The emergence of the state of Urartu
In the regions of the Armenian Highlands and Transcaucasia, where natural conditions were not favorable to the progress of irrigated agriculture, the presence of ore wealth, mainly copper and iron, played an important role; Cattle breeding developed on the steppe uplands and meadows.
Excavations of Urartian monuments are being carried out in Turkey and Iran.
In the V-IV millennium BC. e. The Kura and Araks valleys were inhabited by settled farmers and herders in Shomu-Tepe in Azerbaijan, Shulaveri in Georgia and Tekhout in Armenia. The settlements consisted of round adobe residential and commercial buildings, which is a specific feature of the culture of Transcaucasian farmers, since in most other early agricultural cultures of the Ancient East the buildings have a square or rectangular layout. Stone, flint and bone tools played a major role, and copper products also appeared. The basis of the economy was hoe farming with the cultivation of wheat, barley, millet and spelled, and the breeding of large and small livestock. In small villages with an area of 0.5-1 hectares, 100-300 people lived. The culture of Transcaucasian farmers was inferior to the cultures of Northern and Southern Mesopotamia - Khalaf and Ubeid.
In the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Early Bronze Age culture, called Kura-Araxes, spreads. Agriculture is undergoing significant development; When cultivating the fields, a primitive plow is used, and the crop is harvested using sickles. Each settlement had a craftsman's house-workshop, where jewelry, ceramics, tools and weapons - axes, daggers and spears - were made from various alloys. Transhumance cattle breeding takes place high in the mountains.
The decomposition of the primitive system is proceeding intensively. In the mountains, fortresses are built from boulders. The weaponry industry stands out. At the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. iron weapons appear. The warriors equipped with these weapons formed a fighting squad of tribal leaders.
The process of decomposition of primitive orders was especially intense among the Urartian tribes living in the area of Lake Van. Eight countries under the general name of Urartu are mentioned in Assyrian sources already in the 13th century. BC e. At the end of the 12th century. BC e. The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser I made a trip to Lake Van.
In the XI-X centuries. BC e. here is the unification of small estates into a state. The first attempts to create a writing system close to Hittite.
Consolidation of the first Urartian state formations in the middle of the 9th century. BC e. was caused by the need to fight Assyrian aggression. The first ruler of Urartu was the king Aram(864-845 BC), against whom Shalmaneser III carried out campaigns. The Urartian ruler Sarduri I (835-825 BC) takes on a pompous title borrowed from the Assyrian kings. The capital becomes the city of Tushpa, around which stone walls are erected. Small holdings are being united.
The borders of the possessions of the rulers of Tushpa expand to Lake Urmia, and the second Urartian state formation Mutsatsir becomes a dependent possession. Now all the Urartian tribes are united.
3 main deities: Haldi - the god of the sky, Teisheba - the god of thunder and rain, Shivini - the god of the sun.
Intensive construction covers almost the entire state: the construction of temples and palaces, the organization of temple farms. Urartian troops penetrate into the kingdom of Mann, trying to outflank Assyria.
The kingdom of Van at the height of its power.
The true creator of Urartian power was King Menua (810-786 BC). Now all the Urartian kings compile official chronicles covering the events of their reign. Menua was involved in organizing the army. The Urartian army switches to the best Assyrian weapons and armor in Western Asia. Menua's military campaigns go in two directions - to the southwest, towards Syria, where his troops capture the left bank of the Euphrates, and to the north, towards Transcaucasia.
Menua paid great attention to the organization of dependent estates. Local rulers remained in them (“under the condition of paying tribute”), but representatives of the central government were also appointed - regional governors. Administrative reform - the division of the Urartian state into regions, headed by representatives of the central government. In the area of the capital city of Tushpa, a 70 km long canal was built (“Menua Canal”).
Under the son and successor of Menua - Argishti I (786-764 BC). The reign of Argishti is the zenith of the power of the Urartian state. He himself even reports victory over the troops of Assyria. His troops penetrate into Northern Syria. In the southeast, the Urartians establish their influence on the Mannaean kingdom and reach the borders of Babylonia.
