In October 1813, the forces of the new anti-French coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Spain and Portugal) defeated the French army in the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig. In March 1814, coalition troops entered Paris.
Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed king, was elevated to the French throne. Napoleon retained the title of emperor, but was forced to sign an act of abdication and go into exile on the island of Elba (see lesson). The Congress of Vienna was convened to discuss and create a new post-war system in Europe.
Events
May 1814. - a peace treaty with France was signed by Russia, England, Spain, Prussia, and Portugal. Under this treaty, France lost all the territories conquered during the revolutionary wars.
September 1814 - June 1815. - Congress of Vienna. The first diplomatic congress in world history met in Vienna. Almost all European states took part in it. Representatives of five powers had the greatest influence at the congress: Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and France.
Objectives of the Congress:
1) return the pre-revolutionary borders of France, restore the Bourbon dynasty in France;
2) carry out the territorial reorganization of Europe and the colonies;
3) take measures to prevent new revolutions and conflicts in Europe.
Results of the Vienna Congress:
- Most of the Duchy of Warsaw went to Russia.
- Prussia received the Rhineland, Westphalia, and western Polish lands.
- Austria received Lombardy and Venice.
- Great Britain received the island of Malta, the island of Ceylon, and the Cape Land in southern Africa.
- The German Confederation was created from 39 states (among others it included Austria and Prussia).
- The temporal power of the pope over the Roman region was restored.
- At the congress, a whole system of alliances and agreements was adopted that were designed to restrain the aggression of individual states. This is how a legal (legitimate) order emerged, based on a system of generally recognized international treaties.
1815. - The Holy Alliance was concluded between Russia, Austria and Prussia. Later, this treaty was signed by almost all rulers of European states.
The treaty was intended to guarantee respect for the European borders adopted at the Congress of Vienna. The union was aimed at preventing wars and revolutions in Europe, as well as protecting monarchical and religious values.
Participants
Clemens Metternich - Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria, Chancellor from 1821 to 1848. He was chairman at the Congress of Vienna.
Alexander I- Russian emperor.
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord - French politician and statesman. He headed the French delegation at the Congress of Vienna.
Louis XVIII- French king of the Bourbon dynasty.
Alphonse de Lamartine- French politician, poet, historian.
Conclusion
The Congress laid the foundations of the Vienna System of International Relations. One of its features is the desire for a peaceful resolution of international problems. The Viennese system began to collapse in the mid-19th century.
Among the reasons for the collapse of the Vienna system:
- The rise of national movements. The desire to revise borders in accordance with the rights and interests of nations. The emergence of supporters of an independent foreign policy that would defend national interests.
- The aggravation of the Eastern Question and the beginning of the Crimean War (see lesson). The three great powers (Russia, France, Great Britain), whose cooperation within the Vienna System ensured peace, began to fight against each other.
- Revolutions in Europe 1848-1849 In the manifesto of A. de Lamartine, the treaties of 1815 were declared to have lost legal force.
Having defeated Napoleonic France, the leaders of leading European states came to the conclusion that the best option for solving the problems facing post-war Europe would be to convene a pan-European congress, where all problems could be discussed and a consensus version of a post-war settlement could be developed. In the spring of 1814, Russia was the first to propose the idea of a congress, but the Allies sought to delay its start until the fall.
The conference opened on the first of October 1814 and continued until July 1815.
During difficult discussions, it was possible to agree on general principles on which a new model of international relations was built.
Firstly, it was necessary to create a barrier around France, which would allow it to be isolated in case of any complications.
Thirdly, it was decided that members of the anti-French coalition should receive compensation for their participation in the fight against Napoleon.
Fourthly, the principle of legitimism was the basis for interstate relations.
On the basis of these general principles, specific issues of the post-war settlement were resolved.
On July 9, the “Final Act” of the Congress of Vienna was signed, consisting of 121 articles and 17 annexes, the essence of which was as follows.
France was deprived of all conquered territories, and its borders returned to those that existed in 1790. The Bourbon dynasty was restored in France and Allied troops remained for a while.
