Methodological foundations of geography and the process of geographical knowledge, theory of geographical science (problems, ideas, hypotheses, concepts, laws), theoretical foundations of geographical forecast.
Methodology– a set of the most essential elements of theory necessary for the development of science itself, i.e. it is a concept for theory development.
Methodology– a set of technical techniques and organizational forms for conducting scientific research.
Hypothesis– this is some kind of purely theoretical generalization of the material, without evidence.
Theory– a system of knowledge supported by evidence.
Concept– this is a set of the most essential elements of the theory, presented in a form that is constructively acceptable for practice, i.e. it is a theory translated into an algorithm for solving a specific problem.
Paradigm– the initial conceptual scheme, the model for making the decisions made, the solution method that is dominant at a given time.
Scientific apparatus– an apparatus of facts, systems and classifications of scientific knowledge. The main content of science is the empirical scientific apparatus.
The subject of studying geography (physical-geo) is the geographical envelope, the biosphere, taking into account the main characteristics of the geographical envelope - zonality, extremeness, etc.
There are 4 principles: territoriality, complexity, specificity, globality.
Zoning: consequence – the presence of natural zones and subzones.
Integrity is the relationship of everything to everything.
The heterogeneity of matter at any point on the earth’s surface (for example, azonality) is spatial polymorphism.
Cyclicality - closure. Rhythmicity – has some kind of vector.
Gyroscopicity (object location parameters) – the appearance of a gyroscopic effect in any object moving parallel to the Earth’s surface (Coriolis force).
Centrosymmetricity – central symmetry.
Limitality – there are clear boundaries of spheres.
Material polymorphism is a result of the presence of a landscape shell, physical, chemical and other conditions that contribute to the emergence of diverse forms and structures of matter.
Geographical thinking– complex; thinking tied to territory.
Globality is the relationship between local and regional problems and the global background.
Systematics – classification and typification. Classification is the division into groups based on a population that differs in quantitative characteristics. Typing is based on quality.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “forecast” and “forecasting”. Forecasting is the process of obtaining data about the possible state of the object under study. Forecast is the result of forecast research. There are many general definitions of the term “forecast”: a forecast is a definition of the future, a forecast is a scientific hypothesis about the development of an object, a forecast is a characteristic of the future state of an object, a forecast is an assessment of development prospects.
Despite some differences in the definitions of the term “forecast,” which are apparently associated with differences in the goals and objects of the forecast, in all cases the researcher’s thought is directed to the future, that is, the forecast is a specific type of cognition, where, first of all, it is not what is , but what will happen. But a judgment about the future is not always a forecast. For example, there are natural events that do not raise doubts and do not require prediction (change of day and night, seasons of the year). In addition, determining the future state of an object is not an end in itself, but a means of scientific and practical solution to many general and particular modern problems, the parameters of which, based on the possible future state of the object, are set at the present time.
The general logical diagram of the forecasting process is presented as a sequential set:
1) ideas about past and current patterns and trends in the development of the forecast object;
2) scientific justification for the future development and condition of the object;
3) ideas about the causes and factors determining the change in the object, as well as the conditions that stimulate or hinder its development;
4) fourth, forecast conclusions and management decisions.
Geographers define a forecast primarily as a scientifically based prediction of trends in changes in the natural environment and production-territorial systems.
Geography methods– set ( system) including general scientific methods, private or working techniques and methods for obtaining factual material, methods and techniques for collecting and processing the obtained factual material.
A method is a system of rules and techniques for approaching the study of phenomena and patterns of nature, society and thinking; a path, a method of achieving certain results in knowledge and practice, a method of theoretical research or practical action, based on knowledge of the laws of development of objective reality and the subject, phenomenon, process under study. The method is the central element of the entire system of methodology. Its place in the structure of science in general, its relationship with other structural elements can be visually represented in the form of a pyramid (Fig. 11), in which the corresponding elements of science are arranged in an ascending manner in accordance with the origin of scientific knowledge.
According to V.S. Preobrazhensky, the modern stage of development of all sciences is characterized by a sharp increase in attention to the problems of methodology, the desire of sciences to know themselves. This general trend is manifested in the intensified development of questions of the logic of science, the theory of knowledge, and methodology.
What objective processes are responsible for these trends, and what are they connected to?
Firstly, the use of scientific knowledge is expanding, penetration into the essence of natural phenomena and the relationships between them is deepening. It is impossible to solve this problem without improving the methodology.
The second reason is the development of science as a unified process of cognition of nature. At the same time, new questions arise about the properties of natural bodies and systems. And new questions often require the search for new methodological ways and techniques to be solved.
In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly important to predict the behavior of complex systems, including both natural complexes and technical structures. At the same time, the need for a new increase in work on the development of the methodology is becoming more acute.
It is impossible not to note the existence of a mutual connection between the methodology and the theoretical level of science: the more perfect the methodology, the deeper, broader and stronger the theoretical conclusions; on the other hand, the deeper the theory, the more diverse, clearer, more definite, and more refined the methodology.
The third impetus for the accelerated development of the technique is determined by the gigantic growth of geographic information. The volume of scientific data about the earth's nature is growing so quickly that it is impossible to cope with this flow using already established methods and purely intuitive solutions. There is an increasing need for scientific organization of research, for choosing not just any methods, but for creating the most rational and effective system of methods and methodology.
The task arises of searching for fundamentally new methodological techniques. The search is always associated with the solution of problems that have not yet been solved or remain unresolved.
Before moving on to consider the actual methods of geography, it is necessary to establish some concepts.
Introduction
Geography is a multidisciplinary science. This is due to the complexity and diversity of the main object of her research - the geographical shell of the Earth. Located on the border of interaction between intraterrestrial and external (including cosmic) processes, the geographic envelope includes the upper layers of the solid crust, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and organic matter dispersed in them. Depending on the position of the Earth in the ecliptic orbit and due to the inclination of its axis of rotation, different parts of the earth's surface receive different amounts of solar heat, the further redistribution of which, in turn, is due to the uneven latitudinal ratio of land and sea.
The current state of the geographic shell should be considered as the result of its long evolution - starting with the emergence of the Earth and its establishment on the planetary path of development.
A correct understanding of the processes and phenomena of various spatiotemporal scales occurring in the geographic shell requires at least a multi-level consideration of them, starting with the global - planetary one. At the same time, the study of processes of a planetary nature until recently was considered the prerogative of the geological sciences. In general geographic synthesis, information at this level was practically not used, and if it was involved, it was rather passively and limitedly. However, the branch division of natural sciences is rather arbitrary and does not have clear boundaries. They have a common object of research - the Earth and its cosmic environment. The study of the various properties of this single object and the processes occurring in it required the development of various research methods, which largely predetermined their industrial division. In this regard, geographical science has more advantages over other branches of knowledge, because has the most developed infrastructure, allowing for a comprehensive study of the Earth and its surrounding space.
The arsenal of geography includes methods for studying the solid, liquid and gas components of the geographical shell, living and inert matter, the processes of their evolution and interaction.
On the other hand, one cannot fail to note the important fact that even 10-15 years ago, most of the research on the problems of the structure and evolution of the Earth and its external geospheres, including the geographical envelope, remained “waterless”. When and how water appeared on the surface of the Earth and what were the paths of its further evolution - all this remained beyond the attention of researchers.
