Genetic program of the species Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens

MAN IS REASONABLE(Homo sapiens) is a modern type of man.

The course of evolution from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens, i.e. to the modern human stage is as difficult to document satisfactorily as the original branching stage of the hominid lineage. However, in this case, the matter is complicated by the presence of several contenders for such an intermediate position.

According to a number of anthropologists, the step that led directly to Homo sapiens was the Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). Neanderthals appeared no later than 150 thousand years ago, and different types flourished until the period of c. 40–35 thousand years ago, marked by the undoubted presence of well-formed H. sapiens (Homo sapiens sapiens). This era corresponded to the onset of the Wurm glaciation in Europe, i.e. ice age closest to modern times. Other scientists do not connect the origin of modern humans with Neanderthals, pointing out, in particular, that the morphological structure of the latter’s face and skull was too primitive to have time to evolve to the forms of Homo sapiens.

Neanderthaloids are usually imagined as stocky, hairy, beast-like people with bent legs, with a protruding head on a short neck, giving the impression that they had not yet fully achieved upright walking. Paintings and reconstructions in clay usually emphasize their hairiness and unjustified primitiveness. This image of the Neanderthal is a big distortion. First, we don't know whether Neanderthals were hairy or not. Secondly, they were all completely upright. As for evidence of an inclined position of the body, it was probably obtained from the study of individuals suffering from arthritis.

One of the most surprising features of the entire Neanderthal series of finds is that the least modern of them were the most recent in appearance. This is the so-called the classic Neanderthal type, the skull of which is characterized by a low forehead, a heavy brow, a receding chin, a protruding mouth area, and a long, low cranium. However, their brain volume was larger than that of modern humans. They certainly had a culture: there is evidence of funerary cults and possibly animal cults, since animal bones are found along with the fossil remains of classical Neanderthals.

At one time it was believed that classical Neanderthals lived only in southern and western Europe, and their origin was associated with the advance of the glacier, which placed them in conditions of genetic isolation and climatic selection. However, apparently similar forms were later found in some regions of Africa and the Middle East and possibly in Indonesia. Such a widespread distribution of the classical Neanderthal makes it necessary to abandon this theory.

At the moment, there is no material evidence of any gradual morphological transformation of the classical Neanderthal type into the modern type of man, with the exception of finds made in the Skhul cave in Israel. The skulls discovered in this cave differ significantly from each other, some of them having characteristics that place them in an intermediate position between the two human types. According to some experts, this is evidence of the evolutionary change from Neanderthals to modern humans, while others believe that this phenomenon is the result of mixed marriages between representatives of the two types of people, thereby believing that Homo sapiens evolved independently. This explanation is supported by evidence that as early as 200–300 thousand years ago, i.e. Before the appearance of the classical Neanderthal, there was a type of person most likely related to early Homo sapiens, and not to the “progressive” Neanderthal. We are talking about well-known finds - fragments of a skull found in Swan (England), and a more complete skull from Steinheim (Germany).

The controversy regarding the “Neanderthal stage” in human evolution is partly due to the fact that two circumstances are not always taken into account. First, it is possible for the more primitive types of any evolving organism to exist in a relatively unchanged form at the same time that other branches of the same species undergo various evolutionary modifications. Secondly, migrations associated with shifts in climatic zones are possible. Such shifts were repeated in the Pleistocene as glaciers advanced and retreated, and humans could follow shifts in the climate zone. Thus, when considering long periods of time, it must be taken into account that the populations occupying a given habitat at a given time are not necessarily the descendants of populations that lived there at an earlier period. It is possible that early Homo sapiens could migrate from the regions where they appeared, and then return to their original places after many thousands of years, having undergone evolutionary changes. When fully formed Homo sapiens appeared in Europe 35-40 thousand years ago, during the warmer period of the last glaciation, it undoubtedly displaced the classical Neanderthal, which occupied the same region for 100 thousand years. Now it is impossible to accurately determine whether the Neanderthal population moved north, following the retreat of its usual climatic zone, or mixed with Homo sapiens invading its territory.

Progress in medicine, biotechnology, and pharmaceuticals is usually expected from success in the development of genetics. But in recent years, genetics has been actively manifesting itself in anthropology, a seemingly distant field, helping to shed light on human origins.

This is what Australopithecus, one of the possible ancestors of humans, who lived about three million years ago, could have looked like. Drawing by Z. Burian.

According to the displacement model, all modern people - Europeans, Asians, Americans - are descendants of a relatively small group that emerged from Africa approximately 100 thousand years ago and displaced representatives of all previous waves of settlement.

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA can be determined using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which allows the hereditary material to be copied and multiplied many times over.

Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Western Asia from 300 thousand to 28 thousand years ago.

Comparison of Neanderthal and modern human skeletons.

Neanderthals were well adapted to survive in the harsh climate of Europe during the Ice Age. Drawing by Z. Burian.

As genetic studies show, the settlement of anatomically modern humans began from Africa approximately 100 thousand years ago. The map shows the main migration routes.

An ancient painter finishes painting on the walls of the Lascaux cave (France). Artist Z. Burian.

Various members of the hominid family (probable ancestors and close relatives of modern humans). Most of the connections between the branches of the evolutionary tree are still in question.

Australopithecus afarensis (southern Afar monkey).

Kenyanthrope pay.

Australopithecus africanus (southern African monkey).

Paranthropus robustus (South African form of massive hominid).

Homo habilis (handy man).

Homo ergaster.

Homo erectus (homo erectus).

Upright walking - PROS AND CONS

I remember my surprise when, on the pages of my favorite magazine, in an article by B. Mednikov, I first encountered a downright “heretical” thought not about the advantages, but about the disadvantages of upright walking for the entire biology and physiology of modern man (“Science and Life” No. 11, 1974). Such an opinion was unusual and contradicted all the “paradigms” learned at school and university, but it sounded extremely convincing.

Upright walking is usually considered a sign of anthropogenesis, but birds were the first to stand on their hind limbs (among modern ones - penguins). It is known that Plato called man “two-legged without feathers.” Aristotle, refuting this statement, demonstrated a plucked rooster. Nature “tried” to raise its other creations on their hind legs, an example of this is the upright kangaroo.

In humans, upright walking caused a narrowing of the pelvis, otherwise lever loads would lead to a fracture of the femoral neck. And as a result, it turned out that a woman’s pelvic circumference is on average 14-17 percent smaller than the head circumference of the fetus growing in her womb. The solution to the problem was half-hearted and to the detriment of both sides. A child is born with an unformed skull - everyone knows about two fontanelles in babies - and also prematurely, after which he cannot stand on his feet for a whole year. During pregnancy, the expectant mother turns off the expression of the gene for the female sex hormone estrogen. It should be remembered that one of the main functions of sex hormones is to strengthen bones. Turning off estrogen synthesis leads to osteoporosis (decreased bone density) in pregnant women, which can cause a hip fracture in old age. Premature birth is forced to prolong the period of breastfeeding. This requires large mammary glands, which often results in the development of cancer.

Let us note in parentheses that just as “favorable” a sign as upright walking is loss of hair. Our skin becomes bare as a result of the appearance of a special gene that suppresses the development of hair follicles. But bare skin is more susceptible to cancer, which is also aggravated by a decrease in the synthesis of the black pigment melanin during migration to the north, to Europe.

And there are many such examples from human biology. Take heart diseases, for example: isn’t their occurrence due to the fact that the heart has to pump almost half of the blood volume vertically upward?

True, all these evolutionary “advantages” with a “minus” sign are justified by the release of the upper limbs, which begin to lose mass; at the same time, the fingers acquire the ability to make smaller and more subtle movements, which affects the development of the motor areas of the cerebral cortex. And yet we must admit that upright walking was a necessary, but not decisive stage in the development of modern man.

"WE WOULD LIKE TO OFFER..."

Thus began a letter from the then unknown F. Crick and J. Watson to the editor of the journal Nature, published in April 1953. We were talking about the double-stranded structure of DNA. Everyone knows about it now, but at that time there would have hardly been a dozen people in the world who were seriously working on this biopolymer. However, few people remember that Watson and Crick opposed the authority of Nobel laureate L. Pauling, who had recently published an article on triple-stranded DNA.

Now we know that Pauling simply had a contaminated DNA sample, but that’s not the point. For Pauling, DNA was simply a “scaffold” to which protein genes were attached. Watson and Crick believed that double-strandedness could also explain the genetic properties of DNA. Few people immediately believed them; it was not for nothing that they were given the Nobel Prize only after they awarded the biochemists who isolated the enzyme for DNA synthesis and were able to establish this same synthesis in a test tube.

And now, almost half a century later, in February 2001, a decoding of the human genome was published in the journals Nature and Science. It is unlikely that the “patriarchs” of genetics could hope to live to see their universal triumph!