Austria regained Lombardy and received Venice. The Rhineland, Pomerania and North Saxony were annexed to Prussia. England expanded its colonial empire to include Tobago, Trinidad, Ceylon, Malta, Guiana and the Cape Colony.
The Polish issue was resolved in favor of Russia. On the site of the Duchy of Warsaw, the Kingdom of Poland was formed, to which Alexander I granted a constitution. Earlier acquisitions of Bessarabia and Finland were also recognized for Russia.
Belgium was included in Holland. Schleswig and Holstein went to Denmark. The Papal States, the Kingdom of Naples and Switzerland, which was declared a neutral country, were restored.
The possessions of the Sardinian kingdom expanded somewhat. The union of Sweden and Norway was sanctioned.
There were no particular contradictions on the German question: all the great powers wanted to consolidate the fragmentation of Germany. The so-called German Confederation of 38 independent states. All-German affairs were decided by the German Diet, which included both Prussia and Austria, but the leading role in this formation still belonged to Austria. According to Metternich, the union was supposed to become an obstacle to the expansionist aspirations of France. The Diet was located in Frankfurt am Main, and was presided over by an Austrian. The votes were distributed in such a way that Austria decided everything. Thus, the goal of the union was not the consolidation of the German people, but, on the contrary, the preservation of its disunity.
In addition to territorial problems, a number of economic and diplomatic issues were considered at the Congress of Vienna. Thus, a decision was made to prohibit the slave trade (“Declaration on the Prohibition of the Trade in Negroes” of February 8, 1815), a convention on freedom of navigation on European rivers was signed, and an agreement was reached on respecting the property rights of foreign citizens. On March 19, 1815, the “Regulations on the ranks of diplomatic representatives” was signed. It is still in effect and has put an end to disputes over diplomatic confessions. Diplomatic ranks were established according to it:
ambassador, papal legate and nuncio;
envoy (from 1818 the rank of resident minister was also introduced); 30 chargé d'affaires.
Also at the congress, Russia tried to raise the issue of relations with the Ottoman Empire. Mahmud II was not admitted to either the congress or the Holy Alliance. No one except Russia was interested in the situation of Christian peoples in Turkey. In February 1815, Alexander I issued a note about the plight in the Balkans. The Russian emperor proposes to discuss the Balkan question at the congress in Vienna, as well as the question of the brutal treatment of the Ottoman Empire towards its Orthodox subjects and proposed to introduce the right of European states to intervene in the affairs of Turkey. Russian diplomats assumed that this circular would strengthen Russia's position in the Balkans, but the other powers refused to discuss this issue.
While the great powers were deciding the post-war fate of Europe, events took an unexpected turn. Napoleon fled the island of Elba, ended up in Paris and restored the French Empire. Napoleon's 100 days began (March 20 - June 18, 1815). Louis XVIII fled Paris. On June 18, 1815, the Battle of Waterloo took place, where the Anglo-Austro-Prussian army defeated Napoleon, after which the 2nd Bourbon restoration took place in France.
A special place at the congress was occupied by the problem associated with the proposal to create the Holy Alliance - an organization of monarchical states to protect Europe from revolutionary ideas.
On September 26, 1815, the treaty establishing the Holy Alliance was signed in Paris by Alexander, Francis I and Frederick William III.
Initially, the Holy Alliance was a treaty of mutual assistance between Russia, Prussia and Austria. Other countries were also invited to join the Union. Ultimately, only Turkey and Great Britain did not join the Holy Alliance, since the Prince Regent was bound by constitutional obligations. Nevertheless, England assured Alexander I of its agreement with the principles of the Holy Alliance.
The model of international relations created in Vienna had both strengths and weaknesses. The Vienna system turned out to be quite stable and sustainable. Thanks to it, Europe was spared for several decades from head-on clashes between great powers, although military conflicts arose from time to time, but the mechanism developed by the Congress made it possible to resolve controversial issues quite quickly and without large losses.
On the other hand, the Vienna system took little account of the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution on European civilization. The principle of legitimism increasingly came into conflict with the liberal idea, with the growth of national self-awareness.
