could to propagate the Soviet teachings, accompanying it with various slogans. These people, for their bright ideas, were ready to kill their enemies so that socialism could come.
3. Readiness to fight between whites and reds. During the Civil War, both opposing camps had a huge number of supporters who tried to achieve ideal living conditions for themselves.
4. Nationalization of enterprises, food, banks, and the business sector. Under the tsarist regime, many people lived freely, this applies to factory owners, manufacturers, and merchants (especially the 1st guild). In an instant, the oxygen of their work activity is cut off for them; these people, of course, did not put up with the new regime, they sharply criticized Bolshevism.
5. Distribution of land to the poor and disadvantaged. Although the serfdom was abolished in the 19th century, few peasants had their own land; they continued to work for the masters. Lenin ordered that lands be actively confiscated from rich people and distributed to those in dire need. Against this background, state and collective farms began to form, which also began to include selected land. The agrarian question could be the sharpest stumbling block between the Bolsheviks and their opponents and lead to a civil war, since it was closely connected with the dispossession of wealthy peasants and landowners.
6. The signing of the humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which did not suit the population of the Russian Empire (a large amount of land was lost).

Stages of military operations

Traditionally, the Civil War is usually divided into 3 stages, enclosed within a certain chronological framework.

• October 1917 – November 1918. This stage began even when the entire civilized world was taking a direct part in the First World War. During this time period, the formation of opposing forces and the formation of main fronts of armed clashes between them took place. As soon as the Bolsheviks were at the helm of the government ship, immediately in opposition to the party an opposition arose for them in the person of the White Guards, whose ranks included officers, clergy, Cossacks, landowners and other other wealthy people who, for personal reasons, did not want to voluntarily part with their money funds and property.
  Since this stage was associated with actions taking place in Europe, it is clear that an event of such a scale simply could not attract the attention of the participants of the Entente and the Triple Alliance.
  The Civil War itself began with the opposition of the ruling new political regime to the old one in the form of local skirmishes, which over time grew into theaters of military operations.
• November 1918 – end of March/beginning of April 1920. During this time period, the most important, and at the same time the most significant, military battles took place between the workers' and peasants' Red Army and the White Guard movement. The First World War is over, Russian troops are returning to their homeland, where a new event awaits them - a civil war.
  Initially, fortune showed its favor and sympathy to the whites, and then it also attracted the reds, which by the end of the second stage of hostilities were able to spread throughout almost the entire territory of the state.
• March 1920 – October 1922. The struggle at this stage is already taking place on the very outskirts of the country. From this moment on, Soviet power was established everywhere; from now on, nothing threatens this political system.

The main participants in the hostilities: red versus white

Many people, of course, know who the “reds” are and who the “whites” are, and what the Civil War itself was like.

Where did these two opposing politicized camps come from: In fact, everything is very simple: whites are adherents of the old regime, faithful servants of the monarchy, terrible owners of land and all kinds of wealth that are so necessary for the common people, and reds are essentially there are the common people themselves, workers, Bolshevik deputies, peasants. Such information is available in every history textbook, regardless of who is the author of the textbook, and in former times a lot of films were made on this topic.

In fact, the White Guards were not monarchists as such. Emperor Nicholas II had already abdicated the throne, his brother Mikhail himself refused the bequeathed throne, so the entire White Guard movement, which once had a military obligation to the royal family, was deprived of it, because there was no one to swear allegiance to. Due to the fact that the officers and Cossacks were exempt from the oath, in fact, although they supported the royal power, they were opponents of the Bolshevik system and fought first of all for their own property, and only then for the idea.

Color difference is also a very interesting fact that took place in history. The Bolsheviks really had a red banner, and their army was called red, but the White Guards did not have a white flag, only their uniform corresponded to the name.