This is the situation that arises with a quick glance at the genome. The high degree of “homogeneity” of our genes is noteworthy when compared with the genes of chimpanzees. Although genome sequencers say that “we are all a little African,” referring to the African roots of our genome, the genetic variability of chimpanzees is four times higher: 0.1 percent on average in humans and 0.4 percent in apes.

At the same time, the greatest difference in genetic pools is observed among Africans. Representatives of all other races and peoples have much lower genome variability than on the Dark Continent. We can also say that the African genome is the most ancient. It is not for nothing that molecular biologists have been saying for fifteen years that Adam and Eve once lived in Africa.

KENYA AUTHORIZED TO DECLARE

For many reasons, anthropology does not often please us with epoch-making finds in the savannah scorched by the merciless African sun. American researcher Don Johanson became famous in 1974 for the discovery of the famous Lucy in Ethiopia. The age of Lucy, named after the heroine of one of the Beatles' songs, is determined to be 3.5 million years. It was an Australopithecus (Australopithecus afarensis). For a quarter of a century, Johanson assured everyone that it was from Lucy that the human race originated.

However, not everyone agreed with this. In March 2001, a press conference was held in Washington, at which an anthropologist from Kenya, Meave Leakey, spoke, by the way, a representative of a whole family of famous anthropologists. This event was timed to coincide with the publication of the journal Nature with an article by Leakey and her colleagues about the discovery of Kenyanthropus platyops, or Kenyan flat-faced man, approximately the same age as Lucy. The Kenyan find was so different from others that researchers awarded it the rank of a new human species.

Kenyanthropus has a flatter face than Lucy and, most importantly, smaller teeth. This suggests that, unlike Lucy, who ate grass, rhizomes and even branches, Platyops ate softer fruits and berries, as well as insects.

The discovery of Kenyanthropus is consistent with the findings of French and Kenyan scientists, which they reported in early December 2000. A left femur and a massive right shoulder were found in the Tugen Hills of Kenya, about 250 km northeast of Nairobi. The structure of the bones shows that the creature both walked on the ground and climbed trees. But the most important thing is a fragment of the jaw and preserved teeth: small canines and molars, which indicates a rather “gentle” diet of fruits and soft vegetables. The age of this ancient man, who was called "orrorin", is estimated at 6 million years.

Meav Leakey, speaking at a press conference, said that now instead of one candidate for future people, namely Lucy, scientists have at least two. Johanson also agreed that there were more than one African species from which humans could have descended.

However, among anthropologists, in addition to supporters of the emergence of man in Africa, there are also multiregionalists, or polycentrists, who believe that the second center of the origin and evolution of man and his ancestors was Asia. As evidence of their correctness, they cite the remains of Peking and Javanese man, with which, in general, scientific anthropology started at the beginning of the last century. True, the dating of those remains is very blurry (the skull of a Javanese girl is estimated at 300-800 thousand years old), and besides, all Asian representatives of the human race belong to an earlier stage of development than Homo sapiens, called Homo erectus (upright man) . In Europe, the representative of Erectus was Neanderthal.

But anthropology in the age of the genome does not live only on bones and skulls, and molecular biology was destined to resolve the disputes.

ADAM AND EVE IN THE DNA FILES

The molecular approach was first discussed in the middle of the last century. It was then that scientists drew attention to the uneven distribution of carriers of different blood groups. It has been suggested that blood type B, especially common in Asia, protects its carriers from such terrible diseases as plague and cholera.

In the 1960s, an attempt was made to estimate the age of humans as a species using serum proteins (albumin), comparing them with those of chimpanzees. No one knew the evolutionary age of the chimpanzee branch, the rate of molecular changes at the level of amino acid sequences of proteins, and much more. Nevertheless, the purely phenotypic result amazed the minds of that time: humans have been evolving as a species for at least 5 million years! At least it was then that the branches of ape ancestors and ape-like ancestors of humans split.

Scientists did not believe such estimates, although they already had skulls two million years old. The protein data were dismissed as a curious “artifact”.

And yet, molecular biology had the final say. First, the age of Eve, who lived in Africa 160-200 thousand years ago, was determined using mitochondrial DNA, then the same framework was obtained for Adam using the male sex chromosome Y. Adam’s age was, however, somewhat less, but still in the range of 100 thousand years.

Explaining modern methods of accessing evolutionary DNA files requires a separate article, so let the reader take the author's word for it. We can only explain that the DNA of mitochondria (the organelles in which the main energy “currency” of the cell, ATP, is produced) is transmitted only through the maternal line, and the Y chromosome, naturally, through the paternal line.

Over the decade and a half that ended the twentieth century, the sophistication and resolution of molecular analysis increased immeasurably. And new data obtained by scientists allow us to talk in detail about the last steps of anthropogenesis. In December 2000, an article was published in Nature that compared the complete mitochondrial DNA (16.5 thousand letters of the gene code) of 53 volunteers from 14 major language groups of the world. Analysis of DNA protocols made it possible to identify four main branches of the settlement of our ancestors. Moreover, three of them - the “oldest” - are rooted in Africa, and the last one includes both Africans and “displaced people” from the Dark Continent. The authors of the article dated the “exodus” from Africa to only 52 thousand years (plus or minus 28 thousand). The very emergence of modern man dates back 130 thousand years, which approximately coincides with the originally determined age of molecular Eve.

Almost the same results were obtained when comparing DNA sequences from the Y chromosome, published in Nature Genetics in 2001. At the same time, 167 special markers were identified that correspond to the geography of residence of 1062 people and reflect waves of migration around the world. In particular, the Japanese, due to geographic and historical isolation, are characterized by a special group of markers that no one else has.

The analysis showed that the most ancient branch of the family tree is the Ethiopian one, where Lucy was found. The authors date the exodus from Africa to 35-89 thousand years. After the inhabitants of Ethiopia, the most ancient are the inhabitants of Sardinia and Europe with its Basques. By the way, as another work shows, it was the Basques who settled southwestern Ireland - the frequency of a particular DNA “signature” reaches 98 and 89 percent, respectively, on the west coast of Ireland and in the Basque Country!

Then there was settlement along the Asian coast of the Indian and Pacific oceans. At the same time, American Indians turned out to be “older” than Indians, and the youngest were South Africans and residents of Japan and Taiwan.

Another message came at the end of April 2001 from Harvard (USA), where the Whitehead Institute, which, by the way, conducts the main work on the Y chromosome (it was there that the male gene SRY - “sex region Y” was discovered) , compared 300 chromosomes from Swedes, Central Europeans and Nigeria. The results are very clear: modern Europeans descended about 25 thousand years ago from a small group of only a few hundred people who came out of Africa.

By the way, the Chinese also turned out to come from the Dark Continent. The journal Science in May 2001 published data from a study by Chinese scientist Li Ying, a professor of population genetics at Shanghai University. Blood samples for the study of male sex Y chromosome markers were collected from 12,127 men from 163 populations in East Asia: Iran, China, New Guinea and Siberia. Analysis of samples, which Li Yin conducted together with Peter Underhill from Stanford University (USA), showed that the ancestors of modern East Asians lived about 100 thousand years ago in Africa.

Alan Templeton from Washington University in St. Louis (USA) compared the DNA of people from ten genetic regions of the world, and he used for analysis not only mitochondria and Y chromosomes, but also X chromosomes and six other chromosomes. Based on these data, in his article in the journal Nature in March 2002, he concludes that there have been at least three waves of migration from Africa in human history. The emergence of Homo erectus 1.7 million years ago was followed by another wave, 400-800 thousand years ago. And only then, about 100 thousand years ago, did the exodus of anatomically modern humans from Africa occur. There was also a relatively recent (several tens of thousands of years ago) return movement from Asia to Africa, as well as genetic interpenetration of different groups.

New methods for studying DNA evolution are still young and quite expensive: reading one letter of the gene code costs almost a dollar. That is why the genome of several tens or hundreds of people is analyzed, and not several millions, which would be highly desirable from a statistical point of view.

But nevertheless, everything is gradually falling into place. Genetics does not support supporters of multiregional human origins. Apparently, our species originated recently, and those remains that were found in Asia are just traces of previous waves of settlement from Africa.

Eric Lander, director of the Whitehead Institute, said on this occasion, speaking in Edinburgh (UK) at the HUGO (Human Genome Organization) conference: “The Earth's population is now 6 billion people, but gene variability shows that they all came from "several tens of thousands, and very closely related ones. Man was a small species that became numerous literally in the blink of an historical eye."

WHY "EXODUS"?

Speaking about the results of reading the human genome and a preliminary comparison of the genomes of representatives of different nations, the researchers stated as an indisputable fact that “we all come from Africa.” They were also struck by the “emptiness” of the genome, 95 percent of which does not contain “useful” information about the structure of proteins. Throw away some percentage of regulatory sequences, and 90 percent will still remain “meaningless.” Why do you need a telephone book with a volume of 1000 pages, 900 of which are filled with meaningless combinations of letters, all sorts of “aaaaaaaa” and “bbbbbw”?