The creation of the Holy Alliance did not resolve the contradictions that existed between the leading European states.
Firstly, Austro-Russian. Metternich was afraid of both the revolutionary movement and Russia, with the latter posing an even greater danger to Austria. The Austrians were also concerned about the Franco-Russian alliance. When Charles X became King of France and Nicholas I Emperor of Russia, this alliance became even closer. Russia also feared the revolutionary movement (the Decembrist uprising and the Polish uprisings) and the strengthening of other participants in the Holy Alliance (including Austria).
Secondly, Prussia's position was not stable. There, too, they feared the possibility of revolutions and a Franco-Russian alliance, so Prussia began to draw closer to Austria and move away from Russia.
All members of the union were afraid of Russia, as they believed that it could spread its hegemony over the entire European continent. Thus, contradictions appeared from the first years of the Holy Alliance and distracted it from its original goals. Subsequent events seriously tested the strength of the Vienna system of international relations.
In 1818, the first congress of the Holy Alliance took place in Aachen. There, France achieved the withdrawal of allied troops from the territory of the country and joined the four victorious powers. Heated debates flared up around the issue of joint actions to help Spain in its fight against the rebel colonies. France and Austria were ready to help the Spanish king, but much depended on the position of England.
Great Britain, although not a signatory to the protocol, has always been on the side of the union, but recently it has preferred to follow its own interests. There the democratic movement for complete reform in Great Britain grew stronger. The national bourgeoisie demanded universal suffrage. The ruling circles, represented by Lord Castlereagh and Prince Regent George, supported the position of the national bourgeoisie. England was not interested in preserving the Spanish colonial empire, because itself sought to penetrate Latin America, and in the strengthening of Austria and France. As a result, England managed to block the decision to help Spain.
The 2nd congress took place in 1820 in Troppau. At this time, revolutions broke out on the periphery of Europe (Spain, Naples, Piedmont). After a long negotiation process, a protocol was adopted that, in principle, justified intervention in countries where the revolution was taking place. Based on this document, Austria organized an intervention in the Apennine Peninsula.
At the 3rd Congress in Laibach on May 12, 1821, the same issues were discussed. If in the Italian states it was possible to suppress revolutionary uprisings, then in Spain and Portugal the revolutions continued. The situation in these countries was the subject of discussion at the Congress in Verona in November 1822. On December 1, the Verona Protocol was signed, with the exception of England, on providing armed assistance to the Spanish monarch. In 1823, French troops invaded Spain and restored the monarchy there.
The special position of Great Britain was the following: it is impossible to stop the revolutionary wave with repressive measures; the national liberation movement should not be fought, but, on the contrary, supported. In accordance with this thesis, England recognized the new Latin American countries and resolutely refused to support intervention in Spain. A rift has emerged in relations between the great powers. But paradoxically, it did not expand, as a new complex problem appeared. In 1821, the Greek uprising against the Ottoman yoke began. The Turks brought down the most severe repressions on the rebels. The Great Powers could not ignore the Greek question, although it was quite controversial. On the one hand, the Greeks rebelled against their legitimate monarch and thus violated the principle of legitimacy. On the other hand, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of crisis and could not control its periphery. The question arose about the division of her inheritance.
In 1823, England recognized the Greeks as a belligerent. Austria opposed it because considered the rebels to be rebels. Russia's position was twofold. Russia had serious interests in the Balkans, and real state interests spoke in favor of the Greeks, but ideological dogmas spoke against them.
In the spring of 1826, the new Russian emperor proposed his interpretation of the eastern question: the situation in the Balkans, with the exception of Greece, was declared the matter of Russia, the Greek question - the matter of all powers, on this basis there was a rapprochement of the positions of England, France and Russia on the Greek question. In October 1827, a joint squadron at Navarino defeated the Turkish fleet.
In May 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which ended in Russian victory. In September 1829, the Treaty of Andrianople was signed. According to it, Serbia, Wallachia and Moldova received autonomy, and Greece became an independent state and was recognized by the European community.
