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The charges are initiated from a detonating cord or detonator. The charges do not form microcracks in the stone even with direct contact of the charge with the rock, reliably set in watered conditions, and are elastic at negative temperatures. And eeea k nte y Osnaaanye tekhnnncheskie karakternetnkn aryadoa brands VSHA Zdernbes A.A. Physics of welding and explosion welding. - Noaosnbirsk: Puka, !972.vЂ” 188 words Negredoe LH.A Hapraalennos rzzruyenis gorkyk breeds zzryaom. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg University, 1992.
– Ш5 s. G. N. Kutsey with AND~NNVN K9RNTYIYA (Ae) - the relationship between the characteristic sizes of the defect of the charge of solid fuel, gunpowder or explosives and the width of the combustion zone. Characterizes the “resistance” of a charge to the penetration of combustion into its defects. The limiting condition for the normal combustion of defective and porous charges is Ae > A„„p. The critical value of A„ ranges from 2 (CPTT) to 10 (pyroxylin) with an average value of the order of b.
° Velesa A, F„Bobolev V K„Krognkoe A.N., Sulimov A.A., Chuyeo S.V. Relocation of combustion of condepsyrosappyk systems of aerosols. - El Nauka, 1973. -292 p. S.V. Wonderfully Antfntsnn s1 "H19" is colorless crystals that dissolve in hot benzene, difficult - in alcohol and ether. In pyrotechnic compositions, technical (raw) aluminum is used, which is a mixture of aluminum with its homologues (phenanthrep and carbazole) and containing 12 - 16% anthracene oil. Flash point of raw A. 150 – 160°C. Raw A.
used in black and white smoke compositions. The disadvantage of raw A is the separation of components, which necessitates mixing (average, shoveling) before use. Compositions based on such A. have insufficient flowability and physical flexibility, therefore, recently, in the development of aerosol-forming compositions, IR radiation compositions, solid fuels of the pyrotechnic type, chemically pure A is used, F.N. (H,) - the impact of human factors on the change and self-development of natural objects and phenomena. Such factors of human activity that have a significant impact on the natural environment include production, operation, use for their intended purpose, liquidation and disposal of condensed energy systems - ” solid fuels (SF), gunpowders, explosives and pyrotechnic compositions.
Serious environmental hazards caused by explosives are represented by the initial components of the ECS, industrial waste, emissions, technological waste and, especially, combustion and explosion products (PS and EP) generated during tests and launches, the liquidation of solid propellant missiles and the destruction of charges that have expired the warranty period. The toxicity of many standard and promising components of ZCS in terms of their physiological effects on the human body is at the level of a number of toxic substances (Table)). At the same time, its content in industrial waste can be quite high (Table 2).
Tab Ka ~ Characteristics of toxicity of compopepts EKS Table 2 Contains toxicity of products in industrial wastewater, forming propvvodstas in lpkvpdakpp charges EKS Lpstnlennd seso a The main danger to the natural environment and humans is represented by hydrogen chloride and hydrogen halogen compounds. Along with the toxic effect, halogen compounds have a detrimental effect on the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere, especially during missile launches.
In addition to hydrogen chloride, there are many restrictions on other combustion products, in particular on aluminum oxide, which is a mutagen. Another combustion product, carbon monoxide, poses a danger in the near zones of the detonation site, start-up or test, since at a distance, in the process of diluting with atmospheric air, its concentration decreases to acceptable limits. When ECS charges are burned at low pressures (without a nozzle block), chlorine concentrations are quite high. The toxic properties of some combustion products are presented in Table 3.
t.sna~ y Maximum permissible competition of some third-party products EKS ° Rooders gt.F. prnrodopoliaaaanoe. dictionary-spranochnk.vЂ” ml thought, $990; Besnamavnoye P. P., Krovov KHL Maximum permissibility of chemical substances in the environment. -Ll Hamid, 1995, V, Yueleshko Acetiiiiid silver (karbzzd "areb1 S2A)t 2. mol. weight 239.o, T - 200 "C, heat of decomposition 293 kcal/kg (1226 kJ/kg). Very sensitive to shock. Drugs are obtained by passing (bubbling) acetylene through an ammonia solution of silver nitrate. In neutral or in a slightly acidic environment, a mixed salt A89C7 ° ANO3 is formed - the initiating explosive, mol.
