Phonetic law and phonetic correspondences. Basic phonetic laws of the Russian language

Phonetic laws- these are purely linguistic, internal laws, and they cannot be reduced to any other laws of a physical-biological order.

Phonetic laws specific to groups of related languages and to individual languages.

Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, governing both the stable preservation and regular changes of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goat - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are deafened: gruzd - sadness, entrance - popodest [podjest], etc.

The devoicing of a final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

1) before the pause: [pr "ishol pojst] (the train has arrived); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only voiceless, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [v]: [praf he ], [sat our], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your family). Sonorant consonants are not deafened: litter, they say, lump, he.

2. Assimilation of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, one of which is voiceless and the other voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different sonority appear next to each other in a word, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change in consonant sounds is called regressive assimilation.

By virtue of this law, voiced consonants in front of deaf ones turn into paired deaf ones, and deaf ones in the same position turn into voiced ones. Voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than voicing of voiced consonants; the transition of voiced to voiceless creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (bow - darling), [v "ies"ti - v"ies"t"i] (carry - lead), [fp"jr"im"eshku - fp" "eat" food] (interspersed - interspersed).

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pokhotk] (gait), [zbor] (gathering); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [gd "elu] (to the point), [zd"el'm] (to the point); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got] (year), [dod'zh'by] (daughter); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without pause: [rok-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).

3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists of additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

Assimilation in terms of softness is regressive in nature: the consonant softens, becoming similar to the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants paired in hardness-softness are softened, and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.

All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, are softened in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b"ate", [v"es", [m"ate", [s"ate] (white, weight, chalk, sat), etc.; 2) before [i]: [m"il", [p"il"i] (mil, drank).

Before unpaired [zh], [sh], [ts], soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf. end - ring).

The most susceptible to softening are the dental [z], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [v], [f]. They do not soften in front of soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "es]; cf. [Λ t or]) and before the particle ([ros-l"i]; cf. [rosli]) (here is the forest , wiped off, grew, grew).

Consonants [z] and [s] are softened before soft ones [t"], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m"ês"t"], [v"eez" d "e], [f-ka s"b], [treasury"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). The softening of [z], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials : [raz"d"iel"it"], [ras"t"ienut"], [b"ez"-n"ievo], [b"ies"-s"il] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labials, softening [z], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes with -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex] , [z"v"êr], [d"v"êr|, [t"v"êr], [s"p"êt"], [s"-n"im], [is"-pêch"] , [rΛz"d"êt"] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

Labials do not soften before soft dental ones: [pt"ên"ch"k", [n"eft"], [vz"at"] (chick, oil, take).

4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix beginning with a hard consonant: mechanic - metalworker, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in terms of hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [proz "bъ", [mаllt "it"] - [мълΛд"ba] (ask - request, thresh - threshing), etc. [l"] is not subject to assimilation: [pol"b] - [zΛpol"nyj] (field, field).

5. Assimilation of dentaries before sibilants. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [z], [s] in the position before the sibilants (anteropalatal) [w], [zh], [h], [sh] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [z], [s] to the subsequent sibilant .

Complete assimilation of [z], [s] occurs:

1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rΛ zh at"] (compress, decompress); [sh yt"], [rΛ sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [w"from], [rΛw"from] (account, calculation); [rΛzno sh"ik], [izvo sh"ik] (peddler, cab driver);

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh ar'm], [s-sh ar'm] (with fervor, with a ball); [bi e s-zh ar], [bi e s-sh ar] (without heat, without ball).

The combination zh inside the root, as well as the combination zh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [po zh"] (later), (I ride); [in zh"i], [trembling"i] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases a long hard [zh] can be pronounced.

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] followed by [ch], [ts], resulting in long [ch], [ts]: [Λ ch "ot] (report), (fkra ts ] (briefly).

6. Simplification of consonant combinations. The consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. This simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in the combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [poznъ], [ш"исliv", [g"igansk"i], [h" stvb], [heart], [son] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun).

7. Reducing groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants come together at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the following word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (raz+quarrel), [s ylk] (with reference), [klo n y] (column+n+th); [Λde s ki ] (Odessa+sk+ii).

The main phonetic processes occurring in a word include: 1) reduction; 2) stunning; 3) voicing; 4) mitigation; 5) assimilation; 6) simplification.

Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of vowel sounds in an unstressed position: [house] - [d^ma] - [dj^voi].

Devoicing is the process by which voiced people agree before deaf people and at the end of words are pronounced as voiceless; book - book; oak - du[n].

Voicing is a process in which deaf people in a position in front of voiced ones are pronounced like voiced ones: do -[z"]do; selection - o[d]bor.

Softening is a process in which hard consonants become soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend[s’]t, ka[z’]n, le[s’]t.

Assimilation is a process in which a combination of several dissimilar consonants is pronounced as one long one (for example, the combinations сч, зч, Шч, здч, stч are pronounced as a long sound [ш "], and the combinations Тс(я), ст(я) are pronounced as one long sound [ts]): obe[sh]ik, spring[sh]aty, mu[sh"]ina, [t"]aste, ichi[ts]a. Simplification of consonant groups is a process in which in combinations of consonants stn, zdn, eats, dts, faces and others, the sound is lost, although the letter is used in writing to denote this sound: heart - [s"er"rts], sun - [sonts].

8. Reduction of vowels. The change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. A distinction is made between the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in the remaining unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in the weak position of the second degree undergo greater reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.

Vowels in the weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bi e yes] (trouble), etc.

Vowels in the weak position of the second degree: [рърʌvos] (locomotive); [kurganda] (Karaganda); [kalkkla] (bells); [p"l"i e na] (veil); [voice] (voice), [vocal] (exclamation), etc.