The leading states of Europe understood that the main threat to the stability of the Vienna system came from the Eastern question. However, in 1830 a revolution began in France. In the same year, revolutions took place in Belgium and Poland. Despite this, the stability of the Vienna System was maintained.
From September 1, 1814 to June 9, 1815, a congress was held in Vienna
press with the participation of 216 delegates from all European countries. Here
the flower of the European aristocracy and diplomacy gathered. On
against the backdrop of magnificent receptions, balls and festivities, there was a tense
work on documents designed to change the political
create a map of the continent in accordance with the results of the war and
work on new principles of international relations. Key
representatives played a significant role during the Congress of Vienna
Russia led by Alexander I, the British delegation under
leadership of Keslreagh, and then Wellington, Austrian Kan-
Minister Metternich (formally Austria was represented by the Emperor himself)
Rator Franz I), Prussian diplomats led by Hardenberg,
and Talleyrand, who represented France.
At the initiative of Talleyrand, the work of the congress was based on
the principle of legitimism is false - recognition of exceptional
the rights of those ruling houses and dynasties that exist
Vali in Europe before the start of the revolutionary wars. In interpretation
Metternich’s period, the principle of legitimism became more pronounced.
to a pronounced ideological and legal character - speech
was about preserving the “eternal”, “sanctified by history” legitimate
law of monarchs and estates, as the most important basis of social
civil order and tranquility. But, in reality,
The decisions of the Congress of Vienna were subordinated to the desire to clearly
to delimit the spheres of influence of the great powers during the formation
development of a stable and, if possible, balanced political
maps of the continent.
Based on the principle of legitimism, the congress participants
stood for the preservation of the fragmentation of Germany. Wherein,
At the suggestion of Metternich, it was decided to create Hermann-
union of 38 small German states, as well as
Austria and Prussia. This union was to be governed by the Sejm,
whose seat was chosen Frankfurt am May
Not. The most acute disagreements between the participants of the congress were
sa caused the Polish-Saxon question. Prussia is counting
la to annex Saxony and most of the Polish lands
to your territory. Alexander I was ready to support the re-
giving Saxony to the Prussians, but saw the Polish lands as
ve of the Russian Empire as the Duchy of Warsaw. Austria,
as well as France and England tried to counteract the strengthening
leniya of Russia and Prussia. Talleyrand achieved Metter's agreement
Nikha and Keslereagh conclude an alliance between England, Austria and France
against Prussia and Russia. On January 3, 1815, a secret agreement was signed.
agreement, according to which the three powers pledged not to
allow any redistribution of existing gra-
prostrate, including preventing Saxony from joining
Prussia on any terms. Yes was achieved
same agreement on joint military action in case
violent attempts to change borders.
At the height of the discussions of the Congress of Vienna in France,
There was a coup d'état. Having landed on the coast with
a small group of dedicated soldiers and officers, Napoleon
On March 19, 1815 he triumphantly entered Paris. Trying to make
split in the coalition, he handed over to Alexander I the secret text
th Treaty of the Three Powers. However, the threat of recovery resembles
Leon's empire turned out to be stronger. Without interrupting work
Congress, the allies formed a new one - already the seventh
account - the anti-French coalition. It included An-
glia, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, Spain, Portugal-
Leah, Holland.
The strike military force of the coalition was represented by 110 thousand
Wellington's Anglo-Dutch army advancing from
Brussels. Its left flank was supported by 117,000 Prussian troops.
Blucher's army, and the right one is the 210,000-strong Austrian
Schwarzenberg's army. As a strategic reserve for
The Riviera was preparing a 75,000-strong Austro-Italian army
Fremont, and in the central Rhineland - 150 thousand
naya Russian army of Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon managed to
only about 280 thousand soldiers. His only chance
was the defeat of the British and Prussian troops even before the end
of the redeployment of Russians and Austrians. June 16 in the battle
At Ligny, Napoleon managed to defeat Blue
fuck, but lack of strength prevented the pursuit of the Prussians and
their complete defeat. The French met with Wellington's army
fought near Waterloo on June 18. Napoleon had in this battle
We have 72 thousand people against 70 thousand of the enemy. Franz-
they fought desperately, but unexpectedly appeared on the battlefield
Prussian corps allowed Wellington to win the battle
tion. Soon Napoleon was forced to again renounce his
table. On July 6-8, the Allies entered Paris and restored
Bourbon power.