mass 400.7, T "about 220" C, expansion in the Trautzl bomb 138 cm, heat of 3 explosion 451 ikal, hkg (1888 kJ," kg), detonation speed 2250 i," s at a density of 2.51 gu "cm and 4450 m~"s with a density of 5.36 gUSxc3. The lowering capacity is greater than that of mercury fulminate. In practice, it is not used as an explosive. ° yagil.7.I. Chemistry of technology for explosive explosives. L1, 1975. I J.Petvishyao, TBT1.Ilyuiya AvvetvvyaevNDY-salts of acetylene (HC in CH), a weak acid with pK 25, formed by the action of alkali and alkaline earth metals (when heated or in liquid ammonia) or organometallic compounds with the replacement of one or two hydrogen atoms; C7H7 + M ~ NS7M+ N S7NZ + Mts -+ NS7M+ VN A.
metals of 1-11 groups react vigorously with water, generating acetylene; they are often used in organic synthesis to introduce an acetylene group. Salts of divalent mercury, monovalent copper, halides of aluminum, gold, chromium, and silver combine directly with acetylene, forming a complex C7H7 + MX - in C7H7 MX Many complexes have explosive properties. Disubstituted explosives A. (CitS3, A87C7) are obtained by the action of ammonia solutions of salts of these metals on acetylene. The formation of a red precipitate, SctS3, is used for the analysis of acetylene. and Vagit HI. Chemistry and chemistry are used to prepare explosive substances.
— b1„!975. I.V., Ielityai, M.L.Ilyushiya AzrozoaeformazugovZie composition| for influencing vermilion clouds and fogs. One way to prevent hail and cause precipitation is to introduce substances (reactants) into the supercooled aerosol cloud, which are the nucleation centers of water vapor. Aerosol can be created using various methods; the most preferable is the combustion of pyrotechnic compositions in various types of generators. There are two types of technical compositions that form an aerosol of the reactant during combustion. In the first type, the reactant is introduced into the composition and in the form of a powder. As a result of combustion of the composition, it sublimes, forming an aerosol.
In the second type of composition, rsagspt is obtained during the combustion process. In Russia, preference is given to the first type of composition. A81 is used as a reagent, which in most compositions of Lz ozozzoo zz ziiis iozhz from shzitis compositions is fired due to the combustion of a thermal mixture based on ammonium perchlorate. In this case, a high yield of active particles (AP) is achieved when burning compositions with a sharply negative oxygen balance (OC) at a combustion product temperature of about 2200 K.
The main requirement for the compositions is to ensure the maximum yield of active substances (no less than 5 1012 h, ~ g) at a temperature of minus 10 "C. To ensure such a yield, up to 50 - 00% Ag! was initially introduced into the composition. Modern compositions1 contain 2% Ag1. The possibility of developing compositions with an Al content of about 0.4% has been shown. When using epergically favorable nitrogen-containing compounds (azidopsitoes, cellulose pitrates) as a thermal basis, a high yield of active substances is observed with a composition BC close to zero.
This makes it possible to use such compositions simultaneously as a source of active substances and fuel, ensuring the environmental purity of combustion products. F P. Iostzii Azrozolvobraz ryushchme vo1varot (vsashchme compositions are multicomponent compositions with a polymer binder containing fuel, which, as a rule, is a binder, an oxidizing agent and a hydroxide inhibitor, dispersible and activated during the combustion of the composition.
Compounds of group 1 elements (with the highest electronic ionization potential) are used as inhibitors that break chain reactions of combustion of carbon-hydrogen materials (reactions CO + 02 and H2 + O3). Due to economic, technical and environmental reasons, preference will be given to potassium compounds and, first of all, oxygen-containing ones (Koz, KS1Ol). The choice of polymer binder is determined by the APS manufacturing technology: according to the technology of ballistic rocket fuels, compositions are made based on plasticized cellulose (NC), according to the technologies of mixed RT and pyrotechnic compositions - thermosetting resins are used as a binder (PSN, epoxy). When assembling the APS, the following important requirements are taken into account: - the content of the inhibitor, subject to maintaining satisfactory technological, physico-chemical, mechanical and intra-ballistic characteristics, should be maximum; - before being added to the composition, the inhibitor must be subjected to grinding, and the degree of grinding should be as high as possible, at least in a fruit drink< 2 мкм; Лз зол»об аз юнтао пажа о твынис состаВЫ Состав, свойства ПТ-50.2 ПТ.4 ПАС.47 Типа СБК Состав СЗПТ ПАС-47М (СКТВ НИИПХ («Эпотос») «Технолог») Химсостав, % масс.: 3! -65 55-90 47 (кмо + " В~НОЗ) Нитрат калия 16-35 38-39 ерхлорат калил Ннтроцеллюлоза 17,5 12,5 !8-30 10-45 Фенолформзлъленлная смола и лр.