At the same time, as it was shown (Orlyonok, 1980-1985), water is the most important result of the evolution of the Earth's proto-matter and the most important component of the geographical envelope. Its gradual accumulation on the Earth's surface, accompanied by volcanism and varying-amplitude downward movements of the upper crust, predetermined, starting from the Proterozoic, and possibly earlier, the course of evolution of the gas shell, relief, ratio of area and configuration of land and sea, and with them the conditions of sedimentation , climate and life. In other words, the free water produced by the planet and carried to the surface essentially determined the course and all the features of the evolution of the planet’s geographic envelope. Without it, the entire appearance of the Earth, its landscapes, climate, organic world would be completely different. The prototype of such an Earth is easily discernible on the arid and lifeless surface of Venus, partly the Moon and Mars
System of geographical science
Physical geography - Greek. physics - nature, geo - Earth, grapho - writing. The same thing, literally - a description of the nature of the Earth, or land description, geoscience.
The literal definition of the subject of physical geography is too general. Compare: “geology”, “geobotany”.
To give a more precise definition of the subject of physical geography, you need to:
show the spatial structure of science;
establish the relationship of this science with other sciences.
You know from your school geography course that geography deals with the study of the nature of the earth's surface and the material values that have been created on it by humanity. In other words, geography is a science that does not exist in the singular. This, of course, is physical geography and economic geography. One can imagine that this is a system of sciences.
The system paradigm (Greek: example, sample) came to geography from mathematics. System is a philosophical concept meaning a set of elements that interact. It is a dynamic, functional concept.
From a systemic perspective, geography is the science of geosystems. Geosystem(s), according to V.B. Sochava (1978), are terrestrial spaces of all dimensions, where individual components of nature are in a systemic connection with each other and how a certain integrity interacts with the cosmic sphere and human society.
Main properties of geosystems:
a) Integrity, unity;
b) Componentality, elementarity (element - Greek simplest, indivisible);
c) Hierarchical subordination, a certain order of construction and functioning;
d) Interrelation through functioning, exchange.
There are internal connections that consolidate the structure specific to a given science, and through it, its inherent composition (structure). Internal connections in nature are, first of all, the exchange of matter and energy. External connections - internal and mutual exchange of ideas, hypotheses, theories, methods through intermediate, transitional scientific units (for example, natural, social, technical sciences).
Like physics, chemistry, biology and other sciences, modern geography represents a complex system of scientific disciplines that have become isolated at different times (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. System of geographical science according to V.A. Anuchin
Economic and physical geography have their various objects and subjects of study, indicated in Fig. 2. But humanity and nature are not only different, but mutually influence and act on each other, forming the unity of the material world of nature on the earth’s surface (in Fig. 2 this interaction is indicated by arrows). People, forming a society, are part of nature and relate to it as a part of the whole.
Understanding society as a part of nature begins to determine the entire nature of production. Society, experiencing the influence of nature, also experiences the influence of the laws of nature. But the latter are refracted in society and become specific (the law of reproduction is the law of population). It is social laws that determine the development of society (solid line in Fig. 2).
Social development takes place in the nature of the earth's surface. The nature surrounding human society, experiencing its influence, forms the geographical environment. The geographical environment, thanks to technological progress, is continuously expanding and already includes near space.
A reasonable person should not forget about the existing systemic connection. N.N. said this very well. Baransky: “There should be neither “inhuman” physical geography, nor “unnatural” economic geography.”
In addition, a modern geographer must take into account the fact that the nature of the earth's surface has already been changed by human activity, therefore modern society must balance its impact on nature with the intensity of the natural process.
Modern geography is a triune science that unites nature, population, and economy.
Each of the sciences: physical, economic, social geography, in turn, represents a complex of sciences.
Complex of physical-geographical science
The physical-geographical complex is one of the main concepts of physical geography. It consists of parts, elements and components: air, water, lithogenic base (rocks and irregularities of the earth's surface), soil and living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms). Their totality forms a natural-territorial complex (NTC) of the earth's surface. PTC can be considered both the entire earth's surface, individual continents, oceans, and small areas: the slope of a ravine, a swamp hummock. PTC is a unity that exists in origin (past) and development (present, future).
The nature of the earth's surface can be studied in general and as a whole (physical geography), by components (special sciences - hydrology, climatology, soil science, geomorphology, etc.); can be studied by country and region (country studies, landscape studies), in the present, past and future tense (general geography, paleogeography and historical geography).
Animal geography (zoogeography) is the science of the patterns of distribution of animal species.
Biogeography is the geography of organic life.
Oceanology is the science of the World Ocean as part of the hydrosphere.
Landscape science is the science of the landscape environment, the thin, most active central layer of the geographical envelope, consisting of natural-territorial complexes of different ranks.
Cartography is a general geographic (at the system level) science about geographic maps, methods of their creation and use.
Paleogeography and historical geography - sciences about the nature of the earth's surface of past geological eras; about the discovery, formation and history of development of natural-social systems.
Regional geography is a physical-geographical study that studies the nature of individual countries and regions (physical geography of Russia, Asia, Africa, etc.).
Glaciology and geocryology (permafrost science) are the sciences about the conditions of origin, development and forms of terrestrial (glaciers, snowfields, snow avalanches, sea ice) and lithospheric (permafrost, underground glaciation) ice.
Geography (actually physical geography) studies the geographical envelope (the nature of the earth's surface) as an integral material system - the general patterns of its structure, origin, internal and external relationships, functioning to develop a system for modeling and managing ongoing processes.
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1. The concept of geographic shell and its boundaries
geographical envelope cycle zonation
The geographic envelope is a single material system within which the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere interact and interpenetrate. It includes the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, the entire atmosphere and the entire hydrosphere. The thickness of the GO is about 50 km.
The boundaries of the GO are clearly defined. Scientists take the ozone screen in the atmosphere as the upper limit, beyond which life on our planet does not extend. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth’s crust, which was formed under the combined influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. If we talk about the lower part of the GO in the pestilent ocean, then its border will run along the ocean floor.
As a result of interaction in civil defense, some processes develop:
o conversion of solar energy in plants.
o the presence of substances in three states of aggregation
o presence of organic matter and life.
Properties of GO: integrity means that all components of the geographic environment are closely related to each other and a change in one of them leads to a change in the rest.
Rhythm, the recurrence of similar phenomena over time (day and night, photosynthesis, weathering processes, seasonal rhythms).
Zoning, changes in all components of GO from the equator to the poles.
Azonality (altitudinal zone).
The circulation of substances and energy makes changes in life processes.
Polar asymmetry.
The structure of GO is horizontal: it is carried out depending on endo-exogenous processes (climatic zones and belts are distinguished).
2. Stages eevolution of the geographic envelope
Natural changes in civil defense have always occurred. But with the growth of the world's population and the development of society, the natural course of processes occurring in natural complexes is increasingly disrupted, becomes different and increasingly causes undesirable consequences. Modern civil engineering is the result of its long development, during which it continuously became more complex.
Scientists distinguish three stages of its development.
Stage I - prebiogenic lasted 3 billion years. During this period, only the simplest animals existed, which took little part in the development and formed the Earth's geological system. The atmosphere during this period was characterized by low levels of free oxygen and high levels of carbon dioxide.
Biogenic stage II lasted about 570 billion years. This stage is characterized by the leading role of living beings in the development and formation of civil society. Living beings had a great influence on all natural components. Organic rocks accumulated, the composition of water and atmosphere changed, the oxygen content increased, and the carbon dioxide content decreased. At the end of the stage a man appeared.
Stage III - modern, began 40 thousand years ago. It is characterized by the fact that a person begins to actively influence different parts of civil defense. Therefore, it depends on the person whether it will exist because man on Earth cannot live and develop in isolation from it.