June 9, 1815, a few days before the Battle of Waterloo,
representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain
Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the
the final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. Fran-
nation lost all its conquests. Belgium and Holland
were united into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, comprising
Luxembourg also included. The Vienna Treaty legitimized the creation
tion of the German Confederation. The Rhineland was annexed to Prussia
region, Westphalia and Swedish Pomerania. Switzerland
“eternal neutrality” was guaranteed, and the boundaries of its dis-
expanded to include provinces on the right bank of the Rhine. Norway
gia, which was dependent on Denmark, transferring
Sweden. The Sardinian Kingdom was restored
which again included Savoy and Nice, 81 T8.KZh6 Ge-
Well, I. Lombardy and Venice became part of Austria, and the Dukes
the Twa of Parma, Tuscany and Modena came under control
various representatives of the House of Habsburg. Secular power
Pope of Rome was restored, and the boundaries of the papal state
The states were expanded to include Ravenna, Ferrara and Bologna.
England received the Ionian Islands and Malta, as well as
secured the captured Dutch colonies in Asia.
Polish lands with Warsaw were annexed to Russia. On
This territory was created by the Kingdom (Kingdom) of Poland,
connected by dynastic union with Russia. In addition, for Russia
this recognized earlier acquisitions - Finland
and Bessarabia.
The General Act of the Congress of Vienna contained special provisions
ties that concerned the relationship between European-
mi countries. Rules were established for the collection of duties and su-
revenues on the border and international rivers Meuse,
Rhine and Scheldt. The principles of free shipping were determined
progress. The annex to the General Act spoke about the
prohibition of the slave trade. In Vienna it was also achieved
agreement on the unification of the diplomatic service. Us-
There were three classes of diplomatic agents. To the first
The first group included ambassadors and papal legates (nuncios), the second group included
envoys, to the third - chargés d'affaires. Was determined
and a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats. All these innovations
(“Vienna Regulation”), included in the annex to the General
new act of Congress, have become the norm of international law and
entered into diplomatic practice for a long time.
The decisions of the Congress of Vienna formalized the principles of the new
system of international relations based on the ideas of
political balance, collective diplomacy and legitimacy
misism. The Vienna system did not lead to the elimination of contradictions
between the great powers, but contributed to the accession
there is relative calm and stability in Europe. Since the creation
with the end of 1815, the Holy Alliance, she received a bright
expressed ideological and even ethical justification. But,
in general, this political construction was very contradictory
to the stormy and social processes that developed in
European society. The rise of national liberation
and revolutionary movements doomed the Vienna system to everything
new crises and conflicts.
Vienna system of international
relations (1815-1870)
The transition to absolutism - an order in which all
full power is concentrated in the hands of the monarch - outlined
in the 16th century In most European countries.
Reasons for the transition to absolutism in England and France.
REASONS FOR TRANSITION A TOABSOLUTISM IN ENGLAND
AND FRANCE. 1. The Roman Catholic Church has lost its ability to influence
on the policies of major powers. 2. The influence of the local feudal nobility was weakened by
that the heavy knightly cavalry it supplied
has lost its meaning. The basis of the new armies was
professional troops. Their maintenance was expensive and
only the royal court could afford. 3.
Feudal lords, merchants, industrialists are interested in a strong
central government to seize new lands and markets. 4.
The trade and business elite began to play more
significant role in the economic sphere. She demanded:
abolition of customs duties and introduction of additional
taxes that restrict trade.
carrying out mercantilist policies (taking measures to
protection of the internal market)
monopolies (exclusive rights to trade in certain or
other goods)
The theory of mercantilism in the 16th – 17th centuries. William Stafford and Thomas Men
MERCANTILISM THEORYXVI – XVII centuries.