Great revolutionary events have already shaken the world before, what is the French Bourgeoisie worth? It was then that the king’s followers carried a white cloth with them everywhere, symbolizing the flag of the monarch. The opposing force, consisting of the bourgeoisie, peasantry, and ordinary plebs, having seized some object, having previously recaptured it from the French military, supporters of the revolution hung a red canvas under the window, indicating that this building was supposedly already occupied.

It is by this similar analogy that it is customary to distinguish between the two opposing forces that acted in Russia during the Civil War.

In fact, the Bolshevik political machine was opposed by supporters of the Provisional Government, wealthy people, and other political parties represented by anarchists, democrats, Socialist Revolutionaries, and Cadets.

The term "white" was applied to the main enemy of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War.

Background to military operations

In February 1917, a Provisional Committee was formed on the basis of the State Duma and the Petrograd Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. The simultaneous appearance of two powerful government forces on the political arena of the state could only mark a brutal confrontation in the form of dual power.

The following events happened like this: on March 2, the emperor, under pressure, abdicated the throne, and his brother Mikhail, to whom power was supposed to come as a result of a personal decision (naturally under pressure from certain individuals), also did not show much interest in the throne and hastened to abandon it.

The Provisional Committee, together with the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet, is in a hurry to form a Provisional Government, which was supposed to concentrate the reins of government in its own hands.

Alexander Kerensky tried to take his strong place in the political field by trying to ban the activities of the Bolshevik Party. Naturally, Ilyich’s associates did not tolerate such an attitude towards themselves and began to rapidly develop a plan to disperse the Provisional Government. As soon as the Bolsheviks began their movements, in the south of Russia, a White Guard army began to form in opposition to them, led by the famous officer Lavr Kornilov, an infantry general.

Czechoslovaks

The uprising of the Czechoslovak Corps at the first stage of the war became the starting point of paramilitary actions directed against Bolshevism.

The poor Czechoslovaks, scattered throughout almost the entire Trans-Siberian Railway, were peacefully heading to the Far East, so that from there they could head to France to fight the Triple Alliance. However, they were unable to get there without problems. Foreign Minister G.V. Chicherin, under pressure from the German government, was forced to stop the legionnaires’ journey. They, in turn, decided that the Russian government, instead of the promised shipment, would begin to hand them over to the enemy. Of course, the Czechoslovakians were not attracted to a fate of this nature; they responded to such a decision with an uprising, subsequently undermining Bolshevik authority. The actions of the legionnaires led to the formation of organizations opposition to the Bolsheviks (the Provisional Siberian Government and so on).

History of the war

This event is a confrontation between one political force and another. A huge number of people were involved on the sides of both opponents, and both armies were controlled by talented military leaders.

The outcome of these battles could be absolutely anything: up to the victory of the White Guards and the possible establishment of a monarchist system. However, the Bolsheviks won, and new orders began to be established in the state.

Reasons for victory

A huge number of Soviet historians were inclined to believe that the Bolsheviks were able to win for the reason that they were actively supported by the oppressed classes who were trying to find their place in society.

Despite the fact that there were also quite a large number of White Guards, their fate turned out to be extremely sad. The same simple people opposed the landowners, the rich and the usurpers, who just yesterday mocked the peasants and the working class, forcing them to work to the fullest for meager wages. Therefore, in the territories captured by the whites, they were mostly greeted as enemies, and they tried with all their might to expel the whites from the occupied territories.

The White Guards did not have a unified discipline in the army, there was no main leader of the army. The generals fought with their troops throughout Russian territory, primarily defending their personal interests with their soldiers.

The Red Army soldiers went into battle with a clearly defined goal; they fought for common views and ideas, defending the rights not of an individual person, but of the entire oppressed and disadvantaged people.

Consequences of the war

The civil war in Russia became a very difficult test for people. In many sources, historians call it “fratricidal.” Indeed, hostilities captured people in such a way that in one family there could be adherents of both the Bolsheviks and the White Guards, then often brother went against brother, and father against son.

The war claimed a large number of human lives; it also caused the destruction of the economic system in the state. People from cities began to return en masse to villages, trying to survive and not die of starvation.