3. Blarge geological cycle of substances. Small biological (geo)graphic) cycle of substances
The large geological cycle of substances is caused by the interaction of solar energy with the deep energies of the Earth and carries out the redistribution of substances between the biosphere and the deeper horizons of the Earth. Sedimentary rocks are immersed in a zone of high temperatures and pressures in mobile zones of the earth's crust. There they melt and form magma - the source of new igneous rocks. After these rocks rise to the earth's surface and undergo weathering processes, they are again transformed into new sedimentary rocks.
The Great Cycle also includes the circulation of water between land and ocean through the atmosphere. Moisture that evaporates from the surface of the world's oceans is transferred to land, where it falls in the form of precipitation, which returns to the ocean in the form of surface runoff and underground runoff. The water cycle also occurs according to a simpler scheme: evaporation of moisture from the surface of the ocean - condensation of water vapor - precipitation on the surface of the ocean. More than 500 thousand cubic meters participate in the water cycle every day. km. water. The entire supply of water on Earth breaks down and is restored in 2 million years.
The small cycle of substances (biogeochemical) occurs only within the biosphere. Its essence lies in the formation of living matter from inorganic compounds during the process of photosynthesis and in the transformation of organic matter during decomposition back into inorganic compounds. This cycle for the life of the biosphere is the main one and is a continuation of life itself. By changing, being born and dying, living matter supports life on our planet, ensuring the biogeochemical cycle of substances. The main source of energy in the cycle is sunlight, which provides photosynthesis.
The essence of the biogeochemical cycle is that chemical elements absorbed by an organism subsequently leave it and enter the abiotic environment, after some time they again enter the living organism. In biogeochemical cycles, it is customary to distinguish between a reserve fund, or substances not associated with organisms; exchange fund due to the direct exchange of nutrients between organisms and their immediate environment. If we consider the biosphere as a whole, we can distinguish the cycle of gaseous substances with a reserve fund in the atmosphere and hydrosphere and the sedimentary cycle with a reserve fund in the earth's crust in the geological cycle.
As a whole, cycles ensure the fulfillment of the following most important functions of living matter in the biosphere:
o Gas: a product of the decomposition of dead organic matter.
o Concentration: organisms accumulate many chemical elements.
o Redox: organisms living in water bodies regulate the acid regime.
o Biochemical: reproduction, growth and movement of living matter in space
o Biogeochemical human activity: the involvement of natural substances for economic and domestic needs of humans.
The only process on Earth that does not consume, but accumulates solar energy is the creation of organic matter as a result of photosynthesis. The binding and storage of solar energy is the main planetary function of living matter on Earth. The most important nutrients are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
4. Ggeographical zones, zonesand sectors. Polar asymmetry
Geographic zones are the largest territorial unit of the latitudinal-zonal division of a civil settlement, characterized by common thermal conditions.
The latitudinal location of geographic zones is determined mainly by changes in the amount of solar radiation from the equator to the poles of the Earth. Geographic zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in the general characteristics of atmospheric circulation. On land, the following geographical zones are distinguished: equatorial; subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate in each hemisphere; subantarctic and antarctic. Due to the different ratios of heat and moisture, geographic zones and subzones are distinguished within the belts.
Natural zones are large parts of geographical zones, regularly changing from the equator to the poles and from the oceans deep into the continents. The position of physical-geographical zones is determined mainly by the characteristics of the relationship between heat and moisture. The zones have a certain commonality of soils, vegetation and other components of the natural environment (for example, steppe zones, savanna zones). Natural zones are expressed both on land and in the ocean, where they appear less clearly.
Natural zones are extended in the form of wide stripes from west to east. There are no clear boundaries between them; they smoothly move from one zone to another. The latitudinal location of natural zones is disrupted by the uneven distribution of land and oceans, relief, and distance from the oceans.
Sectors - the general circulation of the atmosphere, which controls the transfer of moisture, is taken into account. There are three sectors: two oceanic and continental. In the cold zone, sectors are not distinguished, because the maritime and continental regions do not have sharp differences. According to the classification of A.G. Isachenko, it is advisable to distinguish five sectors: western near-oceanic, eastern near-oceanic, weakly and moderately continental, continental, sharply continental.
Polar asymmetry is expressed, in particular, in the fact that the Northern Hemisphere is more continental than the Southern Hemisphere (39 and 19% of the land area). In addition, the geographic zonation of the high latitudes of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and the distribution of organisms differ. For example, in the Southern Hemisphere there are not precisely those geographical zones that occupy the largest areas on the continents in the Northern Hemisphere. The spaces of land and ocean in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres are inhabited by different groups of animals and birds: the polar bear is characteristic of the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, and the penguin is characteristic of the high latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere.
A number of signs of polar asymmetry: all zones (horizontal and altitudinal) are shifted northward by an average of 10°. For example, the desert belt is located in the Southern Hemisphere closer to the equator (22° S) than in the Northern Hemisphere (37° N); the anticyclonic high pressure belt in the Southern Hemisphere is located 10° closer to the equator than in the Northern Hemisphere (25 and 35°); Most of the warm ocean waters are directed from the equatorial latitudes to the Northern rather than the Southern Hemisphere, so in the middle and high latitudes the climate of the Northern Hemisphere is warmer than the Southern.
5. Periodiclaw of geographical zoning. Radiation dryness index
Zoning is a change in natural components and processes from the equator to the poles (depends on the spherical shape of the Earth, the angle of inclination of the Earth's axis to the ecliptic plane (orbital rotation), the size of the Earth, the distance of the Earth from the Sun).
The term was first introduced by Humboldt in the early 18th century. The founder of the doctrine of zonality Dokuchaev.
According to Dokuchaev, the manifestation of zonality in: the earth’s crust, water, air, vegetation, soil, fauna.
The periodic law of geographic zonation is the presence of similar landscape zones in different zones associated with the repetition of the same ratios of heat and moisture. This law was formed by A.A. Grigoriev and M.I. Budyko.
According to the periodic law of geographic zoning, the division of the geographic envelope is based on: 1) the amount of absorbed solar energy; 2) the amount of incoming moisture; 3) the ratio of heat and moisture.
The climatic conditions of geographic zones and zones can be assessed using indicators: the Vysotsky-Ivanov humidification coefficient and the Budyko radiation dryness index. The value of the indicators is determined by the nature of landscape moisture: arid (dry) and humid (wet).
The last value, the radiation index of dryness, ranges from O to 5, passing through values close to unity three times between the pole and the equator: in the zones of deciduous forests of the temperate zone, rain forests of the subtropical zone and equatorial forests, turning into light tropical forests.
The three periods of the radiation dryness index have their differences. Due to the increase in the direction of the equator in the absolute values of the radiation balance and precipitation, each passage of the dryness index through unity occurs with an increasingly higher influx of heat and moisture. This leads to an increase from high latitudes to low latitudes in the intensity of natural processes and especially the productivity of the organic world.
The values of indicators can be repeated in zones belonging to different geographical zones. In this case, the value of the moisture coefficient determines the type of landscape zone, and the value of the radiation dryness index determines the specific nature and appearance of the zone.
The radiation index of dryness is an indicator of the degree of climate aridity, developed by domestic scientists A.A. Grigoriev and M.I. Budyko in the middle of the twentieth century. The radiation dryness index is calculated using the formula:
R is the radiation balance of the surface in kcal/cm2 per year,
L - latent heat of evaporation in kcal/g,
r is the amount of precipitation in g/cm 2 per year.