07.11.2010
Ultradisperse energetic condensed systems (ECS) containing aluminum nanoparticles with functional organic and organoelement coatings
A.N. Zhigach 1, I.O. Leypunsky 1, E.S. Zotova 1, B.V. Kudrov 1, N.G. Berezkina 1, P.A. Pshechenkov 1, M.F. Gogulya 2, M.A. Brazhnikov 2, V.A. Teselkin 2, O.M. Zhigalina 3, V.V. Artyomov 3
1 Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Energy Problems of Chemical Physics RAS (INEPCP RAS)
2 Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Chemical Physics named after. N.N. Semenov RAS (ICP RAS)
3 Institution of the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute of Crystallography RAS named after. A.V. Shubnikova (IC RAS)
The purpose of this work is to obtain submicron and nano-sized aluminum particles with a content of active aluminum comparable to that in powders with micron-sized particles, synthesis and characterization of an aluminized composite based on a nitramine matrix.
Using the method of condensation of metal vapors in a flow of inert gas developed at the Institute of Economics and Physics of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, aluminum nanoparticles were obtained with specially formed functional (oxy)nitride, trimethylsiloxane and organofluorine coatings on the surface that prevent the oxidation of the surface layer of filler particles. The obtained samples were characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis. It has been shown that samples of nano-sized aluminum with a trimethylsiloxane coating have the highest residual content of active aluminum, and aluminum particles with an organofluorine coating are most susceptible to degradation.
A method for producing ultrafine high-energy materials (individual and aluminized composites) by spray drying a suspension of ultrafine aluminum powder in solution, developed at the Institute of Economics and Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, is presented. A mock-up experimental setup is described. The factors determining the stability of the suspension, the efficiency of the spraying and drying processes, the final morphology, the phase composition of the composite and the uniform distribution of aluminum particles in the high-energy matrix are discussed.
Using experimental methods available at the Institute of Chemical Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the mechanical sensitivity of aluminized nanocomposites based on high-energy matrices of the nitramine series (RDX RDX, HMX HMX, HNIW hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane) was measured. It has been shown that the sensitivity of samples with an HNIW matrix is noticeably higher compared to composites based on HMX and similar fillers, while the mechanical sensitivity weakly depends on the type of coating applied.
Literature.
1. Zhigach A.N., Leypunsky I.O., Kuskov M.L., Stoenko N.I., Storozhev V.B. Installation for obtaining and studying the physicochemical properties of metal nanoparticles // Instruments and experimental equipment. 2000. No. 6. pp. 122-129.
2. A.N. Zhigach, I.O. Leypunsky, N.G. Berezkina, P.A. Pshechenkov, E.S. Zotova, B.V. Kudrov, M.F. Gogulya, M.A. Brazhnikov, M.L. Kuskov. Aluminized nanocomposites based on nitramines: production method and structure study // Physics of combustion and explosion, v. 45 (2009), no. 6, pp. 35-47.
1The study of the mechanism of gasless combustion of complex multilayer compositions with a low-melting inert component, which are electrochemical systems, is a new and urgent task, both for the creation of new backup current sources and for the production of composites for various purposes by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). In this work, we measured the specific heat release during combustion of energy condensed systems (ECS) of the Zr-CuO-LiF and Zr-BaCrO4-LiF type. The experiments were carried out on a high-speed combustion calorimeter BKS-3. A special feature of the BKS-3 is the ability to speed up the process of measuring specific combustion energy by preheating the calorimetric bomb in the furnace of the control unit. As a result of the experiments, it was established that the specific heat release during combustion of the cathodic ECS Zr-CuO-LiF is 2654.849 J/g, and the anodic one is 4208.771 J/g. The specific heat release during combustion of a high-temperature galvanic cell composed of anode and cathode compositions is 3518.720 J/g. Using the “THERMO-ISMAN” computer program, a thermodynamic analysis was carried out, the adiabatic combustion temperature, the composition of the equilibrium product of interaction in energy condensed systems and the ratio of the volumes of the initial and final products were calculated. The experimental results obtained can find application in the production technology of pyrotechnic current sources, as well as in the creation of new, promising ECS compositions.
energy condensed systems (ECS)
pyrotechnic current source (PSU)
specific heat release
combustion calorimeter
1. Morozov Yu.G., Kuznetsov M.V., Nersesyan M.D., Merzhanov A.G. Electrochemical phenomena in the processes of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis // DAN. – 1996. – T. 351, No. 6. – P. 780–782.