A separate article can be written about the structure of the human genome, but now we are interested in one very important fact related to retroviruses. Our genome contains many fragments of the genomes of once formidable retroviruses that have been “pacified.” Let us recall that retroviruses - these include, for example, the immunodeficiency virus - carry RNA instead of DNA. They make a DNA copy on an RNA template, which is then integrated into the genome of our cells.

One might think that viruses of this kind are very necessary for us as mammals, since they allow us to suppress the reaction of rejection of the fetus, which is genetically half foreign material (half of the genes in the fetus are paternal). Experimental blocking of one of the retroviruses living in the cells of the placenta, which is formed from fetal cells, leads to the death of developing mice as a result of the fact that maternal immune T-lymphocytes are not “deactivated”. Our genome even contains special sequences of 14 letters of the gene code necessary for integrating the retroviral genome.

But, judging by our genome and its size, it takes a lot of (evolutionary) time to pacify retroviruses. That is why ancient man fled from Africa, fleeing from these same retroviruses - HIV, cancer, as well as such as the Ebola virus, smallpox, etc. Add here polio, from which chimpanzees also suffer, malaria, which affects the brain, sleeping sickness, worms and much more that tropical countries are famous for.

So, some 100 thousand years ago, a group of very intelligent and aggressive human individuals escaped from Africa and began their triumphal march around the world. How did interaction occur with representatives of previous waves of settlement, for example with Neanderthals in Europe? The same DNA proves that genetic interbreeding most likely did not take place.

The March 2000 issue of Nature published an article by Igor Ovchinnikov, Vitaly Kharitonov and Galina Romanova, who, together with their English colleagues, analyzed mitochondrial DNA isolated from the bones of a two-year-old Neanderthal child found in the Mezmaiskaya cave in the Kuban by an expedition of the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Radiocarbon dating gave 29 thousand years - it seems that this was one of the last Neanders. DNA analysis showed that it is 3.48 percent different from the DNA of the Neanderthal from Feldhofer Cave (Germany). However, both DNAs form a single branch that is markedly different from the DNA of modern humans. Thus, Neanderthal DNA did not contribute to our mitochondrial DNA.

One hundred and fifty years ago, when science first turned from myths about the creation of man to anatomical evidence, it had nothing at its disposal except guesswork and conjecture. For a hundred years, anthropology was forced to base its conclusions on rare fragmentary finds, which, even if they convinced anyone of something, still had to involve a share of faith in the future discovery of some kind of “connecting link.”

In the light of modern genetic discoveries, anthropological findings indicate many things: upright walking is not associated with the development of the brain, and the manufacture of tools is not associated with it; Moreover, genetic changes “overtake” changes in the structure of skulls.

GENOME AND RACE DIVISION

The Italian scientist Guido Barbugiani, who, with the permission of the Pope, conducted a study of the relics of the Evangelist Luke, was unable to establish the nationality of Christ’s companion. The DNA of the relics is definitely not Greek, but some markers are similar to sequences found in modern inhabitants of Turkish Anatolia, and some to Syrian ones. Again, in such a short period of historical time, the populations of Anatolia and Syria did not diverge genetically far enough from each other to be significantly different. On the other hand, over the past two thousand years, so many waves of conquest and great migrations of peoples have passed through this border region of the Middle East that it has turned, as Barbujani says, into a zone of numerous gene contacts.

The scientist goes even further, declaring that “the concept of genetically distinctly different races of man is completely incorrect.” If, he says, the genetic differences between a Scandinavian and an inhabitant of Tierra del Fuego are taken as 100 percent, then the differences between you and any other member of the community close to you will average 85 percent! Back in 1997, Barbujani analyzed 109 DNA markers in 16 populations taken from around the world, including the pygmies of Zaire. The analysis showed very high intragroup differences at the genetic level. What can I say: transplantologists know very well that organ and tissue transplants are often impossible, even from parents to children.

However, transplantologists were also faced with the fact that white kidneys were not suitable for transplantation to black Americans. It got to the point that a new heart remedy, BiDil, specially designed for use by African Americans, recently appeared in the United States.

But the racial approach to pharmacology does not justify itself, as evidenced by more detailed studies of the effectiveness of drugs conducted already in the post-genomic era. David Goldstein of University College London analyzed the DNA of 354 people from eight different populations around the world, resulting in four groups (an analysis was also carried out on six enzymes that process these same drugs in human liver cells).

The four identified groups characterize people's response to drugs much more accurately than races. An article published in the November 2001 issue of Nature Genetics provides a striking example. When analyzing the DNA of Ethiopians, 62 percent of them were in the same group as Ashkenazi Jews, Armenians and... Norwegians! Therefore, the unification of Ethiopians, whose Greek name translates as “dark-faced,” with African Americans of the same Caribbean is not at all justified. "Racial markers do not always correlate with people's genetic relatedness," Goldstein notes. And he adds: "Similarity in genetic sequences provides much more useful information when conducting pharmacological tests. And race simply 'masks' differences in people's responses to a particular drug."

It is already an established fact that the chromosomal sites responsible for our genetic origin fall into four groups. But previously they simply shrugged it off. Now pharmaceutical companies will get down to business and quickly expose all racists...

WHAT'S NEXT?

In connection with the deciphering of the genome, there was no shortage of predictions for the future. Here are some of them. Within 10 years, it is planned to release dozens of gene tests for various diseases onto the market (just as you can now buy antibody pregnancy tests in pharmacies). And 5 years after this, gene screening will begin before in vitro fertilization, which will be followed by gene “amplification” of future children (for money, of course).

By 2020, cancer treatment will be established after gene typing of tumor cells. Medicines will begin to take into account the genetic constitution of patients. Safe therapies using cloned stem cells will become available. By 2030, “genetic healthcare” will be created, which will increase active life expectancy to 90 years. Heated debates are coming about the further evolution of man as a species. The birth of the profession of “designer” of future children will not blow us away either...

Will it be the apocalypse of our days in the style of F. Coppola or the deliverance of humanity from God's curse for original sin? Candidate of Biological Sciences I. LALAYANTS.

Literature

Lalayants I. Sixth day of creation. - M.: Politizdat, 1985.

Mednikov B. Human Origins. - "Science and Life" No. 11, 1974.

Mednikov B. Axioms of biology. - “Science and Life” No. 2-7, 10, 1980.

Yankovsky N., Borinskaya S. Our history written in genes. - "Nature" No. 6, 2001.

Details for the curious

BRANCHING TREE OF OUR ANCESTORS

Back in the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus developed a classification of plants and animals living on our planet. According to this classification, modern man belongs to the species Homo sapiens sapiens(homo sapiens sapiens), and he is the only representative of the genus to survive evolution Homo. This genus, believed to have appeared 1.6-1.8 million years ago, together with the earlier genus Australopithecines, which lived between 5 and 1.6 million years ago, form the family of hominids. Humans are united with apes by the superfamily hominoids, and with the rest of the apes by the order of primates.

It is believed that hominids separated from hominoids about 6 million years ago - this is the figure given by geneticists who calculated the moment of genetic divergence between humans and apes based on the rate of DNA mutations. French paleoanthropologists Martin Picfort and Brigitte Senu, who recently discovered fragments of a skeleton called Orrorin tugenensis (after the location near Lake Tugen in Kenya), claim that it is approximately 6 million years old. Before this, the oldest hominid was Ardipithecus. The discoverers of Orrorin consider it to be the direct ancestor of humans, and all other branches are collateral.

Ardipithecus. In 1994, in the Afar region of Ethiopia, American anthropologist Tim White discovered teeth, skull fragments and limb bones that date back to 4.5-4.3 million years old. There are indications that Ardipithecus walked on two legs, but it is believed that it lived in trees.

Australopithecines (southern apes) lived in Africa from the late Miocene (approximately 5.3 million years ago) to the early Pleistocene (approximately 1.6 million years ago). Most paleoanthropologists consider them to be the ancestors of modern humans, but there is disagreement over whether the different forms of australopithecines represent a single lineage or a series of parallel species. Australopithecus walked on two legs.

Australopithecus anamensis (southern lake monkey) discovered in 1994 by the famous anthropologist Meave Leakey in the town of Kanapoi on the shores of Lake Turkana (northern Kenya). Australopithecus anamensis lived between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago in coastal forests. The structure of the tibia allows us to conclude that he used two legs to walk.

Australopithecus afarensis (southern Afar monkey) - the famous Lucy, found in 1974 in Hadar (Ethiopia) by Don Johanson. In 1978, footprints attributed to Afarensis were discovered in Laetoli (Tanzania). Australopithecus afarensis lived between 3.8 and 2.8 million years ago and led a mixed arboreal and terrestrial lifestyle. The structure of the bones indicates that he was upright and could run.