U I L Y M S T A F O R D I T O M A S M E N
first political economic doctrine
argued that for the prosperity of the state
it is necessary to constantly increase his finances:
buy as cheap as possible, sell as expensive as possible
The emergence of absolutism
BECOMINGABSOLUTISM
in England and France Higher officials
rank, responsible
before the king
Been busy with business
high treason and
rooted out the opposition
local feudal nobility French
King
(Francis I)
Big
royal
advice
General
states
Never convened English
King
(Henry VII)
Parliament
No longer played in the life of the country
as significant as
before, role
Royal
yard
Influenced the composition
parliament and
the laws he passes religious wars
(1562-1594)
between Catholics
Feudal
know
Absolutism
Religious wars
RELIGIOUS WARSBetween Catholics, supporters of the Counter-Reformation, and
adherents of Calvinism (Huguenots)
Bartholomew's Night - a massacre committed by Catholics in
Paris, when about 2 thousand Hugents died
Formation of the Huguenot Confederation and the Catholic
League almost led to the split of France. Only accepted into
In 1598, the Edict of Nantes guaranteed the protection of rights and
Catholics and Protestants. Elizabeth I
Mary Stuart
(Queen of Scots)
Philip II
(King of Spain)
The aggravation of contradictions in Europe at the beginning of the 17th century.
EXacERBATION OF CONTRADICTIONS INE V R O P E V AT THE BEGINNING XV I I CENTURY.
The end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century was marked by
worsening contradictions between
leading countries in Europe.
The first group of contradictions
led to the struggle for
hegemony (dominance) in the European
continent to which I aspired
Habsburg dynasty. The second group of contradictions was generated by the conflict between
Catholic Poland, Protestant Sweden and Orthodox
Russia.
The third, most important group of contradictions was generated by
religious conflicts. With the development of the Counter-Reformation
the religious peace concluded in the empire in 1555 began to be violated.
With Habsburg support in many imperial cities and counties
power passed to Catholics, who began to persecute Protestants.
Completion
COMPLETIONConflict between German Catholic and
Protestant princes caused a split in 1608
Reichstag. Protestant lands created their own union, the Evangelical Union. Catholics formed
Catholic League.
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
THREE-YEAR-OLDWAR(1618-1648)
In 1618 the emperor
Holy Roman Empire
of the German nation Ferdinad II
Habsburg abolished privileges
which were used
Protestants in the Czech Republic. It has become
the cause of the uprising in the Czech Republic and
cause of war between her and
empire.
Progress of the war.
PROGRESS OF THE WAR.In 1625, Protestant Denmark entered the Habsburg War. Danish king
Christian IV feared that the wave of the Counter-Reformation would reach his lands.
The Catholic League fielded a mercenary army of 100,000 led by
talented commander Albercht Wallenstein.
In 1629 Denmark was defeated and left the war.
The sharp strengthening of the Habsburgs alarmed the French. They convinced the Swedish
King Gustav II made peace with Poland and provided him with subsidies for
waging war in Germany.
The years 1630-1635 went down in the history of the war as the Swedish period. Swedish army
defeated the troops of the league and the emperor. Then she invaded Bavaria,
one of the strongholds of Catholicism in Germany. The final stage of the war was the most destructive.
The troops of the opposing coalitions took turns devastating
German lands whose population during the war years
decreased by 60-75%, about 15 million people died. From
2.5 inhabitants of the Czech Republic left about 700 thousand alive.
Results of the war and conclusion
RESULTS OF THE WAR AND CONCLUSIONThe main result of the Thirty Years' War was the sharp
weakening the influence of religious factors on life
states of Europe. Their foreign policy is now
was based on economic, dynastic and
political interests. The Westphalian system emerged
international relations, which was built on
the principle of state sovereignty.
1. What is the essence of absolutism?
Under absolutism, all power (legislative, executive and judicial) is in the hands of the monarch. However, it differs from eastern despotism. Firstly, the absolute monarch most often was not also the head of the church. Secondly, despite his absolute power, the monarch had to take into account certain rights of classes (for example, the nobility), as well as other restrictions that were formally confirmed by documents on behalf of the monarch himself (for example, in France, the king’s special ordinances confirmed many norms of local law).