The numerator in this formula is the amount of heat that the earth's surface ultimately receives and which is spent on warming the atmospheric air.
The denominator - the amount of precipitation (r) expresses the moisture supply of the territory. Moisture that falls in the form of precipitation will only partially evaporate. Exactly how much moisture has evaporated from the earth's surface can be estimated by the amount of solar heat spent on evaporation (the amount of latent heat of evaporation). Therefore, the denominator of the formula consists of the product of the latent heat of evaporation by the amount of annual precipitation.
With a radiation dryness index of 0.8-1.0, there is enough heat to evaporate most of the precipitation, there is moderate runoff, sufficient soil moisture and good aeration, intensive weathering and, in general, the best conditions for the development of the organic world, in particular forests.
When the radiation dryness index is less than 0.8, there is excessive moisture, there is not enough heat to evaporate precipitation, and waterlogging occurs.
When the radiation dryness index is more than 1.0, moisture is insufficient, moisture evaporates almost completely and excess heat is wasted on overheating the soil and atmosphere. In both extreme cases, the organic world is oppressed.
A radiation dryness index value of less than 0.3 corresponds to the tundra zone, 0.3 -1.0 to the forest zone, 1.0 to 2.0 to the steppe, 2.0 to 3.0 to the semi-desert, and more than 3.0 to the desert.
6. Physiographical consequences of VZAinteractions between oceans and continents
The interaction of continents and oceans is determined by:
1. features of atmospheric circulation (westerly transport of air masses predominates in our country). Trade winds in low latitudes between the tropics and the equator. Monsoons blow on the east coast of the mainland.
2. Temperature. Oceans moderate temperatures on continents. Continents influence evaporation.
3. Currents. Repeat the movement of the winds. The most common currents are drift currents.
4. Salinity of water. It is not the same everywhere.
7. Noosphere conceptIN AND. Vernadsky
The noosphere is the modern biosphere, of which humanity is a part. Tracing the development of the biosphere and the growing geological impact of man on the biosphere, V.I. Vernadsky forms the doctrine of the noosphere as a special period in the development of the planet and the surrounding outer space. The formation of the noosphere is determined by the social and natural activity of man, his work and knowledge, i.e. those that relate to the cosmoplanetary dimension of man.
The noosphere is a new, evolutionary state of the biosphere, in which intelligent human activity becomes a decisive factor in its development. IN AND. Vernadsky was convinced that our planet was entering a new stage of its development, in which Homo sapiens would play a decisive role as a force of unprecedented scale. The gigantic geological activity of mankind is expressed in the fact that now there is no such fast-flowing geological process with which one could compare the power of mankind, armed with a huge arsenal of all kinds of influences on nature, including fantastic ones, in terms of the power of destructive forces.
By noosphere we understand the highest stage of the biosphere, associated with the emergence and development of humanity, which, learning the laws of nature and improving technology, begins to have a decisive influence on the course of processes on Earth and in the near-Earth space, changing them through its activities.
In the works of V.I. Vernadsky, one can find different definitions and ideas about the noosphere, which changed throughout the scientist’s life. IN AND. Vernadsky began to develop this concept in the early 30s after developing the doctrine of the biosphere. Realizing the enormous role and importance of man in life and the transformation of the planet, the Russian scientist used the concept of “noosphere” in different senses:
1) as the state of the planet when man becomes the largest transformative geological force;
2) as an area of active manifestation of scientific thought as the main factor in the restructuring and change of the biosphere.
The noosphere can be characterized as the unity of “nature” and “culture”. Vernadsky himself spoke about it, sometimes as about the reality of the future, sometimes as about the reality of our days, which is not surprising, since he thought on the scale of geological time.
The concept of “noosphere” appears in two aspects:
1. the noosphere is in its infancy, developing spontaneously from the moment of the appearance of man;
2. a developed noosphere, consciously formed by the joint efforts of people in the interests of the comprehensive development of all humanity and each individual person.
According to V.I. Vernadsky, the noosphere is just being created, arising as a result of a real, material transformation by man of the geology of the Earth through the efforts of thought and labor.
We are approaching a new era in the life of humanity and life on our planet in general, when exact science as a planetary force comes to the fore, penetrating and changing the entire spiritual environment of human societies, when it embraces and changes the technology of life, artistic creativity, philosophical thought, religious life. This was the inevitable consequence - for the first time on our planet - of the capture by ever-growing human societies, as a single whole, of the entire surface of the Earth, the transformation of the biosphere into the noosphere with the help of the guided mind of man.
These are the objective foundations and consequences of noospheric globalization according to Vernadsky and its fundamental difference from the current model of globalization, carried out in the interests of states and leading to further destruction of the natural environment and eco-catastrophe.
According to Vernadsky's theory, man, having embraced the entire planet with scientific thought, strives to move towards the comprehension of Divine laws. Vernadsky's focus is on the biosphere and noosphere of the Earth. The biosphere, as the total shell of the Earth, is permeated with life (the sphere of life), and naturally, under the influence of the activities of human society, it transforms into the noosphere - a new state of the biosphere, which carries the results of human labor.
So, Vernadsky proceeds from the fact that the starting point in the knowledge of the Universe is man, since the emergence of man is associated with the main process of the evolution of cosmic matter. Describing the coming era of reason at the energy level, Vernadsky points to the evolutionary transition from geochemical processes to biochemical ones, and, finally, to the energy of thought.
At a certain stage of its development, the biosphere, processed by human scientific thought, turns into the noosphere, an area of human culture closely related to scientific knowledge. A product of cosmic forces, the noosphere lies outside the cosmic expanses, where it is lost as an infinitely small, and outside the region of the microcosm, where it is absent, as an infinitely large.
Vernadsky perceives the noosphere as a non-entropic factor. The reduction in the rate of the entropy process occurs due to the creation of the biosphere system and its transition to an increasingly self-organizing noosphere system. It is the noosphere that gives the cosmos idea, meaning and purpose.
Thus, the breakthrough of scientific thought was prepared by the entire past of the biosphere and has evolutionary roots.
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General characteristics, horizontal and zone-zonal structure of the geographical envelope. The concept of zonality, the content of the corresponding periodic law, forms of manifestation. Heat distribution on Earth. Baric relief and wind system.
course work, added 11/12/2014
Endogenous and exogenous (space and solar energy) energy sources of geographical processes, their impact on the geographical envelope. The relationship between different energy flows. Cycles of matter and energy circulation. Forms of dynamics of the earth's crust.
presentation, added 12/01/2013
Basic prerequisites for the development of geographical science. Aristotle's method of scientific explanation of the world, which is based on the use of logic. Geography in the era of great geographical discoveries. The formation of modern geography, research methods.
abstract, added 02/15/2011
Achievements of Babylonian astronomy. The concept of a system of geographical coordinates (parallels and meridians). Historical ideas about longitude and latitude. Determination of local time, time zone. Finding the geographic longitude of a place from the equation of time.
test, added 10/20/2011
Geological history of the Earth. Basic patterns of cyclical changes in the geographical envelope. Types and classification of rhythmic movements. The influence of changes in lighting and weather conditions on the dynamics of biota. Alternation of ice ages and “warm” periods.
course work, added 03/17/2015
Characteristics of the concept of a natural complex. Analysis of the object of study of physical geography - the geographical shell of our planet as a complex material system. Features of the doctrine of the natural-territorial complex, geographical landscape.
abstract, added 05/31/2010
History of the development and establishment of geography as a science. Geographical ideas of the ancient world, antiquity and the Middle Ages. Development of geographical science in the era of great expeditions. History of Russian cartography, the contribution of scientists to the development of theoretical geography.