Kenyanthropus platiops (flat-faced Kenyan). The discovery of Kenyanthropus was announced by Meave Leakey in March 2001. His skull, found on the western shore of Lake Turkana (Kenya), dates back to 3.5-3.2 million years. Leakey argues that this is a new branch in the hominid family.

Australopithecus barelgasali. In 1995, French paleontologist Michel Brunet discovered part of the jaw in the town of Koro Toro (Chad). This species, dated to 3.3-3 million years old, is closely related to Afarensis.

Australopithecus garhi discovered by Tim White in 1997 in the Bowri Valley, Afar region (Ethiopia). Garhi means "surprise" in the local dialect. This species, which lived approximately 2.5-2.3 million years ago, already knew how to use stone tools.

Australopithecus africanus(African southern monkey) described by Raymond Dart in 1925. This species has a more developed skull than Afarensis, but a more primitive skeleton. He probably lived 3-2.3 million years ago. The light structure of the bones indicates that it lives primarily in trees.

Paranthropus ethiopicus. Paranthropus is close to Australopithecus, but has more massive jaws and teeth. The earliest massive hominid, Aethiopicus, was found near Lake Turkana (Kenya) and in Ethiopia. The most famous example is the "black skull". Paranthropus ethiopicus dates back to 2.5-2.3 million years ago. It had massive jaws and teeth suitable for chewing the rough plant food of the African savannas.

Paranthropus boisei discovered by Louis Leakey in 1959 near Lake Turkana (Kenya) and in the Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). Boisei (dated 2-1.2 million years ago) probably descended from Aethiopicus. Because of its massive jaws and teeth, it is called the “nutcracker.”

Paranthropus robustus- a South African form of a massive hominid, found in 1940 by Robert Broome in the town of Kromdray (South Africa). Robustus is a contemporary of Boisea. Many paleoanthropologists believe that it evolved from Africanus rather than from Aethiopicus. In this case, it should be classified not as a paranthropus, but as a different genus.

Homo rudolphensis discovered by Richard Leakey in 1972 in Kobi Fora near Lake Turkana (Kenya), which at that time bore the colonial name - Lake Rudolf. This species, which lived approximately 2.4-1.9 million years ago, was first classified as a species of Homo habilis, then separated into a separate species. After the discovery of the flat-faced Kenyan, Miv Leakey proposed that Rudolfensis be included in the new genus Kenyanthropus.

Homo habilis(handy man) was first discovered by Louis Leakey in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in 1961. Then his remains were found in Ethiopia and South Africa. Homo habilis lived approximately 2.3-1.6 million years ago. Many scientists now believe that it belongs to the late Australopithecus rather than to the genus Homo.

Homo ergaster. The best example of Ergaster is the so-called "Turkana Youth", whose skeleton was discovered by Richard Leakey and Alan Walker in the town of Narikotome on the shores of Lake Turkana (Kenya) in 1984. Homo ergaster is dated to be 1.75-1.4 million years old. A skull with a similar structure was found in 1991 in Georgia.

Homo erectus(Homo erectus), whose remains were first discovered in Morocco in 1933 and then in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in 1960, lived between 1.6 and 0.3 million years ago. It is believed to have originated from either Homo habilis or Homo ergaster. In South Africa, numerous sites have been found for Erectus, which learned to make fire approximately 1.1 million years ago. Homo erectus was the first hominid to migrate out of Africa, approximately 1.6 million years ago. His remains were found on the island of Java and in China. Erectus, who migrated to Europe, became the ancestor of Neanderthals.

General information

Homo sapiens (lat. Homo sapiens; transliterated variants Homo Sapiens and Homo Sapiens are also found) is a species of the genus People (Homo) from the family of hominids in the order of primates. Homo sapiens is believed to have emerged as a species in the Pleistocene about 200,000 years ago. At the end of the Upper Paleolithic, about 40 thousand years ago, it remains the only representative of the hominid family; its range already covers almost the entire Earth. In addition to a number of anatomical features, it differs from modern anthropoids in a significant degree of development of material and non-material culture (including the manufacture and use of tools), the ability for articulate speech and developed abstract thinking. Man as a biological species is the subject of study of physical anthropology.

Neoanthropes (ancient Greek νέος - new and ἄνθρωπος - man) is a generalized name for modern people, fossils and living people.

The main anthropological features of humans that distinguish them from paleoanthropes and archanthropes are a voluminous cerebral skull with a high arch, a vertically rising forehead, the absence of a supraorbital ridge, and a well-developed chin protrusion.

Fossil humans had somewhat more massive skeletons than modern humans. Ancient people created a rich Late Paleolithic culture (a variety of tools made of stone, bone and horn, dwellings, sewn clothing, polychrome painting on cave walls, sculpture, engraving on bone and horn). The oldest currently known bone remains of neoanthropes are radiocarbon dated at 39 thousand years ago, but it is most likely that neoanthropes arose 70-60 thousand years ago.

Systematic position and classification

Together with a number of extinct species, Homo sapiens forms the genus Homo. Homo sapiens differs from the closest species - Neanderthals - in a number of structural features of the skeleton (high forehead, reduction of the brow ridges, the presence of a mastoid process of the temporal bone, the absence of an occipital protrusion - a “bone chignon”, a concave base of the skull, the presence of a mental protuberance on the mandibular bone, “kynodont” molars, flattened chest, as a rule, relatively longer limbs) and the proportions of the brain regions (“beak-shaped” frontal lobes in Neanderthals, widely rounded in Homo sapiens). Currently, work is underway to decipher the genome of Neanderthals, which allows us to deepen our understanding of the nature of the differences between these two species.

In the second half of the 20th century, a number of researchers proposed to consider Neanderthals a subspecies of H. sapiens - H. sapiens neanderthalensis. The basis for this was research into the physical appearance, lifestyle, intellectual abilities and culture of Neanderthals. Additionally, Neanderthals have often been viewed as the direct ancestors of modern humans. However, a comparison of the mitochondrial DNA of humans and Neanderthals suggests that the divergence of their evolutionary lines occurred about 500,000 years ago. This dating is inconsistent with the hypothesis of the origin of modern humans from Neanderthals, since the evolutionary line of modern humans became distinct later than 200,000 years ago. Currently, most paleanthropologists tend to consider Neanderthals a separate species within the genus Homo - H. neanderthalensis.

In 2005, remains were described that were approximately 195,000 years old (Pleistocene). The anatomical differences between the specimens prompted researchers to identify a new subspecies, Homo sapiens idaltu (“Elder”).

The oldest Homo sapiens bone from which DNA has been isolated is approximately 45,000 years old. According to the study, the same number of Neanderthal genes were found in the DNA of the ancient Siberian as in modern people (2.5%)

Human Origins

Comparison of DNA sequences shows that the closest living species to humans are two species of chimpanzee (common and bonobo). The phylogenetic lineage with which the origin of modern humans (Homo sapiens) is associated separated from other hominids 6-7 million years ago (in the Miocene). Other representatives of this line (mainly Australopithecus and a number of species of the genus Homo) have not survived to this day.

The closest relatively reliably established ancestor of Homo sapiens was Homo erectus. Homo heidelbergensis, a direct descendant of Homo erectus and ancestor of the Neanderthals, appears not to have been the ancestor of modern humans, but rather a member of a lateral evolutionary line. Most modern theories link the origin of Homo sapiens to Africa, while Homo heidelbergensis originated in Europe.

The emergence of humans was associated with a number of significant anatomical and physiological modifications, including:

• 1.Structural transformations of the brain
• 2. Enlargement of the cerebral cavity and brain
• 3. Development of bipedal locomotion (bipedalism)
• 4.Development of the grasping hand
• 5.Descent of the hyoid bone
• 6.Reducing the size of fangs
• 7.The appearance of the menstrual cycle
• 8. Reduction of most of the hairline.

Comparison of mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms and dating of fossils suggests that Homo sapiens appeared ca. 200,000 years ago (this is the approximate time when "Mitochondrial Eve" - ​​the woman who was the last common maternal ancestor of all living humans - lived; the paternal common ancestor of all living humans - "Y-chromosomal Adam" - lived several Later).

In 2009, a group of scientists led by Sarah Tishkoff from the University of Pennsylvania published the results of a comprehensive study of the genetic diversity of African peoples in the journal Science. They found that the oldest lineage that had experienced the least amount of mixing, as previously expected, was the genetic cluster to which the Bushmen and other Khoisan-speaking peoples belonged. Most likely, they are the branch that is closest to the common ancestors of all modern humanity.

About 74,000 years ago, a small population (ca. 2,000 people) that survived the effects of a very powerful volcanic eruption (~20-30 years of winter), presumably the Toba volcano in Indonesia, became the ancestors of modern humans in Africa. It can be assumed that 60,000-40,000 years ago people migrated to Asia, and from there to Europe (40,000 years), Australia and America (35,000-15,000 years).