Urartian troops reach the borders of Colchis (Kolhi) in Western Georgia and take possession of a vast territory up to Lake Sevan. An extensive program of economic and construction activities is being carried out here. On the site of modern Yerevan in 782 BC. e. the city of Erebuni was built, and in the Armavir region in 776 BC. e. the large urban center of Argishtikhinili is being built. Military campaigns not only expanded the territorial borders and increased the political influence of Urartu, but also served as a constant source of slave prisoners of war. The military successes of the Urartian state were associated with the entire socio-economic system of society, which explains its flourishing in the 8th century. BC e.
In 743 BC. e. The Assyrian army, renewed by Tiglath-Pileser III, defeats the coalition led by Urartu in Northern Syria near the city of Arpad in a decisive battle. In 735 BC. e. Tiglath-pileser III marches to the center of the Urartian state, in the area of Lake Van. Despite the siege of the Urartian capital Tushpa, the Assyrians were never able to capture its citadel. In an open military confrontation with Assyria, Urartu suffered its first defeat.
Having ascended the throne, Rusa I (735-714 BC) found the power shaken by military failures, but soon took control of the situation.
Rusa I tried to avoid confrontation with Assyria and continued to expand his possessions in Transcaucasia northeast of Lake Sevan. To the north of Lake Urmia: numerous canals were built, fortress-cities were built, an extensive reservoir was being built on the eastern coast of Van, vineyards and fields were being created, the city of Rusakhinili was being built.
In 714 BC. e. The Assyrian army, led by Sargon II, moved east of Lake Urmia against local rulers set against Assyria by the Urartian king. The battle ended in the defeat of the Urartians. On the way back to Assyria, Sargon II, at the head of 1000 horsemen, captured the Urartian cult center Mutsatsir, where the victors received temple treasures. Almost a century of Urartian-Assyrian rivalry ended with the victory of the Assyrian military power.
Urartian society and culture
The country's economy played a big role in the prosperity of Urartu. Its basis was agriculture and specialized crafts, primarily related to metallurgy.
The state paid special attention to organizing the country's economy, primarily irrigated agriculture. Agricultural products were concentrated in warehouses and storage facilities.
In Transcaucasia, simultaneously with the construction of Argishtikhinili, four irrigation canals were laid, gardens and vineyards were created. Simultaneously with the construction of Teishebaini, the Urartians built a canal through a tunnel in the rock and organized vast agricultural lands. Agricultural products were processed and craft workshops operated.
The core of the city was the citadel, where the governor’s palace-residence, religious buildings and gigantic storage facilities for agricultural products, weapons and utensils were located.
The free population of Urartu numbered about 1.5 million people. A significant part of it were community members. The community retained self-government, and sometimes the community also had slaves at its disposal.
The top of society was represented by the military and service nobility. Gradually, the control system grew and became more complex.
The class of slaves and forced laborers was numerous in Urartu. The term “slave” in the Urartian language meant primarily a stranger, a prisoner of war.
The Urartian government also paid significant attention to organizing a centralized administrative and economic system. At least two economic centers were formed - Van and Transcaucasian..
In the field of culture, along with ancient local traditions, there is a clear layer associated with the development of the cultural heritage of the Hurrians and the Hittite state. The court culture of Urartu adopted a lot from Assyria with its focus on glorifying the king, the royal army, power and strength in any of their manifestations.
The fortresses, which were also citadels of urban settlements, were located on natural hills and cliffs. Their walls and towers testify to the great skill of Urartian builders and military specialists.
The works of Urartian specialists in artistic bronze - elegant weapons and armor, parts of the throne - are distinguished by exceptional craftsmanship and decorative pomp.
The traditions and canons developed by the Urartians were inherited by other peoples of Transcaucasia, Scythian tribes, and some elements penetrated into the culture of Ancient Iran and early Greece.
Decline of Urartu.
Early state formations in Ancient Armenia and Ancient Georgia
Urartu is gradually losing its position in the international arena. At the beginning of the 6th century. BC e. Urartu became dependent on Media, and by 590 BC. e. completely ceases to exist. A significant part of the former Urartian possessions went to Media.