Synchrony - (from the Greek sýnchronós - simultaneous), consideration of a language (or any other system of signs) from the point of view of the relationships between its components in one period of time. For example, the nominative singular form “table” in synchrony has a zero ending, unlike the genitive case “table-a”.

Identification of the dynamics of development in synchrony is also possible through comparison of several simultaneously functioning styles (the choice of which is determined by the conditions of communication) - a more solemn (high), preserving old features, and a more colloquial (low), in which the direction of language development is guessed (for example, an abbreviated form [chiek] instead of “person”).

The study of phonetic phenomena in terms of synchrony is the study of the phonetics of a certain language at a given moment as a ready-made system of interconnected and interdependent elements.

Phonetic processes- These are changes in sounds that occur over time. These changes can be of two types - combinatorial and positional. Combinatorial are phonetic changes caused by the interaction of articulations of sounds in the stream of speech. Sounds can be in close proximity to each other. For example: rest[breath] under the influence of [d] the neighboring [t] in the word changes sew[shyt´] the sound [sh] affects the neighboring [c].

Sounds that are located at a distance from each other can influence each other. For example, in colloquial pronunciation kolidor there is a dissimilarity between two sounds [p], located at a distance from each other.

Positional changes- these are changes in sounds due to their position in a word, caused by the presence of special phonetic conditions. For example, position at the end of a word or under stress.

Combinatorial changes include: accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, haplology, fusion, metathesis. Positional ones include reduction of vowels and deafening of consonants at the end of a word.

Vowel reduction (from the Latin reductio - reduction, decrease) is a change in the sound characteristics of vowels caused by a shortening of the duration of the vowels and a weakening of tension. There are qualitative and quantitative reductions. Quantitative reduction is a decrease in the duration of a sound caused by its unstressed nature. Quantitative reduction is subjected to [y] in an unstressed position.

Qualitative reduction is a reduction associated with a change in the articulatory characteristics of a vowel due to a reduction in its duration. All vowels are subject to qualitative reduction, except [у], in an unstressed position. They say that reduced vowels are sounds with under-articulation. For example, when pronouncing the vowel [a] in an unstressed position, the tongue does not reach the lowest possible position characteristic of this sound under stress. Sometimes reduction can lead to the complete disappearance of sound, as in words wire[pro´volk], hustle[su´talk]. Examples of qualitative vowel reduction: transportation[p´р´i e vos], drum[bar^ban], paraglider[pаr^plan].

Positional changes in consonants include deafening at the end of a word. Instead of voiced consonants, their voiceless pairs appear: eyebrow[f´´], eye[c], rye[w], pond[T]. At the end, the words are deafened and sonorant: they sound more muffled: ship [l´], Peter [r], theater [r].

Combinatorial changes in the area of consonants include, first of all, assimilation(from the Latin assimilatio – ‘likening’) is the likening, complete or partial, of sounds to each other within a word or phrase. Assimilation occurs between sounds of the same type - vowels or consonants. Assimilation differs by sonority-voicelessness, hardness-softness, and by place of formation. Let us trace the essence of this process with examples.

1) assimilation according to voicedness-voicelessness: book[kn´i´shk], request[pro´z´b].

2) assimilation by hardness-softness: snow[s´n´ek], honor[ches´t´].

3) assimilation at the place of education: live down[zhyt´], higher[higherj].

Dissimilation(from the Latin dissimilation ‘dissimilarity’) is the dissimilarity of sounds, namely: sounds that match some characteristics begin to differ in these characteristics. For example, in many dialects the plosive [k] before the plosives [p], [t], [k] has changed into a fricative [x]: who [hto], soft [m´ahk´ij], easy [l´ohk´ij ]. Dissimilation occurs in the word What, in place of two stops [h] and [t], a combination of fricative and stop [pcs] is pronounced. Dissimilation explains the pronunciation of the combination [shn] in place of the combination of two stops [chn] in words Of course, boring, birdhouse, scrambled eggs. Although in many words there is a tendency to pronounce a combination of two stops without change. Dissimilation is caused by the colloquial pronunciation in the words as[v]alt, bo[n]ba, tra[n]vay.

Dierez- This is the loss of sounds. Thus, dental [t] and [d] have ceased to be pronounced in a number of combinations [stn], [zdn], [sts], [sts], [zdts], [nts], [nds] honest, sad, late, mountaineering, Scots, heart, festive.

The opposite process is called epenthesis - this is the insertion of sounds. Vowels can be inserted between two consonants. So, modern words fire And coal arose from the Old Russian FIRE, COAL. In colloquial pronunciation, the consonants [j], [v] can be inserted between vowels. For example, scorpien, spien, Larivon, radivo, kakavo.

Prosthesis is the appearance of a sound at the beginning of a word. Prosthetic is [in] in the word eight. It is enough to compare this word with similar root words ocmushka, ocminy, eighteen. In dialects, prosthetic is [in] in words vutka, sharp. A vowel sound can be prosthetic. So, in dialect pronunciation arzhanoy, alnyana the sound [a] is prosthetic.

Metathesis- This is a rearrangement of sounds. As a result of metathesis, words such as palm, which goes back to the Old Russian DOLON and the same root Old Slavic DLAN. As a result of metathesis, the word arose witchbear, common in dialects. Compare with literary bear.

Haplology(from the Greek χάπλος – ‘simple’ and λογος – ‘word’) is a simplification of the syllabic structure of a word due to the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following each other. Yes, word mineralogy arose from the word mineralology after one of the syllables is dropped lo. Word standard bearer arose from the word standard bearer when one of the syllables was lost But. As a result of haplology, the words arose tragicomedy ← tragicomedy, Lermontov scholar ← Lermontov scholar.