Red and white terror

One has only to watch a few films about the Civil War, and one can immediately draw the following conclusion from their plot: the Red Army are the true defenders of their Fatherland, they are fighters for a bright future, led into battle by S. M. Budyonny, V. K. Blucher, M V. Frunze and other commanders, and all that kind of stuff, but the White Guards, on the contrary, are extremely negative heroes, they live by old remnants, trying to plunge the state into the darkness of the monarchy and so on.

“White terror” in Russian history is usually called a number of measures aimed at suppressing the activities of the Bolshevik Party; it includes repressive legislative acts and radical measures, which in turn were aimed at:

• representatives of the Soviet government,
• people who sympathized with the Bolsheviks.

In modern Russian historiography there is the concept of “white terror”, but in fact this phrase is not even a stable term in its essence. White terror is a collective image; it was used by the Bolsheviks to designate White Guard policy.

Yes, in the White Guard army, although scattered (since there was no single commander in chief), there were brutal measures to combat the enemy.

1. Revolutionary political sentiments had to be destroyed in the bud.
2. The Bolshevik underground and along with them representatives of the partisan movement were to be killed.
3. People who served in the Red Army were subjected to exactly the same fate.

However, in fact, the White Guards were not such cruel people, or rather, the degree of their cruelty is comparable to the cruelty of the Red Army soldiers and their leaders.

And L. G. Kornilov, and A. D. Denikin, and A. V. Kolchak tried to establish strict discipline in the armies of their subordinates, which did not tolerate any deviations from the regulations they established - violations were often punishable by death.

The Red Terror is an equally cruel policy of the now Bolsheviks, aimed at destroying the enemy. Just look at the execution of the royal family in July 1918. Then not only members of the royal family were brutally killed, but also their faithful servants, who wished to remain near their masters and share their fate.

The Bolsheviks who came to power denied religion, which had been an integral part of the state for a long time. With the advent of Bolshevism, religion ceased to be valued in human society; almost all clergy were subjected to persecution and repression by the new government. Clubs, reading rooms, libraries, and Komsomol headquarters began to be set up in the buildings of churches and temples. The country was going through terrible times, housewives in rural areas were having a hard time with the gap between power and religion, they, as before, secretly continued to read prayers and hid icons. Being a religious person during the Civil War was extremely dangerous, as one could easily get into trouble for such beliefs.

The scope of the Red Terror also included the forcible confiscation of bread from wealthy peasants, whom the Bolsheviks called kulaks. These operations were carried out directly by punitive food detachments, which, in case of disobedience, could even kill a person who disobeyed them.

Both whites and reds caused the death of a huge number of people who died not from a bullet or bayonet in a military clash, but who died due to insubordination and disobedience to one or another opposing force.

Green Army soldiers

The army of Nestor Makhno, which was called the green army, stands apart in the Civil War. Makhno's supporters became an opposing force, opposing the White Guards and Red Army soldiers, as well as their sympathizers. The army consisted of peasants and Cossacks who evaded general mobilization into the ranks of the White Guard or Red Army troops. The Makhnovists (Greens) advocated a state without a monarchy, but under the supervision of an influential anarchist (Nestor Makhno belonged to this particular political movement).

Bottom line

The civil war in Russia was a catastrophic shock for people. Until recently, they fought on European territory with the Triple Alliance, and today, having returned to their homeland, they were forced to take up arms again and go to fight a new enemy. The war split not only Russian society, it split many families, in which some supported the Red Army, while others supported the White Guards.

The war to establish their personal interests was won by the Bolsheviks thanks to the support of exclusively ordinary people who dreamed of a better life.

A new round of civil conflict began during Sulla’s lifetime and ended only after his death. It was brought to life by the circumstances of the previous war and in many ways was its direct continuation. This time the conflict unfolded not only in Italy, but also in the provinces. In addition, it included a number of other clashes not directly related to the struggle of the Roman parties, including the slave revolt and the Mithridatic War. The beginning of the conflict was associated with the name of Quintus Sertorius.