Introduction
Geography is a multidisciplinary science. This is due to the complexity and diversity of the main object of her research - the geographical shell of the Earth. Located on the border of interaction between intraterrestrial and external (including cosmic) processes, the geographic envelope includes the upper layers of the solid crust, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere and organic matter dispersed in them. Depending on the position of the Earth in the ecliptic orbit and due to the inclination of its axis of rotation, different parts of the earth's surface receive different amounts of solar heat, the further redistribution of which, in turn, is due to the uneven latitudinal ratio of land and sea.
The current state of the geographic shell should be considered as the result of its long evolution - starting with the emergence of the Earth and its establishment on the planetary path of development.
A correct understanding of the processes and phenomena of various spatiotemporal scales occurring in the geographic shell requires at least a multi-level consideration of them, starting with the global - planetary one. At the same time, the study of processes of a planetary nature until recently was considered the prerogative of the geological sciences. In general geographic synthesis, information at this level was practically not used, and if it was involved, it was rather passively and limitedly. However, the branch division of natural sciences is rather arbitrary and does not have clear boundaries. They have a common object of research - the Earth and its cosmic environment. The study of the various properties of this single object and the processes occurring in it required the development of various research methods, which largely predetermined their industrial division. In this regard, geographical science has more advantages over other branches of knowledge, because has the most developed infrastructure, allowing for a comprehensive study of the Earth and its surrounding space.
The arsenal of geography includes methods for studying the solid, liquid and gas components of the geographical shell, living and inert matter, the processes of their evolution and interaction.
On the other hand, one cannot fail to note the important fact that even 10-15 years ago, most of the research on the problems of the structure and evolution of the Earth and its external geospheres, including the geographical envelope, remained “waterless”. When and how water appeared on the surface of the Earth and what were the paths of its further evolution - all this remained beyond the attention of researchers.
At the same time, as it was shown (Orlyonok, 1980-1985), water is the most important result of the evolution of the Earth's proto-matter and the most important component of the geographical envelope. Its gradual accumulation on the Earth's surface, accompanied by volcanism and varying-amplitude downward movements of the upper crust, predetermined, starting from the Proterozoic, and possibly earlier, the course of evolution of the gas shell, relief, ratio of area and configuration of land and sea, and with them the conditions of sedimentation , climate and life. In other words, the free water produced by the planet and carried to the surface essentially determined the course and all the features of the evolution of the planet’s geographic envelope. Without it, the entire appearance of the Earth, its landscapes, climate, organic world would be completely different. The prototype of such an Earth is easily discernible on the arid and lifeless surface of Venus, partly the Moon and Mars
System of geographical science
Physical geography - Greek. physics - nature, geo - Earth, grapho - writing. The same thing, literally - a description of the nature of the Earth, or land description, geoscience.
The literal definition of the subject of physical geography is too general. Compare: “geology”, “geobotany”.
To give a more precise definition of the subject of physical geography, you need to:
show the spatial structure of science;
establish the relationship of this science with other sciences.
You know from your school geography course that geography deals with the study of the nature of the earth's surface and the material values that have been created on it by humanity. In other words, geography is a science that does not exist in the singular. This, of course, is physical geography and economic geography. One can imagine that this is a system of sciences.
The system paradigm (Greek: example, sample) came to geography from mathematics. System is a philosophical concept meaning a set of elements that interact. It is a dynamic, functional concept.
From a systemic perspective, geography is the science of geosystems. Geosystem(s), according to V.B. Sochava (1978), are terrestrial spaces of all dimensions, where individual components of nature are in a systemic connection with each other and how a certain integrity interacts with the cosmic sphere and human society.
Main properties of geosystems:
a) Integrity, unity;
b) Componentality, elementarity (element - Greek simplest, indivisible);
c) Hierarchical subordination, a certain order of construction and functioning;
d) Interrelation through functioning, exchange.
There are internal connections that consolidate the structure specific to a given science, and through it, its inherent composition (structure). Internal connections in nature are, first of all, the exchange of matter and energy. External connections - internal and mutual exchange of ideas, hypotheses, theories, methods through intermediate, transitional scientific units (for example, natural, social, technical sciences).
Like physics, chemistry, biology and other sciences, modern geography represents a complex system of scientific disciplines that have become isolated at different times (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. System of geographical science according to V.A. Anuchin
Economic and physical geography have their various objects and subjects of study, indicated in Fig. 2. But humanity and nature are not only different, but mutually influence and act on each other, forming the unity of the material world of nature on the earth’s surface (in Fig. 2 this interaction is indicated by arrows). People, forming a society, are part of nature and relate to it as a part of the whole.
Understanding society as a part of nature begins to determine the entire nature of production. Society, experiencing the influence of nature, also experiences the influence of the laws of nature. But the latter are refracted in society and become specific (the law of reproduction is the law of population). It is social laws that determine the development of society (solid line in Fig. 2).
Social development takes place in the nature of the earth's surface. The nature surrounding human society, experiencing its influence, forms the geographical environment. The geographical environment, thanks to technological progress, is continuously expanding and already includes near space.
A reasonable person should not forget about the existing systemic connection. N.N. said this very well. Baransky: “There should be neither “inhuman” physical geography, nor “unnatural” economic geography.”
In addition, a modern geographer must take into account the fact that the nature of the earth's surface has already been changed by human activity, therefore modern society must balance its impact on nature with the intensity of the natural process.
Modern geography is a triune science that unites nature, population, and economy.
Each of the sciences: physical, economic, social geography, in turn, represents a complex of sciences.
Complex of physical-geographical science
The physical-geographical complex is one of the main concepts of physical geography. It consists of parts, elements and components: air, water, lithogenic base (rocks and irregularities of the earth's surface), soil and living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms). Their totality forms a natural-territorial complex (NTC) of the earth's surface. PTC can be considered both the entire earth's surface, individual continents, oceans, and small areas: the slope of a ravine, a swamp hummock. PTC is a unity that exists in origin (past) and development (present, future).
The nature of the earth's surface can be studied in general and as a whole (physical geography), by components (special sciences - hydrology, climatology, soil science, geomorphology, etc.); can be studied by country and region (country studies, landscape studies), in the present, past and future tense (general geography, paleogeography and historical geography).
Animal geography (zoogeography) is the science of the patterns of distribution of animal species.
Biogeography is the geography of organic life.
Oceanology is the science of the World Ocean as part of the hydrosphere.
Landscape science is the science of the landscape environment, the thin, most active central layer of the geographical envelope, consisting of natural-territorial complexes of different ranks.
Cartography is a general geographic (at the system level) science about geographic maps, methods of their creation and use.
Paleogeography and historical geography - sciences about the nature of the earth's surface of past geological eras; about the discovery, formation and history of development of natural-social systems.
Regional geography is a physical-geographical study that studies the nature of individual countries and regions (physical geography of Russia, Asia, Africa, etc.).
Glaciology and geocryology (permafrost science) are the sciences about the conditions of origin, development and forms of terrestrial (glaciers, snowfields, snow avalanches, sea ice) and lithospheric (permafrost, underground glaciation) ice.
Geography (actually physical geography) studies the geographical envelope (the nature of the earth's surface) as an integral material system - the general patterns of its structure, origin, internal and external relationships, functioning to develop a system for modeling and managing ongoing processes.