Fusia(from Latin fusio - ‘fusion’) is a phonetically determined penetration of contacting morphemes, in which it becomes difficult to draw boundaries between affixes. Fusion occurs at the junction of two morphemes, for example at the junction of the ending of a verb and a postfix - Xia is fighting[d and e rots]. In transcription, identifying morphemes is difficult. The pronunciation of the sound [ts] in place of the combination [ts] at the junction of morphemes arises as a result of fusion.

Accommodation(from the Latin accomodatio – ‘adjustment’) is the process of adapting the articulation of a consonant sound to the articulation of a vowel and vice versa. Accommodation occurs between sounds of different types. The result of accommodation is, for example, the rounding of consonants before rounded vowels [р°ука¢].

As a result of accommodation, the sound [and] turns into [s] after hard consonants game - joke, ideological - unideological, spark - sparkless, Ira - to Ira[kyr].

The result of accommodation is the adaptation of the articulation of vowels, except for [and], to the articulation of soft consonants in the position under stress. Under the influence of soft consonants, vowels develop an i-shaped overtone, that is, they become somewhat advanced. more forward in the row. In transcription, accommodation of vowels under the influence of soft consonants is indicated as follows: small [small], crumpled [m¢·al], mother [ma·t¢], crumpled [m·a·t¢]. Vowels between two soft consonants become narrower, tense, and closed.

Positional and combinatorial changes in sounds lead to alternation.

Hardness - softness.

The place of formation of the consonant depends on which active organ does the main work and which passive organ it connects with. According to the place of formation, all consonants are divided into labial and lingual. Labial Consonants are sounds in which the noise-producing barrier is provided either by the lips or by the lips and tongue. If the active organ is the lower lip and the passive organ is the upper, then such consonants are called labiolabial. These include: [b]/[b´], [p]/[p´], [m]/[m´]. Labiodental are called consonants in which the barrier is created by the lower lip (active organ) and upper teeth (passive organ). These include: [v]/[v´], [f]/[f´].

In lingual consonants, the active organ is the tongue. It can articulate to the upper teeth, alveoli (tubercles at the roots of the upper teeth), and different parts of the palate. Depending on which part of the tongue creates the obstruction, frontal, middle, and posterior consonants are distinguished.

TO back-lingual sounds include: [g]/[g´], [k]/[k´], [x]/[x´]. TO middle language– [j]. TO front-lingual- [t]/[t´], [d]/[d´], [s]/[s´], [z]/[z´], [n]/[n´], [l]/ [l´], [ts]. In this case, the active organ is the tongue, and the passive organ is the upper teeth. Forelingual-alveolar ones, in which the active organ is the tongue and the passive organ is the alveoli, include: [p]/[p´], [w]/[w´], [g]/[zh´], [h].

The method of formation is a characteristic of the obstacle in the oral cavity in the path of the air stream and the method of overcoming it. There are three types of obstacles: (1) a narrow gap between the adjacent organs of speech, (2) complete closure of the organs of speech, (3) an active organ trembling in the flow of speech. Therefore, according to the method of formation, all consonants are divided into fricatives (or fricatives, their Latin analogue), stops and tremors.

Slotted are formed as a result of friction of an air stream against the edges of the adjacent organs of speech, forming a gap. There are slotted middle and slotted side ones. When articulating the slotted laterals, air flows along the sides of the oral cavity, between the lateral parts of the tongue. This is how the consonants [l]/[l´] are formed. The slotted middle ones include: [v]/[v´], [f]/[f´], [s]/[s´], [z]/[z´], [w]/[w´], [g]/[g´], [x]/[x´], [γ]/[γ´], [j].

During education stops consonants, the flow of air through the oral cavity is blocked by the bow. There is a moment when the flow of air through the oral cavity completely stops. Depending on the nature of overcoming the stop, nasal, plosive, affricates and implosive consonants are distinguished.

Nasals consonants are characterized by complete closure of the oral cavity and simultaneous lowering of the velum palatine, as a result of which air freely passes through the nasal cavity. This is how the consonants [n]/[n´], [m]/[m´] are formed.

During education explosive consonants, first there is a complete delay of the air stream, and then a complete opening of the speech organs and a breakthrough of the air stream with a characteristic noise. Plosives include: [p]/[p´], [b]/[b´], [d]/[d´ ], [t]/[t´], [k]/[k´], [g]/[g´].

Africates, like plosives, are initially formed when the speech organs are completely closed, but in the last phase the speech organs do not open sharply, but form a gap for air to escape. They are also called slit-slotted. These include [ch] and [ts]. Sometimes in transcription they have a different designation, which illustrates their occlusive-frictional character - [ch] as [t´sh´], and [ts] as [ts]. It should be remembered that this is one heterogeneous sound, and not two different sounds. Compare: pronunciation of words dump and unhook[^tsyp'it']\[^tsyp't'].

Some scientists distinguish among stop consonants the so-called implosive. They contain only one stop phase, they do not have a second phase - opening, like plosives or affricates. Implosives take the place of plosives before plosives or affricates. For example: father [^ttsa´] the consonant [t] is implosive, since it contains only a stop phase.

Trembling(otherwise vibrants) are formed by vibration (trembling) of the tip of the tongue in the outgoing stream of air. In this case, the tip of the tongue closes and opens with the alveoli. Trembling ones differ somewhat from occlusive ones in that in the latter the closure of the active and passive organs is longer and denser. Trembling sounds include the sounds [р], [р´].