At the same time, the evolution of specific human abilities, such as developed consciousness, intellectual abilities and language, is problematic to study, since their changes cannot be directly traced from the remains of hominids and traces of their life activity. To study the evolution of these abilities, scientists integrate data from various sciences, including physical and cultural anthropology, animal psychology, ethology, neurophysiology, genetics.

Questions about how exactly the mentioned abilities (speech, religion, art) evolved, and what their role was in the emergence of the complex social organization and culture of Homo sapiens, remain the subject of scientific debate to this day.

Appearance

The head is big. The upper limbs have five long flexible fingers, one of which is slightly spaced from the rest, and the lower limbs have five short fingers that help balance when walking. In addition to walking, humans are also capable of running, but, unlike most primates, the ability to brachiate is poorly developed.

Body size and weight

The average body weight of a man is 70-80 kg, a woman - 50-65 kg, although larger people are also found. The average height of men is about 175 cm, women - about 165 cm. The average height of a person has changed over time.

Over the past 150 years, there has been an acceleration of human physiological development - acceleration (increase in average height, duration of the reproductive period).

The size of a person's body can change due to various diseases. With increased production of growth hormone (pituitary tumors), gigantism develops. For example, the maximum reliably recorded human height is 272 cm/199 kg (Robert Wadlow). Conversely, low production of growth hormone in childhood can lead to dwarfism, such as the smallest living person - Gul Mohamed (57 cm with a weight of 17 kg) or Chandra Bahadur Danga (54.6 cm).

The lightest person was the Mexican Lucia Zarate, her weight at the age of 17 was only 2130 g with a height of 63 cm, and the heaviest was Manuel Uribe, whose weight reached 597 kg.

Hairline

The human body is usually sparsely covered with hair, with the exception of the areas of the head, and in mature individuals - the groin, armpits and, especially in men, the arms and legs. Hair growth on the neck, face (beard and mustache), chest and sometimes on the back is characteristic of men.

Like other hominids, the hair does not have undercoat, that is, it is not fur. As a person ages, his hair turns grey.

Skin pigmentation

Human skin can change pigmentation: when exposed to sunlight, it darkens and a tan appears. This feature is most noticeable in the Caucasian and Mongoloid races. In addition, vitamin D is synthesized in human skin under the influence of sunlight.

Sexual dimorphism

Sexual dimorphism is expressed by the rudimentary development of mammary glands in men compared to women and a wider pelvis in women, wider shoulders and greater physical strength in men. In addition, adult men tend to have more facial and body hair.

Human physiology

• Normal body temperature dies.
• The maximum temperature of solid objects with which people can come into contact for a long time is about 50 degrees Celsius (at a higher temperature, a burn occurs).
• The highest recorded indoor air temperature at which a person can spend two minutes without harm to the body is 160 degrees Celsius (experiments by British physicists Blagden and Chantry).
• Jacques Mayol. The sports record in free diving without restrictions was set by Herbert Nietzsch, diving to 214 meters.
• July 27, 1993 Javier Sotomayor
• August 30, 1991 Mike Powell
• August 16, 2009 Usain Bolt
• November 14, 1995 Patrick de Gaillardon

Life cycle

Lifespan

Human life expectancy depends on a number of factors and in developed countries averages 79 years.

The maximum officially recorded life expectancy is 122 years and 164 days, the age at which Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment died in 1997. The age of older centenarians is disputed.

Reproduction

Compared to other animals, human reproductive function and sex life have a number of features. Puberty occurs at 11-16 years of age.

Unlike most mammals, whose reproductive capacity is limited to periods of estrus, women have a menstrual cycle that lasts about 28 days, making them capable of pregnancy throughout the year. Pregnancy can occur at a certain period of the monthly cycle (ovulation), but there are no external signs of a woman’s readiness for it. Women, even during pregnancy, can be sexually active, which is not typical for mammals, but is common among primates. However, reproductive function is limited by age: women lose the ability to reproduce on average at 40-50 years of age (with the onset of menopause).

A normal pregnancy lasts 40 weeks (9 months).

A woman, as a rule, gives birth to only one child at a time (two or more children - twins - occur approximately once in 80 births). A newborn baby weighs 3-4 kg, his vision is unfocused, and he is not able to move independently. As a rule, both parents are involved in caring for the offspring in the first years of the child: the cubs of no animal require as much attention and care as a human child requires.

Aging

Human aging, like the aging of other organisms, is a biological process of gradual degradation of parts and systems of the human body and the consequences of this process. While the physiology of the aging process is similar to that of other mammals, some aspects of the process, such as the loss of mental abilities, are of greater importance to humans. In addition, the psychological, social and economic aspects of aging are of great importance.

Lifestyle

Upright walking

Humans are not the only modern mammals to walk on two limbs. Kangaroos, which are primitive mammals, use only their hind legs to move. The anatomy of humans and kangaroos has systematically changed to maintain upright walking - the posterior muscles of the neck have been somewhat weakened, the spine has been rebuilt, the hips have been enlarged, and the heel has been significantly shaped. Some primates and semi-primates are also capable of walking upright, but only for a short time, since their anatomy does not help this much. This is how some lemurs and sifakas jump on two limbs half-sideways. Bears, meerkats, and some rodents periodically use “upright standing” in social actions, but they practically do not walk in this position.

Nutrition

To maintain the normal course of physiological processes of life, a person needs to eat, that is, absorb food. Humans are omnivores - they eat fruits and roots, the meat of vertebrates and many marine animals, eggs of birds and reptiles, and dairy products. The variety of food of animal origin is limited mainly to a specific crop. A significant part of food is subjected to heat treatment. Drinks also have a wide variety.

Newborn babies, like the cubs of other mammals, feed on their mother's milk.

Homo sapiens ( Homo sapiens) - a species of the genus People (Homo), family of hominids, order of primates. It is considered the dominant animal species on the planet and the highest level of development.

Currently, Homo sapiens is the only representative of the genus Homo. Several tens of thousands of years ago, the genus was represented by several species at once - Neanderthals, Cro-Magnons and others. It has been established for certain that the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens is (Homo erectus, 1.8 million years ago - 24 thousand years ago). For a long time it was believed that the closest ancestor of humans is, but in the course of research it became clear that Neanderthal is a subspecies, a parallel, lateral or sister line of human evolution and does not belong to the ancestors of modern humans. Most scientists are inclined to believe that the direct ancestor of man was the one who existed 40-10 thousand years ago. The term “Cro-Magnon” defines Homo sapiens, who lived up to 10 thousand years ago. The closest relatives of Homo sapiens among the primates existing today are the Common chimpanzee and the Pygmy chimpanzee (Bonobo).

The formation of Homo sapiens is divided into several stages: 1. Primitive community (from 2.5-2.4 million years ago, Old Stone Age, Paleolithic); 2. The ancient world (in most cases determined by the major events of ancient Greece and Rome (First Olympiad, foundation of Rome), from 776-753 BC); 3. Middle Ages or Middle Ages (V-XVI centuries); 4. Modern times (XVII-1918); Modern times (1918 - present day).

Today Homo sapiens has populated the entire Earth. At last count, the world population is 7.5 billion people.