Origin of Sertorius

Quintus Sertorius was born in Nursia into an equestrian family. In his youth he received a good education and acquired some influence in his native city through judicial appearances. Sertorius then entered Roman military service. In 105 BC. he fought against the Cimbri at the Battle of Arausion, in 102 BC. took part in the battle of Akva Sextiev, in 98 BC. fought in Spain against the Celtiberians and, finally, in 91–88 BC. participated in the Allied War against the rebel Italians, in which he gained wide fame.

The war that Sertorius waged in Spain was predominantly reminiscent of the Guerilla war familiar to local residents, with its characteristic fleeting battles, ambushes and the actions of small detachments

In 88 BC. Sertorius ran for the position of tribune of the people, but lost due to the opposition of Sulla. Therefore, the following year Sertorius sided with Cinna, becoming one of the most prominent military leaders of the Marian party. Possibly between 87 and 84 BC. Sertorius served as praetor in Rome. After returning in 83 BC. Sulla and the resumption of the Civil War in Italy, Sertorius was part of the army of Scipio Asiagen. After the Battle of Mount Tifatus, in which the consul Norbanus was defeated by Sulla, Sertorius tried in vain to prevent Scipio's soldiers from defecting to the enemy. His relations with the main leaders of the Marians broke down, and at the end of that year Sertorius left for Spain.

In the provinces, he encountered unrest among the local tribes and opposition from the urban population. While Sertorius restored order in Spain, Sulla won a complete victory over the Marians. His military leaders began to travel around the provinces to establish a new order here. In 81 BC. Gaius Anicius Lusk was sent to Spain with an army of 20 thousand. The troops of Sertorius, who occupied the mountain passes in the Pyrenees, went over to his side, and their commander, Lucius Livius Salinator, died. Left with a small force against a superior enemy, Sertorius boarded ships at New Carthage and sailed to Mauretania. Here he entered the service of Prince Askalid, won a number of victories for him and strengthened his reputation as a brave and skillful military leader.

Resumption of war in Spain

In 80 BC. The Lusitanians again invited Sertorius to Spain to lead their revolt. For Sertorius himself, this proposal meant a chance to resume the war against the Sullan government. With a small detachment numbering only a few hundred people, he landed in the southern part of the country, which he quickly brought under his rule. Here many dissatisfied with the Roman authorities joined Sertorius. From these he recruited an army that included 2,500 Romans and Italian emigrants living in the province, 4,500 Lusitanian barbarians and 700 Africans and Moors. The governor of Further Spain, Lucius Fufidius, opposed Sertorius with all his forces. A battle took place not far from Hispalis, in which Fufidius was completely defeated and lost more than 2,000 of his soldiers killed. After this, not only all of Lusitania, but also a significant part of the Roman province went over to the side of Sertorius.

Alarmed by the way things were turning out in Spain, Sulla, in 79 BC. sent there one of his main associates, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius. An army consisting of four legions and an even larger contingent of allies was placed at the disposal of Metellus - a total of about 40,000 soldiers. The scene of military operations in 79–77 BC. became the southwestern and western parts of Spain. Their course is known only from fragmentary information from sources.

Spanish theater of war in 80–78 BC.

Metellus made a series of campaigns in Lusitania, took the cities of Dipona and Conistorga and unsuccessfully besieged Langobriga. Sertorius, significantly outnumbered by the enemy, could not challenge him directly and turned to guerrilla warfare tactics. He skillfully avoided major battles, and instead ambushed his opponent and made it difficult for him to supply. Metellus could do little to oppose him. Although he managed to restore Roman control over the territory of Baetica, Metellus was unable to prevent the enemy’s successful actions in the territory of Near Spain. The quaestor Sertorius Lucius Hirtuleius acted here, who in 78 BC. defeated the troops of her governor Marcus Domitius Calvinus at Consabura, and the governor himself fell in battle.