2. Filimonov I.A., Kidin N.I. High-temperature synthesis by combustion: generation of internal and influence of external electromagnetic fields // FGV. – 2005. – T. 41, No. 6. – P. 34–53.
3. Morozov Yu.G., Kuznetsov M.V., Belousova O.V. Generation of electrical potentials during heterogeneous combustion in systems containing chemical elements of group VI // Chemical Physics. – 2009. – T. 28, No. 10. – P. 58–64.
4. Chemically driven carbon-nanotube-guided thermopower waves. Wonjoon Choi, Seunghyun Hong, Joel T. Abrahamson, Jae-Hee Han, Changsik Song, Nitish Nair, Seunghyun Baik, Michael S. Strano // Nature Materials. – 2010. – V. 9. – P. 423–429.
5. Prosyanyuk V.V., Suvorov I.S., Sigeikin G.I., Kulikov A.V. Pyrotechnic current sources - a new class of backup power generation devices // Russian Chemical Journal. – 2006. – T. L, No. 5. – P. 113–119.
6. Varyonykh N.M., Emelyanov V.N., Prosyanyuk V.V., Suvorov I.S. Pyrotechnic source of electric current // RF Patent No. 2320053, IPC N01M 4/66; N01M 6/36. Published 03/20/2008. - Bull. No. 8.
7. Barinov V.Yu., Vadchenko S.G., Shchukin A.S., Prosyanyuk V.V., Suvorov I.S., Gilbert S.V. Experimental study of the combustion of three-layer condensed systems (Zr + CuO + LiF) – (LiF) – (Zr + BaCrO4 + LiF) // Advances in modern science. – 2016. – T. 11, No. 6. – P. 7–12.
The direct conversion of chemical energy released during the combustion of heterogeneous condensed systems into electrical energy is one of the urgent problems of modern science. This determines the need to conduct experimental and theoretical studies of the processes occurring during combustion.
The work showed that during the combustion of a number of heterogeneous condensed systems, an electrical signal is generated. During the passage of the combustion front, the potential difference between two metal electrodes immersed in the powder mixture was recorded. It was found that, depending on the composition of the system, three types of electrical signal arise: positive, negative and bipolar. The occurrence of an electrical signal during the combustion process is called “combustion emf”. The authors believe that combustion in the studied systems occurs through the mechanism of redox reactions with the participation of various ions, both initial reagents and intermediate products. The ionization processes that take place lead to the appearance of electrostatic fields in burning systems with condensed reaction products. The behavior of frontally burning heterogeneous systems containing chromium, molybdenum and tungsten, used for self-propagating high-temperature synthesis of complex oxide materials, has been studied. It was found that the maximum values of the electromotive force arising between the front of the combustion wave and the synthesis products can reach 2 V and are determined mainly by the chemical composition of the initial charge.
To date, a number of works (theoretical and experimental) have been published on the study of electrical phenomena that arise during the combustion of various ECS. Published works do not provide an unambiguous interpretation of the mechanism of the occurrence of EMF during the propagation of a combustion wave.
The occurrence of an electric pulse during the combustion of heterogeneous powder mixtures formed the basis for the creation of a new class of backup current sources - a pyrotechnic current source (PSC). PITs are devices for direct conversion of chemical energy of condensed energy systems into electrical energy and are high-temperature backup sources of disposable electric current designed to operate in standby mode. They are widely used for autonomous activation and power supply of on-board equipment, instruments and devices, actuators and control systems (relays, micromotors, etc.). PITs have a long service life (20-25 years), small overall dimensions and weight, do not require any maintenance during their entire service life, and maintain excellent performance at temperatures from -70 to +70 °C. The paper presents the electrical characteristics of batteries of high-temperature galvanic cells (HGC), made from heterogeneous heterogeneous systems. A battery consisting of two or more VGEs is a pyrotechnic current source.
This work studies the combustion patterns of three-layer ECS of the (Zr + CuO + LiF)-LiF-(Zr + BaCrO4 + LiF) type, used as electrochemical systems in pyrotechnic current sources (PSC). The experiments showed that the amplitude increases to the maximum value in 0.2 s, and its maximum value is ~ 1.5 V, the duration of the signal at half-width is ~ 1.1 s. After reaching the maximum value, the signal magnitude decreases exponentially to almost zero.