According to noise level, consonants are divided into sonorant and noisy. Sonorant ones include [m], [m´], [l], [l´], [p], [p´], [n], [n´], [j]. Sonorous are formed with the help of voice and slight noise, which from an acoustic point of view brings them closer to vowels. All other consonants are classified as noisy. They are formed either using only noise [п], [п´], [т], [т´], [с], [с´], [к], [к´], [ф], [ф´ ]..., or with the help of voice and noise [b], [b´], [c], [v´], [d], [d´], [z], [z´]... Depending on the degree of participation vocal cords during the formation of consonants, all noisy ones are divided into voiced and voiceless. In education deaf only noise is involved in consonants. These include: [k], [k´], [p], [p´], [s], [s´], [t], [t´], [f], [f´], [ x], [x´], [w], [h], [ts], [w´]. When forming smelly noise dominates the voice. These include: [b], [b´], [c], [v´], [d], [d´], [z], [z´], [g], [g´], [ and]. So, the division of consonants by voice and noise level can be schematically represented as follows:

According to their voicedness-voicelessness, consonants form pairs: [b - p], [b´ - p´], [v-f], [v´ - f´], [g - k], [g´ - k´]. [d - t], [d´ - t´], [z - s], [z´ - s´], [f - w].

The consonants [ch] and [ts] also have voiced pairs. They appear in place of these sounds before voiced consonants. [ts] has a pair [dz], and [h] has a pair [j´]. Compare: the father would be [^t´edzbъ], the daughter would be [do´dzh´bъ]. The sound [γ] is voiced paired with the consonant [x] in the words accountant, would go deaf [^gloγbъ].

Sonorant consonants also have voiceless pairs that appear at the end of the word after the voiceless consonant , , .

All consonants are divided into hard and soft depending on whether additional (iota) articulation is superimposed on the main one. Soft (or palatalized) consonants are formed if there is an additional rise of the middle part of the back of the tongue towards the soft palate. This process is otherwise called palatalization (from the Latin palatum - sky). The sound [j] is the only consonant in the Russian language in which the rise of the tongue to the palate is not an additional, but the main articulation, therefore it is called palatal.

According to hardness and softness, consonants form pairs. For example: [b - b´], [c - c´], [d - d´] ... Let's pay attention to that. that soft [zh´] is pronounced in the words reins, yeast, squeal. This sound is always long. However, in these words the pronunciation of hard [zh] is also acceptable.

In accordance with 5 classification criteria, a table for the classification of consonant sounds has been compiled.

The classification of vowel sounds is based on 3 main features: (1) the degree of elevation of the tongue, that is, the degree of its vertical displacement, (2) row - the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or backward, (3) labialization - the position of the lips.

According to the degree of rise, the vowels of the upper rise are distinguished [i], [s], [y]; medium rise [e], [o]; lower lift [a]. When articulating high vowels, the tongue occupies the highest position. The upper and lower jaws are as close as possible, creating a narrow mouth opening. Otherwise, high vowels are called narrow. When articulating lower vowels, the lower jaw is lowered to its lowest position. A wide mouth opening is created. Such vowels are called wide.

According to the series, vowels are divided into 3 groups. The basis for classifying vowels into rows is the horizontal position of the tongue in the front or back of the oral cavity. There are front vowels [i], [e], and with their articulation the tongue moves forward; middle vowels – [ы], [а], during the formation of which the tongue is extended along the oral cavity; back vowels - [у], [о], when they are formed, the tongue moves back, and the back of the tongue rises to the back of the palate.

Based on the participation of the lips, vowels are divided into rounded(labialized) and unrounded(non-labialized). The terms are derived from the Latin word labium - lip. When forming rounded vowels, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding may vary. The vowels [у], [о] are labialized. Moreover, the vowel [y] has a greater degree of labialization. All other Russian vowels are non-labialized.

The simplest table for the classification of Russian vowels is as follows:

	Front row	Middle row	Back row
Top rise	AND	Y	U
Medium rise	E		ABOUT
Bottom rise		A

This table was called the “Shcherba triangle”, since the classification itself was developed by L.V. Shcherba.

But the division into three rows and three rises does not reflect the full richness of Russian vowel sounds. Many phoneticians proposed to distinguish seven degrees of rise, which makes it possible to detail the classification of Russian vowels. For example:

	Front row	Middle row	Middle-back row	Back row
Top rise	AND	Y		U
Upper-medium rise	And uh, b	Uh
Medium rise	E	Kommersant		ABOUT
Mid-low rise			^
Bottom rise		A

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word . A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless. Devoicing of a final voiced occurs under the following phonetic conditions:

A) before the pause: the train has arrived d- came to eat[st];

B) before the next word with the initial not only voiceless, but also sonorant, vowel, as well as [v] and [j]: he is right - he is right; our garden is ours, etc. Sonorant consonants are not devoiced.

2. The law of assimilation of consonants according to voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, one of which is voiceless and the other voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different sonority appear next to each other in a word, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change is called regressive assimilation.

By virtue of this law, voiced consonants in front of deaf ones turn into paired deaf ones, and deaf ones in the same position turn into voiced ones. Voicing voiceless consonants are less common than stun voiced: alternately residential complex y - alternately [sh]ku, ko sb a – male [z]ba.

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the voiceless ones remain unchanged: tr ut, pl ut, etc.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions:

at the junction of morphemes: poho dk a - walk[t]ka (at the junction of the root and the suffix); collection - [g]boring (at the junction of the prefix and the root), etc.;

at the junction of prepositions with the word: to business - [g] business, with business - [z] business, etc.;

at the junction of a word with a particle: year - go [t] something

at the junction of significant words pronounced without pause: goat's horn - ro[k] goat.

3. The law of assimilation of consonants by softness.

All consonants paired in hardness and softness are softened in the following weak positions:

before the vowel E: [b"]ate, [v"]es, [s"]ate, etc.;

before [i]: [m"]il, [p"]i[l]"and etc.

Before extrapaired [zh], [sh] and [ts], soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l"]: ko n tse-ko l tse.