General geographical (or synthetic) sciences - physical-geographical and economic-geographical at the same time.
Applied physical and geographical sciences (engineering geomorphology, synoptic meteorology, etc.) study practical problems associated with sectors of the national economy.
Modern geography studies the earth's spaces of all dimensions, their structure, movement, as well as their interaction in nature and society.
Development of basic ideas about the system and complex of geographical science
From the history of geography it is known that geographers did not immediately come to the ideas of geography in our modern understanding - to geography that studies PTC and TPK in some interconnected unity.
In the development of geography, several chronological eras are distinguished: the geography of the ancient world, the Middle Ages, the Great Geographical Discoveries, New and Contemporary times, but they are all grouped according to the goals and objectives of research into two large stages:
Until the middle - end of the 19th century,
The beginning of the 20th century to the present day.
In the first stage, geography was a comprehensive, ideological science. Land description is its main task. For centuries, its goal has been to collect information about the globe, its surroundings - space, about the peoples inhabiting the near and far corners of the Earth, their territories, occupations, beliefs.
The main questions of interest to geography:
What it is? Where is it? These are the questions of description. Any science begins with an answer to them.
By the middle of the 19th century. the collection of material about the earth's surface was basically completed. Only the areas of the extreme north and extreme south remained undiscovered.
By this time, a single science no longer existed; private sciences arose within it: botany (first in the form of plant taxonomy), geology (first in the form of mineral exploration); social and economic sciences stood out. These new sciences explored nature and society with greater completeness and depth than previous geography. Geography, having lost the subject of its study (single, indivisible nature), entered a period of crisis and lost its former glory. It has turned from avant-garde science into a backward one. It took decades for a revolution in knowledge to take place, and geography in the modern sense of the word (a systematic and complex science) emerged. The successes of any science are based on the works and achievements of scientists from the entire world community.
Among the predecessors of this scientific revolution in geography, Russian and German geographers should be mentioned first of all. Germany in the 19th century - an advanced industrial country with developed science and culture, the experience of which Russian scientists traditionally went to. Returning home to Russia to its rich and varied “soil,” they created a Russian geography that was original and unlike any other.
Vareny Bernhard (1622-1650). The main work is “General Geography” (1650). Born in Hamburg. He graduated from the Universities of Hamburg and Königsberg and subsequently lived in Holland. Modern geography begins counting time with it. According to Vareny, geography studies the amphibious circle formed by interpenetrating parts - earth, water, atmosphere. The amphibian circle is studied by general geography, and individual areas by special geography. This is the first experience of broad general geological generalization since ancient times, the first attempt to determine the subject and content of geography, based on new data about the Earth collected during the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries.
Humboldt Alexander (1769-1859). German naturalist, encyclopedist, geographer and traveler, who set himself the goal of creating a unified picture of the world. While exploring the nature of South America, he revealed the importance of analyzing relationships as a universal thread of all geographical science. He identified bioclimatic latitudinal zonality and altitudinal zonality, proposed the use of isotherms in climatic characteristics, and laid the foundations of comparative physical geography. In his main work - “Cosmos, the experience of physical description of the world” - he substantiated the view of the earth’s surface (the subject of geography) as a special shell of the interaction of air, sea, Earth - the unity of inorganic and organic nature. He owns the term “life sphere,” which is similar to the content of the biosphere, and in the concluding lines of the first part of “Cosmos...” he talks about the sphere of the mind, which much later received the name noosphere. Main works: “Pictures of Nature” (1808, Russian translation in 1959), “Central Asia” (1843, in three volumes, Russian translation: T. 1 - M., 1915), “Space, the experience of physical description of the world”, 5 vols. (1845-62).
Ritter Karl (1779-1859) worked at the same time as A. Humboldt. Main works: “Geography in relation to nature and human history, or General comparative geography”, “Ideas about comparative geography”. Professor at the University of Berlin, founder of the first geography department in Germany, which he headed from 1820 until the end of his life. A brilliant teacher who was listened to by the young Karl Marx, Elisée Reclus, P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky. The author of many works, one “Geography” covers 19 volumes, in which he contrasted spatial and historical development. His works contain many contradictory opinions, so some geographers admired his works, while others subjected them to devastating criticism. But his main judgment is clear: the Earth is the subject of geography, “the home of the human race.” In geography, Ritter is given the same place as Hegel in philosophy.
Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky Pyotr Petrovich (1827-1914) - an outstanding Russian geographer and explorer of Asia. From 1873 to 1914 headed the Russian Geographical Society. It was during this period that the famous expeditions of N.M. Przhevalsky, N.N. Miklouho-Maclay and other Russian geographers brought worldwide fame to Russian geography. Main works: “Travel to Tien Shan in 1856-57.” (first published in 1946; new edition - M., 1958), “Preface to the book “Geography of Asia”. Under his leadership, the “Geographical-Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire”, 5 volumes, St. Petersburg, 1865-1885, was written and published; "Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland,” 1911, 1899-1914. He understood geography as “a whole natural group of sciences,” including hydrology, climatology, meteorology, orography, cartography, biogeography, geognosy (geomorphology), as well as a number of social disciplines: anthropology, historical geography, demography, statistics, political geography. Combining theoretical and practical issues of development of the natural environment, he created an original geographical school.
Richthofen Ferdinand (1833-1905). Prominent German geographer, traveler. At various times he was a professor at the Universities of Bonn, Leipzig and Berlin. One of the creators of geomorphology. He believed that geography is intended to reveal the process of interaction of diverse phenomena with the relief of the earth's surface. He attached decisive importance in identifying the essence of geographical knowledge to the study of human interaction with the entire totality of natural phenomena within the earth's surface, and he represented geography as a science bordering the natural and social sciences. Main works: “Tasks and methods of modern geography” (1883); "China. Results of my own travels,” 5 volumes with atlas (1877-1911); “Geomorphological Studies of East Asia”, 4 volumes (1903-11).
Dokuchaev Vasily Vasilievich (1846-1903). Natural scientist, professor at St. Petersburg University, founder of Russia's first department of soil science (1895) and the study of natural zones. V.V. Dokuchaev is an exceptional phenomenon on the scale of our country and in world science. He and his students created a strong and fruitful scientific school, which enriched many sciences: geology, mineralogy, soil science, botany; The teaching about forests appeared at school. Among the sciences that experienced the strongest influence of Vasily Vasilyevich is geography. Dokuchaev’s students included mineralogist and geochemist V.I. Vernadsky, geologist and petrographer F.Yu. Levinson, Lessing, soil scientists N.M. Sibirtsev and K.D. Glinka, botanists and geographers A.N. Krasnov, G.I. Tanfilyev, G.N. Vysotsky, hydrogeologist P.V. Ototsky, founder of the forest doctrine G.F. Morozov. Among the Dokuchaevites of the second generation are soil scientists and geographers L.I. Prasolov, B.B. Polanov, S.S. Neustroev, Yu.A. Liverovsky, botanists and geographers V.N. Sukachev (student of G.F. Morozov), geochemists A.E. Fersman and A.P. Vinogradov (students of V.I. Vernadsky). The third generation of Dokuchaevites includes soil scientists and geographers In.P. Gerasimov, M.A. Glazovskaya, A.I. Perelman and others. Student A.N. Krasnova was G.G. Grigor, for a long time the head of the Department of Geography at Tomsk University. Students and associates of G.G. Grigora are professors L.N. Ivanovsky, A.A. Zemtsov, A.M. Maloletko, P.A. Okishev. The geographical ideas of the Dokuchaev school are preserved and developed to this day. Main works: “Russian Chernozem” (1883), “Our steppes before and now” (1892), “To the doctrine of natural zones” (1886).