The presence of metals with electronic conductivity in the combustion products of the anode and cathode, which are in direct contact, as well as cuprous oxide, which has semiconductor properties, determines the decrease in the electrical resistance of the combustion products of the ECS, as well as the pulsed nature of the electrical signal - a rapid (~ 0.2 s) rise voltage to a maximum value and an almost exponential voltage drop to a minimum value.
From the above, we can conclude that during the combustion of two-layer ECS, electrochemical reactions occur, leading to the generation of pulsed electrical signals.
Materials and research methods
The initial samples were strips of “pyrotechnic asbestos paper” obtained by vacuum deposition of aqueous suspensions of appropriate compositions with asbestos. In the ECS data, zirconium ensures high-temperature combustion of thin heterogeneous systems with intensive heat removal from the combustion zone, copper oxide CuO is an active cathode oxidizer, which is used in thermal current sources. Barium chromate BaCrO4 is a finely dispersed low-gas oxidizer. Lithium fluoride LiF is a material used in backup current sources as an electrolyte. The specific surface area of the crushed fine powder of copper oxide is 2400 cm2/g with an average particle size of 4 microns, lithium fluoride - 2300 cm2/g and 11 microns, zirconium - 2000 cm2/g and 4 microns, barium chromate - 6000 cm2/g with an average particle size 2 microns. Chrysotile asbestos (fibrous hydrous magnesium silicate) with the theoretical formula 3MgO 2SiO2 2H2O with a fiber thickness of 0.01-0.1 mm and a length of ~ 0.2-4 mm was used as a mineral binder in ECS electrodes. The use of asbestos in these ECS provides a minimum volume of gaseous combustion products and the technological possibility of obtaining flat plates ~0.5 mm thick, which were formed by vacuum deposition of an aqueous suspension of components onto filter paper. In this case, a structure similar to paper or thin slate is formed. For experimental studies, samples of the required shape were cut out from the resulting plates in the form of disks with a diameter of 10 mm.
Experiments to measure the specific heat release of Zr-CuO-LiF and Zr-BaCrO4-LiF ECS were carried out on a high-speed combustion calorimeter BKS-3. The BKS-3 calorimeter is designed to measure the combustion energy of solid fuel in accordance with GOST 147-95, liquid fuel in accordance with GOST 21261-91 and gaseous fuel in accordance with GOST 10061-78, as well as the heat of oxidation and combustion during various physical and chemical processes.
The operating principle of the calorimeter is based on measuring the amount of energy released in a calorimetric bomb placed in a BCS measuring cell by integrating the heat flow coming from the measuring cell to a massive block (passive thermostat). A special feature of the BKS-3 is the ability to speed up the process of measuring specific combustion energy by preheating the calorimetric bomb in the furnace of the control unit.
A sample of the test substance is placed in a bomb and filled with oxygen. The bomb must first be heated in an oven to a temperature of up to 31 °C, i.e. 2-3 °C higher than the operating temperature of the calorimeter. Next, the bomb is placed in the measuring cell of the calorimeter, after which the measurement process begins. In this case, after the heat flow from the calorimetric bomb heated in the furnace declines to a given level, at which the decline becomes regular, the substance is automatically ignited by supplying current to the ignition coil, which is in contact with the substance inside the bomb. At the same time, integration of a signal proportional to the heat flow from the combustion of the substance begins. The signal first increases to its maximum value, then decreases to the previously mentioned specified level. In this case, the integration ends and the numerical value of the measured heat is displayed on the monitor.
The specific energy of fuel combustion is determined by the formula
Qsp = Qmeas/m,
where Qsp - specific combustion energy, J/g;
Qmeas - measured amount of combustion energy, J;
m is the mass of the fuel sample, g.
For each composition, a series of measurements consisting of 10 experiments was carried out. The figure shows a typical form of the experimental dependence of the signal during the combustion of a high-temperature galvanic cell composed of two ribbons of the composition (Zr + CuO + LiF) - (Zr + BaCrO4 + LiF). The dotted horizontal line in the figure marks the moment of ignition of the composition under study.
Typical view of the experimental dependence of the calorimeter signal during the combustion of a high-temperature galvanic cell composed of two ribbons of composition (Zr + CuO + LiF) - (Zr + BaCrO4 + LiF)
Thermodynamic analysis is carried out under the assumption of the absence of heat loss (adiabatic regime) and the formation of an equilibrium final product. The calculation of the adiabatic combustion temperature is based on the equality of the enthalpies of the initial reactants at the initial temperature (T0) and the final products at the combustion temperature (Tad). Thermodynamic analysis is universal, since it does not depend on the mechanism of chemical interaction. Calculations were carried out using the Thermo-ISMAN computer program. This program allows you to calculate the adiabatic combustion temperature and the equilibrium phase composition of the final product.