Video: The Origins of Humanity. Homo sapiens

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In light of already published and future videos, for the general development and systematization of knowledge, I offer a general overview of the genera of the hominid family from the later Sahelanthropus, who lived about 7 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, who appeared from 315 to 200 thousand years ago. This review will help you avoid falling into the trap of those who like to mislead and systematize their knowledge. Since the video is quite long, for convenience, in the comments there will be a table of contents with a time code, thanks to which you can start or continue watching the video from the selected type or type if you click on the blue numbers in the list. 1. Sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus) this genus is represented by only one species: 1.1. The Chadian sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) is an extinct species of hominid, approximately 7 million years old. His skull, named Toumaina, meaning "hope of life", was found in the north-west of the Republic of Chad in 2001 by Michel Brunet. Their brain volume, supposedly 380 cm cubic, is approximately the same as that of modern chimpanzees. Based on the characteristic location of the occipital foramen, scientists believe that this is the most ancient skull of an upright creature. Sahelanthropus may represent the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but there are still a number of questions about its facial features that may call into question the status of australopithecus. By the way, the belonging of Sahelanthropus to the human ancestry is disputed by the discoverers of the next genus with the only species Ororin tugensis. 2. The genus Orrorin includes one species: Orrorin tugenensis, or the man of the millennium, this species was first found in 2000 in the Tugen mountains of Kenya. Its age is about 6 million years. Currently, 20 fossils have been recovered from 4 sites: these include two parts of the lower jaw; symphyses and several teeth; three thigh fragments; partial humerus; proximal phalanx; and distal phalanx of the thumb. By the way, Orrorins have femurs with obvious signs of upright posture, in contrast to indirect ones in Sahelanthropus. But the rest of the skeleton, except for the skull, indicates that he climbed trees. Orrorins were about 1 m tall. 20 centimeters. In addition, accompanying findings indicated that Orrorin did not live in a savanna, but in an evergreen forest environment. By the way, it is precisely this type that is demonstrated by lovers of sensations in anthropology or supporters of ideas about the extraterrestrial origin of people, saying that 6 million years ago aliens visited us. As evidence, they note that this species has a femur closer to the human than that of a later species of Australopithecus afarensis, named Lucy, aged 3 million years, this is true, but understandable, which is what scientists did 5 years ago, describing the level of primitiveness of the similarity and that it is similar to primates that lived 20 million years ago. But to add to this argument, “TV experts” report that the reconstructed shape of Orrorin’s face is flat and similar to a human’s. And then look carefully at the images of the finds and find the parts from which you can assemble a face. Don't you see? Me too, but they are there, according to the authors of the programs! At the same time, they show video fragments about completely different finds. This is designed to ensure that hundreds of thousands, or even millions of viewers trust them and they will not check. This is how you mix truth and fiction and you get a sensation, but only in the minds of their adherents, and unfortunately there are quite a few of them. And this is just one example. 3. Ardipithecus, an ancient genus of hominids that lived 5.6-4.4 million years ago. At the moment, only two types are described: 3.1. Ardipithecus kadabba was found in Ethiopia in the Middle Awash River valley in 1997. And in 2000, further north, a few more finds were found. The finds consist mainly of teeth and skeletal bone fragments from several individuals dating back 5.6 million years. The following species from the genus Ardipithecus is described more qualitatively. 3.2. Ardipithecus ramidus or Ardi, which means earth or root. Ardi's remains were first discovered near the Ethiopian village of Aramis in 1992 in the Afar Depression in the Awash River valley. And in 1994, more fragments were obtained, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This is a very significant find, which combines characteristics of both monkeys and humans. The age of the finds was determined based on their stratigraphic position between two volcanic layers and was 4.4 million years. And between 1999 and 2003, scientists discovered the bones and teeth of nine more individuals of the species Ardipithecus ramidus, on the north bank of the Awash River in Ethiopia west of Hadar. Ardipithecus ramidus is similar to most primitive, previously recognized hominins, but unlike them, Ardipithecus ramidus had a great toe that retained grasping ability, adapted for climbing trees. However, scientists argue that other features of its skeleton reflect adaptations to upright walking. Like later hominins, Ardi had smaller fangs. Its brain was small, about the size of a modern chimpanzee, and about 20% the size of a modern human's brain. Their teeth indicate that they ate both fruits and leaves without preference, and this is already the path to omnivory. In terms of social behavior, weak sexual dimorphism may indicate reduced aggression and competition between males in a group. Ramidus legs are well suited for walking both in the forest and in meadows, swamps and lakes. 4. Australopithecus (Australopithecus), here it should immediately be noted that there is also the concept of australopithecus, which includes 5 more genera and is divided into 3 groups: a) early australopithecus (7.0 - 3.9 million years ago); b) gracile australopithecus (3.9 - 1.8 million years ago); c) massive australopithecus (2.6 - 0.9 million years ago). But Australopithecines as a genus are fossilized higher primates, possessing signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull. Who lived in the period from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago. Let's look at 6 species of Australopithecus: 4.1. Australopithecus anamensis is believed to be the ancestor of humans who lived about four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Kenya and Ethiopia. The first record of the species was discovered in 1965 near Lake Turkana in Kenya, previously the lake was called Rudolf. Then in 1989, teeth of this species were found on the northern bank of the Turkana, but in the territory of modern Ethiopia. And already in 1994, about a hundred additional fragments from two dozen hominids were discovered, including one complete lower jaw, with teeth resembling human ones. And only in 1995, on the basis of the described findings, the species was identified as Australopithecus Anamensis, which is considered a descendant of the species Ardipithecus ramidus. And in 2006, a new find of Australopithecus anamas was announced, in northeastern Ethiopia, about 10 km. from the location where Ardipithecus ramidus was found. The age of the Anamanian Australopithecus is about 4-4.5 million years. Australopithecus Anamensis is considered the ancestor of the next species of Australopithecus. 4.2. Australopithecus afarensis, or "Lucy" after the first discovery, is an extinct hominid that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. Australopithecus afarensis was closely related to the genus Homo, as a direct ancestor or close relative of an unknown common ancestor. Lucy herself, 3.2 million years old, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar Basin near the village of Hadar in Ethiopia on November 24. "Lucy" was represented by an almost complete skeleton. And the name "Lucy" was inspired by the Beatles song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds." Australopithecus afarensis has also been found in other localities such as Omo, Maka, Feij and Belohdeli in Ethiopia and Koobi Fore and Lotagam in Kenya. Representatives of the species had fangs and molars that were relatively larger than those of modern people, and the brain was still small - from 380 to 430 cubic cm - and the face had protruding lips. The anatomy of the arms, legs, and shoulder joints suggests that the creatures were partly arboreal as well as terrestrial, although the overall anatomy of the pelvis is much more humanoid. However, thanks to their anatomical structure, they could walk with a straight gait. The upright posture of Australopithecus afarensis may just be due to climate changes in Africa from the jungle to the savannah. In Tanzania, 20 km from the Sadiman volcano, in 1978, footprints of a family of upright hominids were discovered preserved in volcanic ash south of the Olduvai Gorge. Based on sexual dimorphism - the difference in body size between males and females - these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing one dominant and larger male and several small breeding females. "Lucy" would live in a group culture that involves socializing. In 2000, the remains of a skeleton believed to be a 3-year-old child of Australopithecus afarensis, who lived 3.3 million years ago, were discovered in the Dikika area. These australopithecines, according to archaeological finds, used stone tools to cut meat from animal carcasses and crush them. But this is only the use, not the manufacture of them. 4.3. Australopithecus bahrelghazali or Abel is a fossil hominin first discovered in 1993 in the Bahr el Ghazal valley at the Koro Toro archaeological site in Chad. Abel is approximately 3.6-3 million years old. The find consists of a mandibular fragment, a lower second incisor, both lower canines and all four of its premolars. This Australopithecus became a separate species thanks to its lower three root premolars. This is also the first Australopithecus discovered to the north of the previous ones, which indicates their wide distribution. 4.4 Australopithecus africanus was an early hominid that lived 3.3 - 2.1 million years ago - in the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Unlike the previous species, it had a larger brain and more human-like features. Many scientists believe that he is the ancestor of modern humans. Australopithecus africanus has only been discovered at four sites in southern Africa - Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948 and Gladysvale in 1992. The first discovery was a baby skull known as the "Baby of Taung" and described by Raymond Dart, who assigned the name Australopithecus africanus, meaning "southern ape of Africa". He argued that this species was intermediate between apes and humans. Further discoveries confirmed their identification as a new species. This australopithecus was a bipedal hominid with arms slightly longer than the legs. Despite its somewhat more humanoid cranial features, other more primitive features are present, including ape-like, curved climbing fingers. But the pelvis was more adapted to bipedalism than in the previous species. 4.5. Australopithecus garhi, 2.5 million years old, was discovered in the Bowri sediments of Ethiopia. "Garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language. For the first time, tools similar to the Oldowan stone working culture were discovered along with the remains. 