Death of Sulla and the rise of Lepidus

While the war was going on in Spain, in Rome at the beginning of 79 BC. Sulla, unexpectedly for everyone, resigned his power and, as a private citizen, went to his villa in Campania. Here the following year he died of lice-borne disease. Sulla's death provoked a split in Roman society. One of the consuls of 78 BC, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, spoke in the Senate with a project to condemn his actions and at the same time initiated a program of extensive reforms, including an amnesty for victims of repression, the restoration of their property, the return to the Italians of the lands taken from them, the restoration of the rights of the people's tribunes etc. After heated debates in the Senate and bloody riots on the streets of Rome, the point of view of the associates of the deceased dictator, who were rallied around him by the consul Quintus Lutatius Catullus, prevailed. Sulla's body was brought to Rome with great triumph and buried with honors on the Campus Martius.

Roman funeral ceremony. Relief from the 2nd–1st centuries BC.

But Lepidus was by no means going to give up his attempts. His initiative caused widespread unrest in Italy, where memories of civil war and terror were very fresh. The inhabitants of the Etruscan city of Fezula, whose lands had recently been given to Sulla's veterans, expelled the colonists with arms in hand and regained their property. The Senate sent both consuls to Etruria, taking an oath from them to refrain from military action against each other. From the very beginning, Lepidus actually withdrew from fulfilling the task assigned to him, settled in Etruria and began to massively enroll the Italic volunteers who flocked to him into his army. These actions alarmed the Senate, which at the end of the year invited Lepidus to disband his soldiers and return to Rome to hold elections. Lepidus refused to answer the call. He was joined by other supporters of the reforms, including Marcus Junius Brutus, who commanded troops in Cisalpine Gaul, Marcus Perperna, who recruited his own troops in Liguria, and his own son Lepidus, adopted by Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiagen.

Some senators called for negotiations with Lepidus. But Catullus, at the head of his party at the beginning of 77 BC. carried out a decision declaring him an enemy of the fatherland. In response, Lepidus marched on Rome with an army. The Senate declared a state of emergency, giving military command to Catullus and Pompey. The decisive battle took place near Rome on the Campus Martius. Lepidus was defeated and retreated back to Etruria. Scipio Lepidianus and part of his troops entrenched themselves in Alba, where they were besieged by Catullus.

During the Civil Wars, equally armed warriors fought on both sides, often neighbors and even relatives

Meanwhile, Pompey, at the head of another army, defeated Brutus in Cisalpine Gaul, besieged him in Mutina, forced him to surrender and executed him, despite promising to spare his life. Catullus dealt with Scipio Lepidian in the same way. Lepidus himself in Liguria united with the troops of Marcus Perperna and crossed over to Sardinia in order to cut off Rome from the supply of grain from here. The governor of Sardinia, Guy Valerius Triarius, who had only a limited number of soldiers, offered him desperate resistance. Lepidus was defeated, wounded and soon died of illness. Perperna transported the remnants of his army on ships to Spain, where he joined Sertorius.

Resumption of war in Spain

The expansion of the war in Spain prompted the Senate to send Pompey there instead of the deceased Domitius Calvin. Pompey himself sought this appointment; after the victory over the rebels, he was in no hurry to send his soldiers home. In the summer of 77 BC. he crossed the Alps, passed Narbonne Gaul and in the fall of the same year appeared in Spain with an army of 30,000 infantry and 1,000 horsemen. He was supported by some Spanish communities dissatisfied with Sertorius. In the spring of 76 BC. Pompey crossed the Ebro River and moved south along the Mediterranean coast.

Sertorius at this time was besieging Lauron, which had recently fallen away from him. To demonstrate his strength to his allies, Pompey decided to help the city and fell into an ambush skillfully set by Sertorius. Having suffered huge losses, Pompey retreated again across the Ebro and did not take active action until the end of the year.