They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], [l]: G glucose, To sunroof, X leb, napo l nude

Labial consonants do not soften before soft dental ones: P tenchik, V son-in-law

4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix beginning with a hard consonant: slesa R b – forests R ny. Before the labial [b], assimilation in terms of hardness does not occur: pro[s"]it - pro[z"]ba; not subject to assimilation [l"]: po[l"]e, voracious [l"]ny

5. Assimilation of dentaries before sibilants. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [z], [s] in the position before the sibilants (anteropalatal) [zh], [sh], [h], [sh"] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [z], [s] to the subsequent hissing.

Classification of vowel sounds is based on three main features: the participation of the lips, the degree of elevation of the tongue in relation to the palate, the degree of advancement of the tongue forward or pushed back.

By the participation of the lips vowels are divided into rounded (or labialized) And unrounded (or non-labialized). When rounded vowels are formed, the lips come closer, rounded and protrude forward, reducing the exit opening and lengthening the oral resonator. The degree of rounding can be different: less at [o], greater at [y]. The vowels [a, e, i, s] are unrounded.

According to the degree of tongue elevation in relation to the palate, the vowels of three main rises differ: upper - [i, ы, у], middle - [e, o], lower - [a]. Between them are the vowels of the upper - middle and middle - lower rises.

By degree of language advancement forward or pushed back, the vowels of three main rows are distinguished: front - [i, e], middle - [s, a], back - [u, o].

Correct and more accurate identification of sounds in a text should also be based on knowledge of phonetic alternations of sounds.

Sound law in the field of vowels called reduction. The change (weakening) in the sound of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels - reduced vowels. A distinction is made between the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in the remaining unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in the weak position of the second degree undergo greater reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.

Distinguish quantitative And high-quality reduction. All vowel sounds without exception in an unstressed position are subject to quantitative testing, and the sounds [a], [o], [and] are subject to qualitative testing.

Analysis of the sound composition of a word

1) Provide the most accurate phonetic transcription;

2) characterize all the sounds of the word, indicating the characteristics: consonants have place and method of formation, noisiness/sonority, deafness/voice, hardness/softness, as well as labialization/non-labialization; for vowels - row, rise, labialization / non-labialization, full formation or reduced and the degree of reduction, as well as the advancement of the initial or final phase of the vowel forward and upward next to the soft consonant.

Sample : GET STUPID

[L/DUR/MA"/N"I/VЪ/ЦЪ]

[aЛ] - middle vowel, mid-low rise, non-labialized, reduced 1st degree;

[d] - consonant anterior lingual dental, stop plosive, noisy, voiced, hard, labialized;

[y] - back vowel, high vowel, labialized, reduced 1st degree;

[p] - consonant anterior lingual anteropalatal, stop, tremulous, sonorant, voiced, hard, non-labialized;

[m] - labiolabial consonant, stop nasal, sonorant, voiced, hard, non-labialized;

[a"] - middle vowel, lower rise, advanced forward and upward in the final phase, non-labialized, fully formed;

[n"] - consonant anterior lingual dental, stop nasal, sonorant, voiced, soft, non-labialized;

[i] - front vowel, upper-mid rise, non-labialized, reduced 2nd degree;

[c] - labiodental consonant, fricative median, noisy voiced, hard, non-labialized;

[ъ] - middle vowel, mid-rise, non-labialized, reduced 2nd degree;

[ts] - frontal consonant, dental, stop affricate, noisy, voiceless, hard, non-labialized;

[ъ] - vowel of the middle row, middle rise, non-labialized, reduced 2nd degree.

14 letters, 12 sounds.

Recently, to denote concepts such as "phonetic unit" And "phonetic means" Other terms are often used: segmental and supersegmental units , which, of course, more clearly convey the functional originality of the phonetic phenomena themselves (units and means).

Thus, segmental phonetic units - these are linear segments of the speech stream with different structures ( sounds, syllables, phonetic words, bars, phrases).

Supersegmental or prosodic units How would be superimposed on linear units, completing, building from the smallest (sounds) structurally higher formations (syllables, phonetic words, etc.). All this is achieved with the help of such supersegmental means (units) as stress and intonation.

Therefore, for a more intelligible explanation of such phonetic units as a syllable, phonetic word, etc., it is necessary to first familiarize yourself with phonetically, facilitating their isolation from the flow of speech.

Phonetic laws (sound laws)- laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, governing both the stable preservation and regular changes of its sound units, their alternations and combinations

· Phonetic law of the end of a word.

A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goat - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are deafened: gruzd - sadness, entrance - popodest [podjest], etc.

The devoicing of a final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

· Assimilation of consonants in terms of voicedness and deafness.

Combinations of consonants, one of which is voiceless and the other voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. That's why, If in a word there are two consonants of different sonority next to each other, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change in consonant sounds is called regressive assimilation.

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.

· Assimilation of consonants by softness.

Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists of additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

All consonants paired in hardness and softness are softened in the following weak positions:

1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b"ate", [v"es", [m"ate", [s"ate] (white, weight, chalk, sat), etc.;

2) before [i]: [m"il", [p"il"i] (mil, drank).

Before unpaired [zh], [sh], [ts], soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf. end - ring).

The most susceptible to softening are the dental [z], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [v], [f]. They do not soften in front of soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "es]; cf. [Λ op]) and before the particle ([ros-l"i]; cf. [rΛsli]) (here is the forest, rubbed off, grew, grew).

Consonants [z] and [s] are softened before soft ones [t"], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m"ês"t"], [v"eez" d "e], [f-ka "b", [treasury"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). The softening of [z], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials: [raz"d"iel"it"], [ras"t"ienut"], [b"ez"-n"ievo], [b"ies"-s"il] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labials, softening [z], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes with -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex] , [z"v"êr], [d"v"êr|, [t"v"êr], [s"p"êt"], [s"-n"im], [is"-pêch"] , [rΛz"d"êt"] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

Labials do not soften before soft dental ones: [pt"ên"ch"k", [n"eft"], [vz"at"] (chick, oil, take).