4.6. Australopithecus sediba is a species of early Pleistocene australopithecus with fossils dating back approximately 2 million years. This species is known from four incomplete skeletons discovered in South Africa in a place called the “cradle of humanity,” 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, within the Malapa Cave. The discovery was made thanks to the Google Earth service. "Sediba" means "spring" in the Sotho language. The remains of Australopithecus sediba, two adults and one infant aged 18 months, were found together. In total, more than 220 fragments have been excavated so far. Australopithecus sediba may have lived in the savannah, but the diet included fruits and other forest products. The height of the sediba was about 1.3 meters. The first specimen of Australopithecus sediba was discovered by 9-year-old Matthew, son of paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, on August 15, 2008. The mandible found was part of a juvenile male whose skull was later discovered in March 2009 by Berger and his team. Fossils of various animals were also found in the cave area, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses and antelopes. Sediba's brain volume was about 420-450 cubic cm, which is about three times less than that of modern people. Australopithecus sediba had a remarkably modern hand, whose precision grip suggests tool use and manufacture. Sediba may have belonged to the late South African branch of Australopithecus, which coexisted with representatives of the genus Homo already living at that time. Currently, some scientists are trying to clarify the dating and look for a connection between Australopithecus sediba and the genus Homo. 5. Paranthropus (Paranthropus) - a genus of fossil higher primates. They were found in East and Southern Africa. They are also called massive australopithecines. Finds of Paranthropus are dated from 2.7 to 1 million years. 5.1. Ethiopian paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus) The species was described from a 1985 find in the Lake Turkana area, Kenya, known as the "black skull" due to its dark coloration, due to the manganese content. The skull dates back 2.5 million years. But later, part of the lower jaw, discovered in 1967 in the Omo Valley, Ethiopia, was also attributed to this species. Anthropologists believe that Ethiopian Paranthropus lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. They were quite primitive and have many features in common with Australopithecus afarensis, perhaps they were their direct descendants. Their special feature was their jaws that protruded strongly forward. This species is believed by scientists to diverge from the Homo lineage on the hominid evolutionary tree. 5.2. Paranthropus boisei, aka Australopithecus boisei, aka "Nutcracker" was an early hominin described as the largest of the genus Paranthropus. They lived in East Africa during the Pleistocene era from approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. The largest skull was discovered in Konso in Ethiopia and dates back 1.4 million years. They were 1.2-1.5 m tall and weighed from 40 to 90 kg. The well-preserved skull of Paranthropus boice was first discovered in Tanzania's Olduvai Gorge in 1959 and was given the name "Nutcracker" due to its large teeth and thick enamel. It was dated at 1.75 million. And 10 years later, in 1969, the son of the discoverer of the “nutcracker” Mary Leakey, Richard, discovered another Paranthropus boyes skull in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Judging by the structure of their jaws, they ate massive plant foods and lived in forests and shrouds. Based on the structure of the skull, scientists believe that the brain of these paranthropes was quite primitive, with a volume of up to 550 cubic cm. 5.3. Massive paranthropus (Paranthropus robustus). The first skull of the species was discovered in Kromdraai in South Africa in 1938 by a schoolboy who later traded it for chocolate to anthropologist Robert Broome. Paranthropus or the massive Australopithecus were bipedal hominids that likely descended from the gracial Australopithecus. They are characterized by robust braincases, and gorilla-like cranial ridges, which suggest strong chewing muscles. They lived between 2 and 1.2 million years ago. The remains of massive Paranthropus have only been found within South Africa at Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, Gondolin and Kupers. The remains of 130 individuals were discovered in a cave at Swartkrans. Dental studies have shown that massive Paranthropus rarely lived past 17 years of age. The approximate height of the males was about 1.2 m, and their weight was approximately 54 kg. But the females were just under 1 meter tall and weighed about 40 kg, which indicates fairly large sexual dimorphism. Their brain size ranged from 410 to 530 cubic meters. cm. They ate more massive food, such as tubers and nuts, possibly from open forests and savannas. 6. Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus) is a genus of hominids that lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago in the Pliocene. This genus is represented by one species, Kenyanthropus flatface, but some scientists consider it a separate species of australopithecus, like Australopithecus flatface, while others classify it as Australopithecus afarensis. 6.1. The Kenyanthropus platyops was found on the Kenyan side of Lake Turkana in 1999. These Kenyanthropes lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million ago. This species remains a mystery, and suggests that 3.5 - 2 million years ago there were several humanoid species, each of which was well adapted to life in a certain environment. 7. The genus Humans or Homo includes both extinct species and Homo sapiens. Extinct species are classified as ancestral, especially Homo erectus, or as closely related to modern humans. The earliest representatives of the genus currently date back 2.5 million years. 7.1. Homo gautengensis is a species of hominin that was identified in 2010, following a fresh look at a skull found back in 1977 in Sterkfontein Cave in Johannesburg, South Africa, Gothenburg Province. This species is represented by South African fossil hominins previously classified as Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, or in some cases Australopithecus. But Australopithecus sediba, which lived at the same time as Homo Gautengensis, turned out to be much more primitive. The identification of Homo gautengensis was made from fragments of skulls, teeth and other parts found at various times in caves at a site called the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa. The oldest specimens are dated at 1.9-1.8 million years. The youngest specimens from Swartkrans date from approximately 1.0 million to 600 thousand years ago. According to the description, Homo hautengensis had large teeth suitable for chewing plants and a small brain, most likely he consumed a predominantly plant diet, unlike Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and, probably, Homo habilis. Scientists believe it made and used stone tools, and judging by the burnt animal bones found with the remains of Homo hautengensis, these hominins used fire. They were slightly taller than 90 cm, and their weight was about 50 kg. Homo hautengensis walked on two legs, but also spent significant time in trees, possibly feeding, sleeping and hiding from predators. 7.2. Homo rudolfensis, a species of the genus Homo that lived 1.7-2.5 million years ago, was first discovered in 1972 at Lake Turkana in Kenya. However, the remains were first described in 1978 by Soviet anthropologist Valery Alekseev. Remains were also found in Malawi in 1991 and in Koobi Fora, Kenya in 2012. Homo Rudolph coexisted in parallel with Homo habilis or Homo habilis and they could interact. Possibly the ancestor of later Homo species. 7.3. Homo habilis is a species of fossil hominid that is considered a representative of our ancestors. Lived from approximately 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago, during the Gelasian Pleistocene. The first finds were made in Tanzania in 1962-1964. Homo habilis was considered the earliest known species of the genus Homo, until the discovery of Homo hautengensis in 2010. Homo habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern humans, but with a flatter face than australopithecines. The volume of his skull was less than half that of modern humans. His finds are often accompanied by primitive stone tools from the Olduvai culture, hence the name "Handy Man". And to describe it more simply, the body of the Habilis resembles Australopithecus, with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. Whether Homo habilis was the first hominid to master stone tool technology remains controversial, since Australopithecus garhi, dated 2. 6 million years old, was found along with similar stone tools, and is at least 100-200 thousand years older than Homo habilis. Homo habilis lived in parallel with other bipedal primates, such as Paranthropus boisei. But Homo habilis, perhaps through tool use and a more varied diet, judging by dental analysis, became the ancestor of a whole line of new species, while the remains of Paranthropus boisei were no longer found. Also, Homo habilis may have coexisted with Homo erectus about 500 thousand years ago. 7.4. Homo ergaster is an extinct but one of the earliest Homo species that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the Early Pleistocene, 1.8 - 1.3 million years ago. The working man, named for his advanced technology of hand tools, is sometimes referred to as the African Homo erectus. Some researchers consider the working man to be the ancestor of the Acheulean culture, while other scientists award the palm to early erectus. There is also evidence of their use of fire. The remains were first discovered in 1949 in southern Africa. And the most complete skeleton was discovered in Kenya on the western shore of Lake Turkana, it belonged to a teenager and was called the “Boy from Turkana” or also “Nariokotome Boy”, his age was 1.6 million years. This finding is often classified as Homo erectus. Homo ergaster is thought to have diverged from the Homo habilis lineage between 1.9 and 1.8 million years ago and existed for about half a million years in Africa. Scientists also believe that they quickly became sexually mature, even in their youth. Its distinctive feature was also its rather tall height, about 180 cm. Working humans are also less sexually dimorphic than Austropithecus, and this may mean more prosocial behavior. His brain was already larger, up to 900 cubic centimeters. Some scientists believe that they could use a proto-language based on the structure of the cervical vertebrae, but this is just speculation at the moment. 7.5. The Dmanisian hominid (Homo georgicus) or (Homo erectus georgicus) is the first representative of the genus Homo to leave Africa. Finds dating back to 1.8 million years were discovered in Georgia in August 1991, and were described in different years also as Georgian Man (Homo georgicus), Homo erectus georgicus, Dmanisi hominid (Dmanisi) and as Working Man (Homo ergaster). But it was isolated as a separate species and they, together with erectus and ergasters, are also often called archanthropes, or if we add Heidelberg man of Europe and Sinanthropus from China, then we get Pithecanthropus. In 1991 by David Lordkipanidze. Along with ancient human remains, tools and animal bones were found. The brain volume of Dmanisian hominids is approximately 600-700 cubic centimeters - half that of modern humans. This is the smallest hominid brain found outside of Africa other than Homo floresiensis. The Dmanisian hominid was bipedal and shorter in stature compared to the abnormally tall ergasters; the average height of male individuals was about 1.2 m. Dental conditions indicate omnivory. But no evidence of the use of fire was found among archaeological finds. Possibly a descendant of Rudolph Man. 7.6. Homo erectus, or simply Erectus, is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the late Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, approximately 1.9 million to 300,000 years ago. About 2 million years ago, the climate in Africa changed to drier. A long period of existence and migration could not but create many different views of scientists on this species. According to available data and their interpretation, the species originated in Africa, then migrated to India, China and to the island of Java. Overall, Homo erectus spread throughout the warmer parts of Eurasia. But some scientists suggest that Erectus appeared in Asia and only then migrated to Africa. Erectus have existed for over a million years, longer than other human species. The classification and ancestry of Homo erectus is quite controversial. But there are some subspecies of erectus. 