Geography studies the origin and development of the earth's surface on the basis of comprehensive research and examines natural processes in space and time. This is a combination of theory and practice of science.
At the first stage of the development of science, geographers were engaged in collecting factual material: describing what was located and where. But by the end of the 19th century, when the collection of material was completed, they moved on to the analysis and synthesis of what they had collected, to the study of the internal laws of natural and social development. Now the main questions of geography are why? - explanation, identification of the reasons for the existence and development of natural and socio-economic complexes, as well as questions: therefore? When? - foresight, prediction, forecast of identified patterns of development. This is the most difficult thing that can happen in science. And finally, the last question: what is this for? - To design natural, social and economic processes in order to manage them.
Modern geography is no longer a descriptive science. It is constructive - engineering and transformational, according to In.P. Gerasimov, and forecasting, engaged in fundamental developments of problems of modern interaction between nature and society - the noosphere.
1. Is it possible to observe the Sun in the north in the Northern Hemisphere north of the Tropic of the North?
At the existing angle of inclination of the earth's axis (66 degrees 30′), the Earth is facing the Sun with its equatorial regions. For those living in the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun is visible from the South, and in the Southern Hemisphere, from the North. But to be more precise, the Sun is at its zenith throughout the entire zone between the tropics, so the solar disk is visible from the side where the Sun is currently at its zenith. If the Sun is at its zenith over the Northern Tropic, then it shines from the North for everyone to the south, including residents of the Northern Hemisphere between the equator and the tropic. In Russia, beyond the Arctic Circle, during the polar day the Sun does not set below the horizon, making a full circle in the sky. Therefore, passing through the northernmost point, the Sun is at its lowest culmination, this moment corresponds to midnight. It is beyond the Arctic Circle that you can observe the Sun in the North from the territory of Russia at night.
2. If the earth’s axis had an inclination of 45 degrees to the plane of the earth’s orbit, would the position of the tropics and polar circles change, and how?
Let's mentally imagine that we will give the earth's axis a tilt of half a right angle. At the time of the equinoxes (March 21 and September 23), the cycle of days and nights on Earth will be the same as now. But in June the Sun will be at its zenith at the 45th parallel (and not at 23½°): this latitude would play the role of the tropics.
At a latitude of 60°, the Sun would miss the zenith by only 15°; The height of the sun is truly tropical. The hot zone would be directly adjacent to the cold one, and the temperate zone would not exist at all. In Moscow, Kharkov and other cities, a continuous, sunsetless day would reign throughout June. In winter, on the contrary, the continuous polar night would last for entire decades in Moscow, Kyiv, Kharkov, Poltava...
At this time, the hot zone would turn into a moderate one, because the Sun would rise there at noon no higher than 45°.
The tropical zone would lose a lot from this change, as well as the temperate one. The polar region would gain something this time too: here, after a very severe (severe than now) winter, a moderately warm summer period would begin, when even at the pole itself the Sun would stand at noon at an altitude of 45° and would shine longer six months. The eternal ice of the Arctic would gradually disappear.
3. What type of solar radiation and why prevails over eastern Siberia in winter, over the Baltic states in summer?
Eastern Siberia. In the territory under consideration, all components of the radiation balance are mainly subject to latitudinal distribution.
Territory of Eastern Siberia, lying south of the Arctic Circle, is located in two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate. In this region, the influence of relief on the climate is great, which leads to the identification of seven regions: Tunguska, Central Yakut, North-Eastern Siberia, Altai-Sayan, Angara, Baikal, Transbaikal.
Annual amounts of solar radiation at 200–400 MJ/cm 2 more than at the same latitudes of European Russia. They vary from 3100–3300 MJ/cm 2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle up to 4600–4800 MJ/cm 2 in the southeast of Transbaikalia. Over Eastern Siberia the atmosphere is cleaner than over European territory. The transparency of the atmosphere decreases from north to south. In winter, greater transparency of the atmosphere is determined by low moisture content, especially in the southern regions of Eastern Siberia. South of 56°N. direct solar radiation predominates over diffuse radiation. In the south of Transbaikalia and in the Minusinsk Basin, direct radiation accounts for 55–60% of the total radiation. Due to the long-term occurrence of snow cover (6–8 months) up to 1250 MJ/cm 2 per year is spent on reflected radiation. The radiation balance increases from north to south from 900–950 mJ/cm 2 at the latitude of the Arctic Circle up to 1450–1550 MJ/cm 2 .
There are two areas characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.
The annual arrival of received solar radiation on a horizontal surface under clear skies (that is, the possible arrival) is 4200 MJ/m 2 in the north of the Irkutsk region and increases to 5150 MJ/m 2 to the south. On the shores of Baikal, the annual amount increases to 5280 MJ/m 2 , and in the highlands of the Eastern Sayan reaches 5620 MJ/m 2 .
The annual amounts of scattered radiation under cloudless skies are 800-1100 MJ/m 2 .
An increase in cloudiness in certain months of the year reduces the flow of direct solar radiation by an average of 60% of the possible amount and at the same time increases the share of scattered radiation by 2 times. As a result, the annual income of total radiation fluctuates between 3240-4800 MJ/m 2 with a general increase from north to south. In this case, the contribution of scattered radiation ranges from 47% in the south of the region to 65% in the north. In winter, the contribution of direct radiation is insignificant, especially in the northern regions.
In the annual course, the maximum monthly amounts of total and direct radiation on the horizontal surface in most of the territory occurs in June (total 600 - 640 MJ/m 2 , straight 320-400 MJ/m 2 ), in the northern regions - shifts to July.
The minimum arrival of total radiation is observed everywhere in December - from 31 MJ/m 2 in highland Ilchir up to 1.2 MJ/m 2 in Erbogachen. Direct radiation to a horizontal surface decreases from 44 MJ/m 2 in Ilchir to 0 in Erbogachen.
Let us present the values of monthly amounts of direct radiation on a horizontal surface for some points in the Irkutsk region.
Monthly amounts of direct radiation on a horizontal surface (MJ/m 2 )
Items
The annual course of direct and total radiation is characterized by a sharp increase in monthly amounts from February to March, which is explained both by an increase in the height of the sun and by the transparency of the atmosphere in March and a decrease in cloudiness.
The daily course of solar radiation is determined primarily by the decrease in the height of the sun during the day. Therefore, the maximum solar radiation is observed volumetrically at noon. But along with this, the daily course of radiation is influenced by the transparency of the atmosphere, which is noticeably manifested in clear sky conditions. Two areas stand out in particular, characterized by an increase in direct and total radiation as a result of increased transparency of the atmosphere - Lake. Baikal and the highlands of the Eastern Sayan.
In summer, the atmosphere is usually more transparent in the first half of the day than in the second, so the change in radiation during the day is asymmetrical relative to midday. As for cloudiness, it is precisely this that is the reason for the underestimation of irradiation of the eastern walls compared to the western ones in the city of Irkutsk. For the southern wall, sunshine is about 60% of what is possible in summer and only 21-34% in winter.
In some years, depending on cloudiness, the ratio of direct and diffuse radiation and the total arrival of total radiation may differ significantly from the average values. The difference between the maximum and minimum monthly arrival of total and direct radiation can reach 167.6-209.5 MJ/m in the summer months 2 . Differences in scattered radiation are 41.9-83.8 MJ/m 2 . Even greater changes are observed in daily amounts of radiation. The average maximum daily amounts of direct radiation may differ from the average by 2-3 times.