· Assimilation of consonants by hardness.

Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of a root and a suffix beginning with a hard consonant: mechanic - metalworker, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in terms of hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [proz "bъ", [mаllt "it"] - [мълΛд"ba] (ask - request, thresh - threshing), etc. [l"] is not subject to assimilation: [pol"b] - [zΛpol"nyj] (field, field).

· Assimilation of dentaries before sibilants.

This type of assimilation extends to the dental [z], [s] in the position before the sibilants (anteropalatal) [w], [zh], [h], [sh] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [z], [s] to the subsequent sibilant .

Complete assimilation of [z], [s] occurs:

1) at the junction of morphemes: [at"], [pΛ at"] (compress, decompress); [yt"], [rΛ yt"] (sew, embroider); ["from", [pΛ "from] (account, calculation); [various "ik", [izvo "ik] (peddler, cab driver);

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [ar'm], [ar'm] (with heat, with a ball); [bie ar], [bie ar] (without heat, without ball).

Combination of zh inside the root, as well as a combination of LJ (always inside the root) turn into a long soft[f"]: [by "] (later), (ride); [in "and", [dro "and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases a long hard [zh] can be pronounced.

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] followed by [ch], [ts], resulting in long , : [Λ "ot] (report), (fkra ъ] (in short).

· Simplification of consonant combinations.

The consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. This simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in the combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [sleep], [pozn], [sh"islivy], [g"igansk"i], [h"stvo", [heart], [son] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun ).

· Reducing groups of identical consonants.

When three identical consonants come together at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the following word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra or "it"] (raz+quarrel), [ ylk] (with reference), [klo y ] (column+n+th); [Λde ki ] (Odessa+sk+ii).

3. Russian literary pronunciation in its historical development.

The orthoepy of the modern Russian literary language is a historically established system, which, along with new features, largely preserves old, traditional features that reflect the historical path traversed by the literary language. The historical basis of Russian literary pronunciation is the most important features of the spoken language of the city of Moscow, which took shape in the first half of the 17th century. By this time, Moscow pronunciation had lost its narrow dialectal features and combined the pronunciation features of both the northern and southern dialects of the Russian language. Acquiring a generalized character, Moscow pronunciation became an expression of the national pronunciation. M.V. Lomonosov considered the Moscow “dialect” to be the basis of literary pronunciation:

“The Moscow dialect is rightly preferred to others not only for the importance of the capital city, but also for its excellent beauty...”

Moscow pronunciation norms were transferred to other economic and cultural centers as a model and were adopted there on the basis of local dialect features. This is how pronunciation features developed that were unusual for the Moscow orthoepic norm. The most clearly expressed features of pronunciation were in St. Petersburg, the cultural center and capital of Russia in the 18th-19th centuries.. At the same time, there was no complete unity in Moscow pronunciation: there were pronunciation variants that had different stylistic overtones.

With the development and strengthening of the national language, Moscow pronunciation acquired the character and significance of national pronunciation norms. The orthoepic system developed in this way has been preserved to this day in all its main features as stable pronunciation norms of the literary language.

Literary pronunciation is often called stage pronunciation. This name indicates the importance of realistic theater in developing pronunciation. When describing pronunciation norms, it is quite legitimate to refer to the pronunciation of the scene.

In the formation of literary pronunciation, an exceptional role belongs to radio broadcasting, television and sound cinema, which serve as a powerful means of disseminating literary pronunciation and maintaining its unity.

The pronunciation system of the modern literary language in its basic and defining features does not differ from the pronunciation system of the pre-October era. The differences between the first and second are of a particular nature. The changes and fluctuations that have arisen in modern literary pronunciation concern mainly the pronunciation of individual words and their groups, as well as individual grammatical forms. So, for example, the pronunciation of the soft sound [s] in the affix -s - -sya (moyu[s"], soap[s"ъ]) with the old norm (moyu[s"] - soap[s"ъ]) does not contribute any changes to the system of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian language. Strengthening the new pronunciation version of the affix -sya - -sya (boy[s"]) as a modern orthoepic norm brings pronunciation closer to writing, which was not the case with the old pronunciation variant (boyu[s]), and therefore is quite appropriate.

An example of a new pronunciation variant that makes a change in the phonetic system of the language is the pronunciation of a long hard one in place of a long soft [ "]: along with [vo "and", [dro "and] they pronounce voy, droy. Strengthening the new pronunciation variant makes a change in phonetic system of the language, frees it from the isolated element [ "], which is not organically connected with the consonant system as a whole. This replacement makes the phonetic system of the modern Russian language more consistent and integral and serves as an example of its improvement.

The examples given show that the new pronunciation options are unequal. If they improve the pronunciation system and give it greater consistency, then they turn out to be viable and have a basis for consolidation as an orthoepic norm. Otherwise, the pronunciation option gradually dies out.

The differentiation of styles in the literary language in the field of vocabulary and grammar is also manifested in the field of pronunciation. There are two types of pronunciation style: conversational style and public (book) speech style. Conversational style is ordinary speech, dominant in everyday communication, stylistically weakly colored, neutral. The lack of a focus on perfect pronunciation in this style leads to the appearance of pronunciation variants, for example: [pros"ut] and [pros"t], [high] and [high". The book style finds expression in different forms of public speech: in radio broadcasting and sound films, in reports and lectures, etc. This style requires impeccable linguistic design, strict preservation of historically formed norms, and the elimination of pronunciation variations.

In cases where differences in pronunciation are due solely to the area of phonetics, two styles are distinguished: full and colloquial (incomplete). The full style is characterized by clear pronunciation of sounds, which is achieved by a slow speech rate. The conversational (incomplete) style is characterized by a faster pace and, naturally, less careful articulation of sounds.