The combustion temperature was measured using tungsten-rhenium thermocouples VR5-20 with a diameter of 200 μm.
Research results and discussion
The thermodynamic analysis showed that the main combustion products of HGE are monovalent copper oxide and zirconium oxide, which is consistent with X-ray diffraction data. The calculated adiabatic temperature is 1490 K, which is slightly higher than the experimentally measured one (1380 K) due to heat loss. Thus, the individual components and combustion products of the system, including the LiF electrolyte (melting point is ≈ 850 °C), are in a molten state, which minimizes the internal resistance of the HGE.
As a result of the measurements, it was established that the specific heat of combustion of the Zr-CuO-LiF EX is 2.69 kJ/g, and for the Zr-BaCrO4-LiF EX it is 4.31 kJ/g. The specific heat of combustion of VGE was 3.52 kJ/g. The results of measurements of the specific heat release during combustion of the anode, cathode composition and VGE are presented in the table. It has been established that for the cathode composition Zr-CuO-LiF the value of specific heat release Qav is 2654.85 J/g, for the anodic composition Zr-BaCrO4-LiF 4208.77 J/g, and for VGE 3518.72 J/g. The obtained result can be explained by the fact that the fuel content (zirconium) in the anodic ECS is higher than in the cathode.
Results of measuring the specific heat release during combustion of VGE (Zr-CuO-LiF) + (Zr-BaCrO4-LiF)
|
(Zr-CuO-LiF) + (Zr-BaCrO4-LiF) |
|||||||||
|
Qav = 2654.849 J/g |
Qav = 4208.771 J/g |
Qav = 3518.720 J/g |
|||||||
It should be noted that the study of the mechanism of gasless combustion of complex multilayer compositions with a low-melting inert component, which are electrochemical systems, is a new and urgent task, both for the creation of new backup current sources and for the production of composites for various purposes using the method of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). The creation and development of such current sources is not aimed at obtaining cheap electricity or a cheap replacement of existing current sources, but at powering on-board systems of objects, the cost of which is beyond economic calculations.
The experimental results obtained can find application in the production technology of pyrotechnic current sources, as well as in the creation of new, promising ECS compositions.
Conclusion
Using the BKS-3 combustion calorimeter, an experimental study of heat release during combustion of energy condensed systems Zr-CuO-LiF and Zr-BaCrO4-LiF was carried out. As a result of the experiments, it was established that the specific heat release during combustion of the cathodic ECS Zr-CuO-LiF is 2654.849 J/g, and the anodic one is 4208.771 J/g. The specific heat release during combustion of a high-temperature galvanic cell composed of anode and cathode compositions is 3518.720 J/g. A thermodynamic analysis was carried out, the adiabatic temperature and the equilibrium phase composition of the final product were calculated. It has been established that the combustion temperature of the ECS, measured using thermocouples, is lower than the calculated one due to heat loss.
Bibliographic link
Barinov V.Yu., Mashkinov L.B. HEAT RELEASE DURING COMBUSTION OF CONDENSED ENERGY SYSTEMS ZR-CUO-LIF AND ZR-BACRO4-LIF // International Journal of Applied and Fundamental Research. – 2018. – No. 1. – P. 21-24;URL: https://applied-research.ru/ru/article/view?id=12058 (access date: 09/10/2019). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"
In the modern life of any state, energy-saturated materials, or energy condensed systems, are of great importance.
Condensed energy systems (ECS) are rocket, artillery, plasma, laser and rifle powders, mixed rocket solid fuels, all types of explosives, pyrotechnics and hydro-reacting solid propellant compositions. ECS are the basis of the state's defense capability and influence the economy and the development of science and technology. Without ECS there is no artillery, no small arms, no main types of combat missiles, including intercontinental ones, and without modern and promising weapons there is no army.
Energy condensed systems are an effective source of energy for equipment and new technologies. Special types of ECS have made it possible to create unique and highly relevant technologies. Thus, based on plasma solid rocket fuels, for the first time in the world
Powder magnetic hydrodynamic generators (MHD generators) of electrical energy have been developed, which make it possible to search for minerals at great depths, carry out long-term forecasts of earthquakes, and study the structure of the earth's crust at depths of up to 70 kilometers or more. Special hail-breaking missiles and artillery systems are used to combat forest fires and hail, and stimulate artificial precipitation.