Pompey. Marble bust. Vatican Museum

Metellus at this time also did not shine with success. His legate Lucius Thorius Balbus, whom he sent to Middle Spain, was intercepted and defeated by Hirtuleius on the way. Sertorius himself, until the end of the year, apparently waged a campaign in Celtiberia against local tribes who did not want to take his side.

The following year, 75 BC, Sertorius planned that Perperna and Herennius would hold Pompey in northeast Spain, and Hirtuleius would defend Lusitania from Metellus. In the meantime, he himself intended to complete the campaign in Celtiberia that had begun the previous year. To his misfortune, Sertorius underestimated Pompey, who again crossed the Ebro, pushed back Perperna, defeated Herennius, who died in battle along with 10,000 of his soldiers, captured and destroyed Valentia. Metellus also went on the offensive and in the battle of Italica completely destroyed the 20,000-strong army of Hirtuleius.

Celtiberian warrior of the 2nd–1st centuries BC. Reconstruction by I. Gil

Having received such formidable news, Sertorius rushed to the coast in order to defeat Pompey before he united with Metellus coming towards him. For his part, Pompey also wanted a decisive battle so as not to share the glory with his senior colleague. The opponents met on the Sukron River. Pompey, who fought against Sertorius himself on the right flank, was defeated and wounded. He managed to escape only because the enemies, having captured his horse in precious harness, coveted rich booty. On the other flank, Lucius Afranius gained the upper hand over Perperna. The appearance of Sertorius did not allow him to develop his success.

Pompey was defeated, but not destroyed. Metellus was already approaching, and Sertorius was forced to retreat, exclaiming: "Whenever this old woman(i.e. Metellus), I would whip that boy and send him to Rome!” Now the hostilities have moved to the central part of Spain. Metellus and Pompey joined their troops. The Battle of Segontia did not end in Sertorius's favor. Although he again defeated Pompey, Metellus on his flank forced his army to retreat. For some time, both Roman commanders besieged Sertorius in the mountain fortress in Clupea, but he managed to break through and again resort to guerrilla warfare tactics.

Doe Sertoria. Someone gave Sertorius a white doe, which was considered a sacred animal by the Spaniards. The doe was not at all afraid of people and was almost tame. When Sertorius received any important news, he released it in front of the soldiers and pretended that the gods themselves were telling him the right decisions. Sertorius' soldiers considered the doe a sign of the gods' favor towards Sertorius and respected him very much for this.

End of the war and death of Sertorius

In 74 BC. The balance of power in Spain changed in favor of the Sullans. Sertorius finally lost Further Spain. Slowly but surely Metellus and Pompey with their armies pushed him out of the Mediterranean part of the country into Celtiberia. Sertorius began to distrust his Roman surroundings, increasingly relying on the Spanish military leaders. The loyalty of ordinary warriors to him remained unshakable. Many warriors, according to Spanish custom, devoted themselves to Sertorius and recklessly went to their death for him. He still had significant forces. Nevertheless, the battles of Bilbilis and Segobriga ended with an uncertain result. Pompey failed in his attempt to capture Pallancia. The Battle of Kallaguris again ended in a draw.

Spanish theater of war in 77–73 BC.

Meanwhile, Sertorius's Roman confidants plotted against him. The conspirators were led by Perperna, who hoped to seize supreme power. In 73 BC. Sertorius was killed at a feast in Osca. The Spaniards were outraged by the murder of their military leader and began to leave his camp en masse. To rally his warriors, Perperna decided to give the enemy a general battle. To this end, he opposed Pompey, but was completely defeated in the first battle, captured and executed.

His death ended the civil war. Most of the Romans fighting in Sertorius' camp hastened to resort to Pompey's mercy. In 71 BC. a law on political amnesty was passed, as a result of which even the most irreconcilable rebels were able to return home. The resistance of the Spanish tribes, on the contrary, was still not broken and continued for many years. Pompey remained in Spain until the winter of 72–71 BC, when the Senate summoned him to Italy, where the Spartacus rebellion was raging at that time. Metellus returned to Rome in 71 BC. Both commanders celebrated their triumph as if their victories had been won in a war against an external enemy.