4. Modern pronunciation standards.

Modern Russian literary pronunciation was formed on the basis of the oral speech of Moscow (Moscow vernacular), which reflected the features of northern and southern Russian dialects.

Modern pronunciation norms developed gradually on the basis of variant pronunciation in different territorial dialects, in different social groups and partly in different styles. From a chronological point of view, the difference in pronunciation options can be assessed as “younger” and “senior” norms. The following situation is visible here: the new pronunciation displaces the old one, but it may be that both pronunciations coexist in parallel for quite a long time.

Orthoepy(from the Greek orthos direct, correct and epos speech) - a set of rules that, unlike spelling, determine the pronunciation norms of oral (sounding) speech and ensure a uniform and mandatory sound for all literate speakers of the language of all linguistic units in accordance with the characteristics of the language phonetic system , as well as uniform (or in the form of strictly regulated variants) pronunciation of certain linguistic units in accordance with historically established pronunciation norms for a literary language that have been established in public linguistic practice.

The rules (norms) of pronunciation in the Russian literary language may relate to the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, as part of certain combinations of sounds, in different grammatical forms, to the phonetic word and rhythmic structure (correct placement of stress). Thus, the basic orthoepic rules of the Russian language for the convenience of the user can be divided into those that determine the pronunciation of vowels(in different positions in a word, as well as when determining the place of stress) and pronunciation of consonants(also in different positions in a word, in combinations of consonants, in combinations with some vowel sounds, in different grammatical forms). A trend in the field of orthoepy is also the phonetic nature of foreign words (borrowings) - a process that is constantly intensifying and then fading depending on the changing degree of intensity of the borrowing process itself. A borrowing language always strives to subordinate borrowings to its own morphoepic, spelling and grammatical rules and laws; It is believed that the degree of “subordination” of a foreign language borrowing to language norms determines its “mastery” of a given language.

Pronunciation norms, for one reason or another, may begin to “lose”: fluctuations in pronunciation norms arise, which, if they become widespread, lead to the emergence of variants of the literary norm, and then to the emergence and strengthening of a new pronunciation norm. Orthoepy, along with obligatory pronunciation norms, primarily studies variants of pronunciation norms that coexist in the language at some point in time, when the old (due to history) pronunciation variant is still actively used along with the new variant. Thus, the combination chn is pronounced as [chn] in the words floral, colorful, as [shn] in the words scrambled eggs, boring, and variable pronunciation is allowed (both options - [chn] and [shn] - are correct) in the words bakery, laundry, gingerbread . At the same time, the option of pronouncing this combination as [sh] is currently perceived as outdated.

Failure to comply with uniform rules of pronunciation (orthoepic norms) can lead to both the complete impossibility of verbal communication and its significant difficulty. It is traditionally believed that ignorance of spelling rules indicates an insufficiently high cultural level of a person. In addition, the unity of pronunciation norms is also supported by spelling rules (orthographic rules), which thereby ensure adequate perception of the written text.

Phonetic laws- laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, governing both the stable preservation and regular changes of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.

Phonetic laws:

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. Noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word stunned, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding paired voiceless. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold - vice, young - hammer, goat - braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are deafened: gruzd - sadness, entrance - popodest [pLdjest], etc.
The devoicing of a final voiced occurs under the following conditions:
1) before the pause: [pr "ishol pojst] (the train has arrived); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only voiceless, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [v]: [praf he ], [sat our], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your family). Sonorant consonants are not devoiced: rubbish, they say, lump, he.

2. Assimilation of consonants by voicing and deafness. Combinations of consonants, one of which is voiceless and the other voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different sonority appear next to each other in a word, the first consonant becomes similar to the second. This change in consonant sounds is called regressive assimilation.

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [v], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Ltjest] (departure), yours, yours.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pLhotkъ] (gait), [zbor] (gathering); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [gd "elu] (to the point), [zd"el'm] (to the point); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got] (year), [dod'zh'by] (daughter); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without pause: [rock-kLzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).

3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists of additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

Assimilation by softness has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming similar to the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants paired in hardness-softness are softened, and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.

Before unpaired [zh], [sh], [ts], soft consonants are impossible with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf. end - ring).

The most susceptible to softening are the dental [z], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [v], [f]. They do not soften in front of soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "es]; cf. [L t or]) and before the particle ([ros-l"i]; cf. [rLSli]) (here is the forest , wiped off, grew, grew).

Consonants [z] and [s] are softened before soft [t"], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m"ks"t"], [v"eez" d "e], [f-ka s"b], [treasury"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). The softening of [z], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials : [raz"d"iel"it"], [ras"t"ienut"], [b"ez"-n"ievo], [b"ies"-s"il] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labials, softening [z], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes with -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex] , [z"v"kr], [d"v"kr|, [t"v"kr", [s"p"kt"], [s"-n"im], [is"-pkch"] , [рЛз "д"кт"] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

Labials do not soften before soft dental ones: [pt"kn"ch"k", [n"eft"], [vz"at"] (chick, oil, take).

4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of root and suffix, starting with a solid consonant: mechanic - metalworker, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in terms of hardness does not occur: [prLS "it"] - [prose "bъ", [mаllt "it"] - [мълЛд"ba] (ask - request, thresh - threshing), etc. [l"] is not subject to assimilation: [pol"b] - [zLpol"nyj] (field, field).

5. Assimilation of dentaries before sibilants. This type of assimilation extends to dental[z], [s] in position before the hissing ones(anteropalatal) [w], [z], [h], [sh] and consists in complete assimilation of the dental [z], [s] to the subsequent sibilant.