7.6.1 Pithecanthropus or "Javanese man" - Homo erectus erectus 7.6.2 Yuanmou man - Homo erectus yuanmouensis 7.6.3 Lantian man - Homo erectus lantianensis 7.6.4 Nanjing man - Homo erectus nankinensis 7.6.5 Sinanthropus or "Beijing man" - Homo erectus pekinensis 7.6.6 Meganthropus - Homo erectus palaeojavanicus 7.6.7 Javanthrope or Soloi man - Homo erectus soloensis 7.6.8 Man from Totavel - Homo erectus tautavelensis 7.6.9 Dmanisian hominid - Homo erectus georgicus 7.6.10 Man from Bilzingsleben - Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis 7.6.11 Atlantrop or Moorish man - Homo erectus mauritanicus 7.6.12 Man from Cerpano - Homo cepranensis, some scientists distinguish it, like many other subspecies, into a separate species, but the 1994 find in the vicinity of Rome is represented only by the skull, therefore there is little data for a more thorough analysis. Homo erectus got its name for a reason; his legs were adapted for both walking and running. Temperature exchange was increased due to sparser and shorter body hair. It is quite possible that erectus have already become hunters. Smaller teeth may indicate changes in diet, most likely due to the processing of food by fire. And this is already a path to enlargement of the brain, the volume of which in erecti varied from 850 to 1200 cubic cm. They were up to 178 cm tall. The sexual dimorphism of erectuses was less than that of their predecessors. They lived in groups of hunter-gatherers and hunted together. Fire was used both for warmth and cooking, and to scare away predators. They made tools, hand axes, flakes, and in general were carriers of the Acheulean culture. In 1998 there were suggestions that they were building rafts. 7.7. Homo antecessor is an extinct human species, ranging in age from 1.2 million to 800,000 years. It was found in the Sierra de Atapuerca in 1994. A 900,000-year-old fossil of an upper jaw and part of a skull discovered in Spain belonged to a boy at most 15 years old. Numerous bones, both animal and human, were found nearby with markings that may indicate cannibalism. Almost all of those eaten were teenagers or children. However, no evidence was found indicating a lack of food in the surrounding area at that time. They were approximately 160-180 cm tall and weighed about 90 kg. The brain volume of the previous person (Homo antecessor) was about 1000-1150 cubic centimeters. Scientists suggest rudimentary speech abilities. 7.8. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) or protanthropus (Protanthropus heidelbergensis) is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which may be the direct ancestor of both Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), if we consider its development in Europe, and Homo sapiens, but only in Africa. The discovered remains were dated from 800 to 150 thousand years. The first records of this species were made in 1907 by Daniel Hartmann in the village of Mauer in southwestern Germany. After which representatives of the species were discovered in France, Italy, Spain, Greece and China. Also in 1994, a discovery was made in England near the village of Boxgrove, hence the name “Boxgrove Man”. However, the name of the area is also found - “horse slaughterhouse”, which involves cutting up horse carcasses using stone tools. Heidelberg Man used tools from the Acheulean culture, sometimes with transitions into the Mousterian culture. They were on average 170 cm tall, and in South Africa there were finds of individuals 213 cm tall and which dated from 500 to 300 thousand years. Heidelberg man may have been the first species to bury its dead, findings based on 28 remains found in Atapuerca, Spain. Perhaps he used tongue and red ocher as decoration, which is confirmed by finds at Terra Amata near Nice on the slopes of Mount Boron. Dental analysis suggests they were right-handed. Heidelberg Man (Homo heidelbergensis) was an advanced hunter, as evidenced by hunting tools such as spears from Schöningen in Germany. 7.8.1. Rhodesian man (Homo rhodesiensis) is an extinct subspecies of hominin that lived from 400 to 125 thousand years ago. The Kabwe fossil skull is the type specimen of the species, found in the Broken Hill Caves in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar in 1921. Previously it was classified as a separate species. The Rhodesian man was massive, with very large eyebrows and a broad face. It is sometimes called the "African Neanderthal", although it has features intermediate between sapiens and Neanderthals. 7.9. Florisbad (Homo helmei) is described as an "archaic" Homo sapiens who lived 260,000 years ago. Represented by a partially preserved skull that was discovered in 1932 by Professor Dreyer within the archaeological and paleontological site of Florisbad near Bloemfontein in South Africa. It may be an intermediate form between Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) and homo sapiens (Homo sapiens). Florisbad was the same size as modern humans, but with a larger brain capacity of about 1400 cm3. 7.10 Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo, closely related to modern humans, and has interbred with them on numerous occasions. The term "Neanderthal" comes from the modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany, where the species was first discovered in the Feldhofer Cave. Neanderthals existed, according to genetic data, from 600 thousand years ago, and according to archaeological finds from 250 to 28 thousand years ago, with their last refuge in Gibraltar. The finds are currently being intensively studied and there is no point in describing them in more detail, since I will return to this species, perhaps more than once. 7. 11. Homo Naledi The fossils were discovered in 2013 in the Dinaledi Chamber, Rising Star Cave system, Gauteng Province in South Africa and were quickly recognized as the remains of a new species in 2015, and different from remains found previously. In 2017, the finds were dated from 335 to 236 thousand years. The remains of fifteen individuals, both male and female, were recovered from the cave, including children. The new species has been named Homo naledi, and has an unexpected combination of modern and primitive features, including a rather small brain. "Naledi" was about one and a half meters tall, with a brain volume from 450 to 610 cubic meters. See The word "naledi" means "star" in the Sotho-Tswana languages. 7.12. Homo floresiensis or hobbit is an extinct dwarf species of the genus Homo. Flores man lived from 100 to 60 thousand years ago. The archaeological remains were discovered by Mike Morewood in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Incomplete skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, from Liang Bua Cave. A distinctive feature of hobbits, as the name suggests, is their height, about 1 meter, and their small brain, about 400 cm3. Stone tools were found along with skeletal remains. There is still debate about Homo Flores, whether he could have made tools with such a brain. The theory was put forward that the found skull was a microcephalus. But most likely this species evolved from erectus or other species in conditions of isolation on the island. 7.13. Denisovans ("Denisovan") (Denisova hominin) are Paleolithic members of the genus Homo that may belong to a previously unknown human species. It is believed to be the third person from the Pleistocene to demonstrate a level of adaptation previously thought to be unique to modern humans and Neanderthals. The Denisovans occupied large territories, stretching from cold Siberia to the tropical rainforests of Indonesia. In 2008, Russian scientists discovered the distal phalanx of a girl’s finger in Denisova Cave or Ayu-Tash, in the Altai Mountains, from which mitochondrial DNA was later isolated. The owner of the phalanx lived in a cave about 41 thousand years ago. This cave was also inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans at different times. In general, there are not many finds, including teeth and part of a toe phalanx, as well as various tools and jewelry, including a bracelet made of non-local material. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA from the finger bone showed that Denisovans are genetically different from Neanderthals and modern humans. They may have separated from the Neanderthal lineage after splitting with the Homo sapiens lineage. Recent analyzes have also shown that they overlapped with our species and even interbred several times, at different times. Up to 5-6% of the DNA of Melanesians and Australian aborigines contains Denisovan admixtures. And modern non-Africans have about 2-3% admixture. In 2017, in China, fragments of skulls were found with a large brain volume, up to 1800 cubic cm, and 105-125 thousand years old. Some scientists, based on their description, have suggested that they could belong to the Denisovans, but these versions are currently controversial. 7.14. Idaltu (Homo sapiens idaltu) is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived approximately 160 thousand years ago in Africa. "Idaltu" means "firstborn". Fossil remains of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered in 1997 by Tim White at Herto Buri in Ethiopia. Although the morphology of the skulls indicates archaic features that are not found in later Homo sapiens, they are still considered by scientists as the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens. 7.15. Homo sapiens is a species of the hominid family from the large order of primates. And it is the only living species of this genus, that is, us. If anyone is reading or listening to this not from our species, write in the comments...). Representatives of the species first appeared in Africa about 200 or 315 thousand years ago, if we take into account the latest data from Jebel Irhoud, but there are still many questions there. After which they spread almost throughout the entire planet. Although in a more modern form as Homo sapiens sapiens, well, a very intelligent person, appeared a little over 100 thousand years ago, according to some anthropologists. Also in early times, in parallel with humans, other species and populations developed, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as Soloi man or Javanthrope, Ngandong man and Callao Man, as well as others that do not fit into the species Homo sapiens, but according to dating, who lived at the same time. As for example: 7.15.1. The Red Deer Cave people are an extinct population of people, the latest known to science, that do not fit within the variability of Homo sapiens. And perhaps belongs to another species of the genus Homo. They were discovered in the south of China in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the Longling Cave in 1979. The age of the remains is from 11.5 to 14.3 thousand years. Although they may well be the results of crossbreeding between different populations living during that period. These issues will still be discussed on the channel, so a brief description will suffice for now. And now, whoever watched the video from beginning to end, put the letter “P” in the comments, and if in parts, then “C”, only to be honest!