The arrival of radiation to differently oriented vertical surfaces depends on the height of the sun above the horizon, the albedo of the underlying surface, the nature of the building, the number of clear and cloudy days, and the course of cloud cover during the day.
Baltics. Cloudiness reduces, on average, the annual total solar radiation by 21%, and direct solar radiation by 60%. Number of hours of sunshine - 1628 per year.
The annual arrival of total solar radiation is 3400 MJ/m2. In autumn-winter, diffuse radiation predominates (70-80% of the total flow). In summer, the share of direct solar radiation increases, reaching approximately half of the total radiation input. The radiation balance is about 1400 MJ/m2 per year. From November to February it is negative, but the heat loss is largely compensated by the advection of warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean.
4. Explain why in the deserts of the temperate and tropical zones the temperature drops significantly at night?
Indeed, in deserts there are large daily temperature fluctuations. During the day, in the absence of clouds, the surface becomes very hot, but cools quickly after sunset. Here the main role is played by the underlying surface, that is, sands, which are characterized by their own microclimate. Their thermal regime depends on color, humidity, structure, etc.
A peculiarity of sands is that the temperature in the upper layer decreases very quickly with depth. The top layer of sand is usually dry. The dryness of this layer does not require heat to evaporate water from its surface, and the solar energy absorbed by the sand goes mainly to heating it. Under such conditions, the sand warms up very much during the day. This is also facilitated by its low thermal conductivity, which prevents heat from leaving the upper layer into deeper layers. At night, the top layer of sand cools significantly. Such fluctuations in sand temperature are reflected in the temperature of the surface layer of air.
Due to rotation, it turns out that not 2 air flows circulate on the earth, but six. And in those places where the air sinks to the ground, it is cold, but gradually warms up and acquires the ability to absorb steam and, as it were, “drinks” moisture from the surface. The planet is surrounded by two belts of arid climate - this is the place where deserts originate.
It's hot in the desert because it's dry. Low humidity affects temperature. There is no moisture in the air, therefore, the sun's rays, without stopping, reach the soil surface and heat it. The surface of the soil heats up very much, but there is no heat transfer - there is no water to evaporate. That's why it's so hot. And heat spreads into the depths very slowly - due to the absence of the same heat-conducting water.
It's cold in the desert at night. Due to dry air. There is no water in the soil, and there are no clouds above the ground - which means there is nothing to retain heat.
Tasks
1. Determine the height of the level of condensation and sublimation of air not saturated with steam rising adiabatically from the Earth’s surface, if its temperature is knownt= 30º and water vapor pressure e = 21.2 hPa.
Water vapor elasticity is the main characteristic of air humidity, determined by a psychrometer: the partial pressure of water vapor contained in the air; measured in Pa or mmHg. Art.
In rising air, the temperature changes due toadiabaticprocess, i.e. without exchanging heat with the environment, due to the conversion of internal gas energy into work and work into internal energy. Since the internal energy is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas, a change in temperature occurs. The rising air expands, produces work, which expends internal energy, and its temperature decreases. The descending air, on the contrary, is compressed, the energy spent on expansion is released, and the air temperature rises.
Air that is dry or contains water vapor but not saturated with it, when rising, cools adiabatically by 1° for every 100 m. Air saturated with water vapor, when rising by 100 m, cools by less than 1°, since condensation occurs in it, accompanied by the release heat, partially compensating for the heat spent on expansion.
The amount of cooling of saturated air when it rises 100 m depends on the air temperature and atmospheric pressure and varies within significant limits. Unsaturated air, descending, heats up by 1° per 100 m, saturated air by a smaller amount, since evaporation occurs in it, which consumes heat. Rising saturated air usually loses moisture through precipitation and becomes unsaturated. When descending, such air heats up by 1° per 100 m.
Since the air is heated mainly from the active surface, the temperature in the lower layer of the atmosphere, as a rule, decreases with height. The vertical gradient for the troposphere averages 0.6° per 100 m. It is considered positive if the temperature decreases with height, and negative if it increases. In the lower, surface layer of air (1.5-2 m), vertical gradients can be very large.
Condensation and sublimation.In air saturated with water vapor, when its temperature decreases to the dew point or the amount of water vapor in it increases, condensation - water changes from a vapor state to a liquid state. At temperatures below 0°C, water can, bypassing the liquid state, turn into a solid. This process is called sublimation. Both condensation and sublimation can occur in the air on condensation nuclei, on the earth's surface and on the surface of various objects. When the temperature of the air cooling from the underlying surface reaches the dew point, dew, frost, liquid and solid deposits, and frost settle from it onto the cold surface.
To find the height of the condensation level, it is necessary to determine the dew point T of the rising air using psychrometric tables, calculate by how many degrees the air temperature must drop in order for the condensation of the water vapor contained in it to begin, i.e. determine the difference. Dew point = 4.2460
Determine the difference between air temperature and dew point (t– T) = (30 – 4.2460) = 25.754
Let's multiply this value by 100m and find the height of the condensation level = 2575.4m
To determine the level of sublimation, you need to find the temperature difference from the dew point to the sublimation temperature and multiply this difference by 200m.
Sublimation occurs at a temperature of -10°. Difference = 14.24°.
The height of the sublimation level is 5415m.
2. Reduce the pressure to sea level at an air temperature of 8º C, if: at an altitude of 150 m the pressure is 990.8 hPa
zenith radiation condensation pressure
At sea level, the average atmospheric pressure is 1013 hPa. (760mm.) Naturally, atmospheric pressure will decrease with altitude. The height to which one must rise (or fall) for the pressure to change by 1 hPa is called the barometric (barometric) step. It increases with warm air and increasing altitude above sea level. At the earth's surface at a temperature of 0ºC and a pressure of 1000 hPa, the pressure level is 8 m/hPa, and at an altitude of 5 km, where the pressure is about 500 hPa, at the same zero temperature it increases to 16 m/hPa.
“Normal” atmospheric pressure is the pressure equal to the weight of a 760 mm high column of mercury at 0°C, 45° latitude, and sea level. In the GHS system 760 mmHg. Art. equivalent to 1013.25 MB. The basic unit of pressure in the SI system is the pascal [Pa]; 1 Pa = 1 N/m 2 . In the SI system, a pressure of 1013.25 mb is equivalent to 101325 Pa or 1013.25 hPa. Atmospheric pressure is a very variable weather element. From its definition it follows that it depends on the height of the corresponding column of air, its density, and the acceleration of gravity, which varies with the latitude of the place and altitude above sea level.
1 hPa = 0.75 mm Hg. Art. or 1 mm Hg. Art. = 1.333 hPa.
An increase in altitude by 10 meters leads to a decrease in pressure by 1 mmHg. We bring the pressure to sea level, it = 1010.55 hPa (758.1 mm Hg), if at an altitude of 150 m, the pressure = 990.8 hPa (743.1 mm)
The temperature is 8ºC at an altitude of 150 meters, then at sea level = 9.2º.
Literature
1. Geography tasks: a manual for teachers / Ed. Naumova. - M.: MIROS, 1993
2. Vukolov N.G. "Agricultural meteorology", M., 2007.
3. Neklyukova N.P. General geography. M.: 1976
4. Pashkang K.V. Workshop on general geoscience. M.: Higher School.. 1982