With the help of ECS, welding of materials that cannot be welded by classical methods is carried out, stamping and cutting of metals, tanks and ships, strengthening of steel structures, synthesis of diamonds, ultrafine diamonds from carbon and much more. ECS are dangerous in production and operation.
According to their official use and danger, ECS are divided into four groups: initiating explosives (IEV), high explosive (secondary) explosives (BVV), propellant (gunpowder and mixed solid rocket fuels) (MVV) and pyrotechnic compositions (PTS). The main properties of ECS, which determine their classification into one group or another, are sensitivity to external influences (impact, friction, heating), to a shock wave pulse, detonation ability and tendency to transition from combustion to explosion and detonation (PGV and PGD).
The most dangerous are IVVs, since they have the greatest sensitivity to shock and friction, and are prone to gas shock in the open air even in small (less than 1 g) quantities.
Many pyrotechnic compositions are close in degree of danger to explosive explosives (small products of color-flame and force compositions are especially dangerous).
High explosives are capable of exploding if they are concentrated in significant quantities. Of these, the most dangerous are hexogen, octogen, PETN, tetryl; ammonites and water-containing explosives, gel-like and emulsion explosives are less dangerous.
Gunpowders and solid rocket fuels are considered less dangerous, many of them burn steadily at pressures of tens and hundreds of megapascals, but at the same time they are highly flammable, and gunpowders, mortars and some other gunpowders are capable of transition from combustion to explosion.
The first explosive used in military equipment and in various sectors of the economy was black powder, a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur and coal in various proportions. It is believed that explosive mixtures similar to black powder were known many years before our era to the peoples of China and India. It is likely that from China and India, information about black powder first came to the Arabs and Greeks. Until the middle of the 19th century, that is, for almost 500 years, there was not a single explosive substance other than black powder.
At first, black powder was used for shooting in the form of powder - powder pulp and in Russia it was called a potion. The need to increase the rate of fire of weapons led to the replacement of powder pulp with powder grains.
A significant contribution to the development of gunpowder production in Russia was made at the beginning of the 18th century under Peter I.
In 1710–1723 Large state gunpowder factories were built - St. Petersburg, Sestroretsk and Okhtinsky.
At the end of the 18th century, Lomonosov, and then Lavoisier and Berthelot in France, found the optimal composition of black powder: 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur and 15% coal. This composition began to be used in Russia in 1772 and has undergone virtually no changes to the present day.
In 1771, after reconstruction, the Shostensky powder plant came into operation, and in 1788, the world's largest Kazan powder plant was built.
At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, there was a rapid development of natural science: discoveries were made in the field of chemistry, physics and the field of explosives and gunpowder. One by one, explosives are synthesized that are superior in energy to black powder.
In 1832, the French chemist G. Bracono, treating flax and starch with nitric acid, obtained a substance he called xyloidin.
In 1838, Peluso repeated the experiments of G. Bracono. When nitric acid was applied to paper, parchment was obtained that was not wetted by water and was highly flammable. Peluso called it "explosive or fiery wood."
The priority for the discovery of cellulose nitrates was recognized by the German chemist Schönbein. Böttger, independently of Schönbein, obtained pyroxylin. Schönbein and Böttger took out a patent for the construction of pyroxylin factories in several countries, and already in 1847 the first pyroxylin production plant was built in England, which was destroyed by an explosion in the same year.
According to the patent of Schönbein and Böttger, a plant was built in Austria in 1852, where an explosion also occurred. The subsequent series of explosions of pyroxylin factories showed the impossibility of obtaining chemically resistant pyroxylin using the Schönbein method, therefore interest in it as an explosive in a number of countries weakened, and only in Austria Lenk (1853–1862) continued to conduct research on the production of resistant pyroxylin. He suggested washing cellulose nitrates with a weak soda solution. However, his attempts were unsuccessful, and after three explosions in warehouses in 1862 and in Austria, work on the production of pyroxylin ceased.
Despite such great setbacks, Abel continued work in the field of obtaining chemically resistant pyroxylin in England, and in 1865 he managed to obtain stable cellulose nitrate. He proved that the cause of spontaneous combustion of cellulose nitrates when stored in warehouses is sulfuric acid, which remains in the internal capillaries of the fiber. To extract this residue, Abel proposed grinding nitrocellulose fibers under water in dutch ovens. This method made it possible to extract the remaining sulfuric acid from the capillaries and obtain nitrocellulose with a sufficient safe shelf life.
Since that time, interest in nitrocellulose began to increase again; it was used as an explosive, and subsequently dynamite was obtained.