Triumph of Pompey. Reconstruction by Peter Dennis

Rise of Spartacus

While the war against Sertorius was going on in Spain, and the eastern provinces were again devastated by Mithridates, in Italy itself in 73 BC. The Spartacus uprising broke out. The initial area of ​​indignation covered Campania and Lucania, but quickly spread to the entire central and southern part of Italy, that is, to those regions in which the Allied War had recently raged. The success of the movement was facilitated by the dissatisfaction of the Italians with the power of the Sullan party in Rome: they supported the rebels.

The basis of Spartacus' army was made up of slaves and disenfranchised tenants, many of whom were victims of Sulla's colonization policy. At the peak of its success, the rebel army numbered approximately 80,000. The rebels managed to achieve a number of military successes and defeat the detachments of government troops sent against them, including the praetor Publius Varinius and both consuls Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodian and Lucius Gellius Publicola.

At first, Spartacus apparently sought to get his men out of Italy. In the autumn of 72 BC. He fought through the southern foothills of the Alps and here unexpectedly turned back. The Senate handed military command to Marcus Licinius Crassus, under whose command an army of 60,000 was gathered. A series of clashes took place between Crassus and the rebels, during which Spartacus suffered serious losses. He decided to cross to Sicily, where he planned to rekindle the flames of the slave revolt. However, the Cilician pirates, who promised to transport him across the Strait of Messa, deceived Spartacus, and he was locked up on the Rhegian Peninsula.

Rise of Spartacus. Map of military operations

At the beginning of 71 BC. The rebels broke through the 30-kilometer line of fortifications built by Crassus and rushed to Lucania. A decisive battle took place on the Silaria River, during which the rebels were defeated and Spartacus himself died. The remnants of his troops troubled Italy for a long time, but were ultimately destroyed by Crassus and Pompey, who returned from Spain.

Conspiracy of Catiline

The last episode of the civil wars of the first half of the 1st century BC. there was a conspiracy and revolt of Catiline. Lucius Sergius Catilina was a supporter of Sulla and fought under his command in the Allied and Civil Wars. Like many Sullans, he made a fortune for himself during the proscriptions, but gradually squandered everything and found himself deeply in debt. Then Catiline decided to improve his affairs in the province. In 68 BC. he was elected praetor, after which he ruled Africa for a year. Here he was engaged in extortion, and due to legal persecution he was not allowed to participate in the consular elections in 65 BC. At the end of the litigation, Catiline again stood for election in 64 BC, but lost the fight to Marcus Tullius Cicero.

Left out of work, Catiline decided to seize power by force. These intentions were favored by the difficult economic situation in Italy. He managed to involve several members of the nobility in the conspiracy. Gaius Manlius began to recruit people for him in Etruria. First of all, insolvent debtors and former veterans of Sulla enlisted in the army. Thus, from 7 to 20 thousand people gathered under his banner.

Cicero exposes Catiline. Fresco by Cesare Maccari (1888).

In the autumn of 63 BC. the conspirators planned to kill Cicero and a number of other persons, announce the cancellation of debts and carry out some reforms. Their plans became known. Cicero made several speeches in the Senate to provoke the enemy into rash actions. Catiline left the city and was declared an outlaw by the Senate. Cicero managed to obtain evidence of the conspiracy and on this basis achieved the arrest of the leaders of the conspirators in Rome. On December 5, the Senate approved the death sentence for five of them, and it was immediately carried out.

Having received news of the defeat of the conspirators in Rome, the army of Catiline's supporters in Etruria began to thin out. Government detachments of Metellus blocked his path to the north, and at that time the army of the consul Guy Antonius of Hebrides was approaching from the south. With his remaining people, Catiline decided to give battle. At the decisive battle of Pistoria, which took place in early January 62 BC, he was defeated and fell in battle along with Manlius and 3,000 of his followers. The consul sent Catiline's head to Rome.

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