2. What are the reasons for the transition of European countries to absolutism? What prerequisites for strengthening central power have developed in Western European countries?
Reasons and prerequisites:
In the conditions of religious wars, the church could no longer be a factor of stability; only the central government could become such, especially since it was often required to unite adherents of different faiths;
The increased effectiveness of regular armies weakened the influence of the feudal militia, and therefore the local nobility;
Many layers of society that had already gained influence were interested in strengthening the central government (petty nobility, including junior branches of noble families, merchants and other financial elite);
The growth of colonial trade and the policies of mercantilism provided the monarchs with significant financial support;
The influx of precious metals and other valuables from the New World also financed the activities of certain monarchs.
3. Name the features of absolutism in England and France. Why did resistance to him take religious forms?
Peculiarities:
All real power was concentrated in the hands of government bodies completely controlled by the king (in England - the Privy Council and the Star Chamber, in France - the Great Royal Council);
The main opposition to absolutism was the large feudal nobility;
The bodies of class representation continued to meet, but no longer played the same role;
The kings did not want to resort to the help of class authorities, so they sought alternative means of replenishing the treasury, relied heavily on financial circles and generally pursued a policy of mercantilism;
During the formation of absolutism, there was persecution of the royal power against the large feudal nobility, many of whose representatives were subjected to executions, exile and other punishments with confiscation of property.
Resistance to absolutism took religious forms because the religious doctrine of the Middle Ages already contained ideological justification for the struggle against power. Even according to the teachings of F. Aquinas, a monarch who did not rule righteously was deprived of the right to the throne. Protestants included the same provision in their doctrine from their first speech against Charles V, using essentially a ready-made Catholic model.
4. Tell us about the essence of the Edict of Nantes. Did he ensure real equality for Catholics and Huguenots? What consequences did it have?
The Edict of Nantes in 1598 equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants in France. He even left the latter a certain autonomy, including control over some fortresses. However, in conditions of absolutism, the main role is played by the policy of the monarch. The actions of subsequent rulers were aimed at actually revising the provisions of the edict until its complete abolition in 1685.
5. List the contradictions of European politics at the beginning of the 17th century. Which ones mattered most?
Controversies:
The struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe;
Confessional conflict in Europe.
The religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants was of greatest importance. Orthodox Russia participated as a third force in this contradiction, but its actions were limited to the neighboring Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden. By this point, European countries abandoned the idea of a broad coalition against the threat of the Ottoman Empire with the involvement of Russia as an ally (this idea was periodically returned to later), so this node of conflict remained on the periphery.
The main one remained the conflict between Catholics and Protestants, because it included many contradictions back in the 16th century, and also continued to divide not only states, but the subjects of one monarch (for example, the Holy Roman Emperor of the German nation), and served as the reason for the disobedience of subjects to the monarch.
6. Name the main stages of the Thirty Years' War. What were the results of the Thirty Years' War?
Bohemian-Palatinate period (1618-1624);
Danish period (1625-1629);
Swedish period (1630-1635);
Franco-Swedish period (1635-1648).
The second part of the question is the same as the next question.
7. What were the results of the Thirty Years' War?
Confessional affiliation has almost ceased to be a factor in European politics;
Along with dynastic interests, economics began to play a greater role than before in European politics;
The principle of state sovereignty was finally established, also in religious matters;
A new system of international relations has emerged - Westphalian;
The Habsburgs retained most of their lands, but their position in Europe weakened;
France received a number of lands along the Rhine;
Sweden received lands on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea;
Protestantism in the Czech Republic was completely destroyed, but Germany continued to be divided along religious lines;
The lands of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, where most of the fighting took place, were completely devastated by the war, and the empire for a long time ceased to play an important role in the economy, politics, etc.
8. What were the features of the Westphalian system of international relations? Are its principles still relevant today?
The Westphalian peace system was aimed at ending the decades-long conflict. Many of its mechanisms were aimed at minimizing religious conflicts. Today in a secular society they are not relevant. But some principles enshrined then are still in effect, for example, the sovereignty of the government of an independent state.