Complete assimilation of [z], [s] occurs:

1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rL z at"] (compress, decompress); [sh yt"], [rL sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [w"from], [rL w"ot] (account, calculation); [rLzno sh"ik], [izvo sh"ik] (peddler, cab driver);

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh ar'm], [s-sh ar'm] (with fervor, with a ball); [bies-zh ar], [bies-sh ar] (without heat, without ball).

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] followed by [ch], [ts], resulting in long [ch], [ts]: [L h "ot] (report), (fkra ts ] (briefly).

6. Simplifying consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t]in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. This simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in the combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [poznъ], [ш"исliv", [g"igansk"i], [h" stvb], [heart], [son] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun).

7. Reducing groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants come together at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the following word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (raz+quarrel), [s ylk] (with reference), [kLlo n y] (column+n+th); [Lde s ki] (Odessa+sk+ii).

8. Vowel reduction. Change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are reduced vowels. A distinction is made between the position of unstressed vowels in the first pre-stressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in the remaining unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in the weak position of the second degree undergo greater reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.

Vowels in the weak position of the first degree: [vLly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bieda] (trouble), etc.

Vowels in the weak position of the second degree: [par?vos] (locomotive); [kargLnda] (Karaganda); [kalkLla] (bells); [p"l"ie na] (veil); [voice] (voice), [vocal] (exclamation), etc.

The main phonetic processes occurring in a word include: 1) reduction; 2) stunning; 3) voicing; 4) mitigation; 5) assimilation; 6) simplification.

Reduction- This weakening of the pronunciation of vowel sounds in an unstressed position: [house] - [d^ma] - [dj^voi].

Stun- a process in which voiced consonants before voiceless ones and at the end of words are pronounced as voiceless; book - book; oak - du[n].

Voicing- a process in which deaf pregnant before voiced ones they are pronounced like voiced ones: do -[z"]do; selection - o[d]bor.

Mitigation- a process in which hard consonants become soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend[s"]t, ka[z"]n, le[s"]t.

Assimilation- a process in which a combination several dissimilar consonants are pronounced as one long(for example, the combinations сч, зч, shch, zdch, stch are pronounced with a long sound [ш "], and the combinations сч(я), тс(я) are pronounced as one long sound [ц]): obe[sh]ik, spring[ sh]aty, mu[sh"]ina, [t"]aste, ichi[ts]a.

Simplification consonant clusters - a process by which in combinations of consonants stn, zdn, eats, dts, persons and others, sound loss occurs, although in writing the letter is used to denote this sound: heart - [s"er"rts], sun - [sonts].

Orthoepy(from the Greek orthos - correct and epos - speech) - a department of linguistics that studies the rules of exemplary pronunciation ( Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language D.N. Ushakova). Orthoepy- these are historically established norms of Russian literary pronunciation of individual sounds and sound combinations in the flow of oral speech.

1 . Pronunciation of vowel sounds determined by position in pre-stressed syllables and is based on a phonetic law called reduction. Due to reduction, unstressed vowels are preserved in duration (quantity) and lose their distinct sound (quality). All vowels are subject to reduction, but the degree of this reduction is not the same. Thus, the vowels [у], [ы], [и] in an unstressed position retain their basic sound, while [a], [o], [e] change qualitatively. The degree of reduction [a], [o], [e] depends primarily on the place of the syllable in the word, as well as on the nature of the preceding consonant.

A) In the first pre-stressed syllable the sound [Ù] is pronounced: [vÙdý / sÙdý / nÙzhý]. After hissing words, [Ù] is pronounced: [zhÙra / shÙry].

In place of [e], after the hissing [zh], [sh], [ts], the sound [y e] is pronounced: [tsy e pnóį], [zhy e ltok].

After soft consonants, in place of [a], [e], the sound [and e] is pronounced:

[ch٬i e sy / sn٬i e la].

b ) In other unstressed syllables in place of the sounds [o], [a], [e] after hard consonants, the sound [ъ] is pronounced: [кълькÙла́/ цъхъво́ѯ/

pар٨во́с] After soft consonants, in place of the sounds [а], [е] is pronounced [ь]: [п"тьч"ok/ч"мда́н].

2. Pronunciation of consonants:

a) norms of literary pronunciation require a positional exchange of paired deaf and voiced in the position in front of the deaf (voiced only) - voiced (voiced only) and at the end of the word (voiced only): [hl"ep] / trupk / proz"b];

b) assimilative softening is not necessary, there is a tendency towards its loss: [s"t"ina] and [st"ina", [z"d"es"] and [z"es"].

3. Pronunciation of some combinations of consonants:

a) in pronominal formations What, to– Thu pronounced [pcs]; in pronominal formations like something, mail, almost the pronunciation [h"t] is preserved;

b) in a number of words of predominantly colloquial origin, [shn] is pronounced in place chn: [kÙn"eshn/nÙroshn].

In words of book origin, the pronunciation [ch"n] has been preserved: [ml"ech"nyį /vÙstoch"nyį];

c) in the pronunciation of combinations rise, zdn, stn(hello, holiday, private trader) usually there is a reduction or loss of one of the consonants: [prazn"ik], [ch"asn"ik], [hello]

4. Pronunciation of sounds in some grammatical forms:

a) pronunciation of the form I.p. units adjectives m.r. without emphasis: [krasnyį / with "in"iį] - arose under the influence of spelling - y, - y; after back-lingual g, k, x ® й: [t"íkh"iį], [m"ahk"iį];

b) pronunciation – sya, - sya. Under the influence of spelling, soft pronunciation has become the norm: [ньч "и е ла́" / нъч" и е лс"а́];

c) pronunciation of verbs in – to live after g, k, x, the pronunciation [g"], [k"], [x"] became the norm (under the influence of spelling): [vyt"ag"iv't"].