In 1884, Viel managed to find a way to compact nitrocellulose. He suggested treating it with a mixture of alcohol and ether. When aged, a dough-like mass is formed that can be squeezed out, pressed, rolled, that is, given the desired shape. For this discovery he received the Nobel Prize. This is how they began to produce pyroxylin gunpowder.
In Russia, work on the production of cellulose nitrates began in 1845–1846. Colonel Fadeev, who tried to use nitrated cotton for firing cannons and howitzers.
Systematic work began in 1891, when a laboratory was created at the Maritime Department to study the physicochemical properties of cellulose nitrates and gunpowder. Work in the laboratory was led by D.I. Mendeleev. In this laboratory, in 1891, Mendeleev and his colleagues obtained pyrocollodion pyroxylin, and in 1892, based on it, pyrocollodion gunpowder.
Gross production of cellulose nitrates and gunpowders in Russia began in 1894. Since that time, the history of the development of cellulose nitrates has followed the path of studying production processes, improving the technological process, creating new equipment and finding a new type and form of cellulose raw materials.
Much credit for this belongs to prominent scientists: R.A. Malakhov, A.P. Zakoshchikov, A.I. Titov, G.K. Klimenko, A.P. Sapozhnikov, L.V. Zabelin, A.V. Marchenko and many others. Until 1930, cellulose nitrates were obtained only from cotton cellulose, and later they began to use wood cellulose.
The decisive credit for the development of pyroxylin powder technology in Russia belongs to Z.V. Kalachev, A.V. Sukhinsky, V. Nikolsky and many others.
In 1846, nitroglycerin was obtained in Italy by Sobrero.
In 1853–1854 Russian scientists N.N. Zinin and V.F. Petrushevsky was the first in the world to develop the technology for producing nitroglycerin.
In 1888, the Swede Alfred Nobel proposed gunpowder based on nitroglycerin, containing 40% nitroglycerin and 60% nitrocellulose. When tested in artillery guns, it turned out that this gunpowder has much greater strength than pyroxylin gunpowder.
In 1889, F. Abel and D. Dewar in England proposed another type of nitroglycerin gunpowder called “Cordite,” which means cord or string.
In the Soviet Union, the industrial production of ballistic gunpowder began in 1928, and then developed especially intensively during the Second World War.
In the post-war period (since 1949), industrial production of large-sized rocket propellants began, and since 1958, the development of high-energy rocket propellants.
Since the mid-50s of the XX century. Both in the USSR and in the USA, mixed solid rocket fuels have received active development.
In the development of modern gunpowders and fuels, a significant contribution was made by domestic scientists A.S. Bakaev, K.I. Bazhenov, D.I. Galperin, B.P. Zhukov, N.G. Rogov, A.V. Kostochko, K.I. Sinaev, Ya.F. Savchenko, G.V. Sakovich, B.M. Anikeev, N.D. Argunov, V.V. Moshev, V.A. Morozov, V.I. Samoshkin and many other scientists.
Pyrotechnic compositions were used as a means of warfare in China several centuries BC.
In Russia, the development of pyrotechnics mainly went in the direction of fireworks compositions, and at the beginning of the 19th century. − military purpose. A great contribution to the development of domestic pyrotechnics was made by K.I. Konstantinov, V.N. Chikolev, F.V. Stepanov, F.F. Matyukevich, A.A. Shidlovsky, F.P. Madyakin.
By 1992, Russia's strategic forces were armed with 1,386 ground-based intercontinental ballistic missiles and 934 sea-based intercontinental ballistic missiles. Strategic offensive weapons include:
Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles;
Submarine ballistic missiles;
Cruise missiles of strategic bombers.
Creators of missile systems:
Sergei Pavlovich Korolev - scientist, designer of rocket and space technology, founder of practical astronautics. Under the leadership of S.P. Korolev developed and put into service the first domestic long-range ballistic missiles at SRTT.
Viktor Petrovich Makeev – general designer of military missile technology. Head of the development of the first domestic solid-fuel intercontinental missile with a separating warhead.
Utkin Vladimir Fedorovich – general designer, director of NPO Yuzhnoye. Under his leadership, the RK-23 railway-based mobile missile system was created.
Nadiradze Alexander Davidovich is an outstanding rocketry designer. Under his leadership, the world's first mobile missile systems were created, and the foundations were laid for the creation of the Topol missile system.
Lagutin Boris Nikolaevich – general designer, developer of mobile missile systems with solid fuel rockets.
Solomonov Yuri Semenovich – general designer. Under his leadership, the Topol-M universal missile system was created.