At the beginning of the 6th century. BC e. An independent ancient Armenian kingdom was formed, which then joined the Persian state along with other regions of the former Urartian state.
Ancient Iranian religious ideas, and in particular Zoroastrianism, have a significant influence on Ancient Armenia. Armavir, located on the territory of the earlier Urartian center, became the capital of the Ervandid possessions. Cultural and trade ties are expanding.
After the collapse of the Persian state in the 4th century. BC e. The ruler of Armenia Ervand III declared himself king. An independent ancient Armenian state was formed.
The western regions of Transcaucasia also developed intensively. Greek cities played a major role here (Fasis, Dioscurias, etc.). To first place in the VI-IV centuries. BC e. a local state in Colchis is emerging. The basis for the prosperity of Colchis was a variety of crafts and developed trade. Colchis was divided into provinces, headed by “scepter-bearers”. In ancient Colchis, local and Greek traditions interacted.
In Eastern Georgia in the VI-IV centuries. BC e. There is also a sharp separation of the nobility, and urban centers are formed. Of these, the most significant was the capital city of Mtskheta. Local historical tradition dates it to the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd century. BC e. formation of the East Georgian state, called Iberia. In the Caspian regions on the territory of modern Azerbaijan in the IV-III centuries. BC e. Another political entity is emerging - the unification of Albanian tribes. The ancient Armenian state, Colchis, Iberia and Albania characterize the development of the slave society of Transcaucasia in the post-Urartian era.
Many may still remember that in the school course “History of the USSR” Urartu was studied as “the most ancient state on the territory of the USSR.” Well, so it is, Urartu to this day remains the oldest known real state on the territory of the former Union. With its edge it captured part of the territory of the Republic of Armenia, and this was in the 8th century BC. By the way, next year, 2019, Yerevan will be able to rightfully celebrate its 2800th anniversary: the Urartian fortress of Erebuni within the city was built no later than 782 BC.
State of Urartu
We know about Urartu mainly from its own and from Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions.
The state of Urartu, which arose on the heights of the Armenian Highlands (now mostly the territory of Turkey), was first mentioned at the beginning of the 9th century BC. And the very first mentions speak of his wars with Assyria. Urartu showed stubborn resistance to the Assyrian conquests. A fierce struggle developed between the two kingdoms, in which Urartu at one time became a serious rival of Assyria for hegemony in the Middle East.
In 856 BC. The Assyrian troops of Shalmaneser III inflicted a major defeat on the Urartians, passed through their entire country, but did not (obviously could not) annex it to their possessions. Urartu recovered, became stronger and in 832 BC. repelled a new attack by the Assyrians.
Under King Minua at the very beginning of the 8th century BC. Intensive fortification construction is underway in Urartu. The Urartians conquered the small states of the Anatolian Highlands: Hatti, the Land of Mushki, etc., as well as in the Caucasus. The capital of Urartu is located in the city of Tushpa on Lake Van. Labor conscription was extended to the entire population, and many irrigation canals and water pipelines were built.
Minua's son, Argishti I, continued his father's activities. In particular, the Erebuni fortress was built under him. He finally conquered Hatti and the Taokh Country in the Caucasus (part of the modern territories of Armenia and Georgia). At the end of his reign, Argishti began to harass Assyria itself with his attacks.
Under the son of Argishti I, Sarduri II, the aggressive policy of Urartu acquired an even wider scope. Like all ancient Eastern peoples, the Urartians practiced the deportation of conquered peoples to the lands of their empire. During the reign of Sarduri, tens of thousands of prisoners were resettled in Urartu.
A decisive clash between Urartu and Assyria was becoming inevitable. Around 743 BC Urartu reached the peak of its power. The territory from the Mediterranean Sea to Lake Urmia and from the upper reaches of the Kura to the mountains of present-day Iraqi Kurdistan came under his control. In the same year, the Assyrian army of Tiglath-pileser III inflicted a heavy defeat on the troops of Urartu and its allies on the Euphrates River north of Karchemish.
In 735 BC. The Assyrians invaded Urartu, reached its capital, but were unable to take it. Urartu was experiencing a serious crisis and was clearly heading towards decline. Under Sarduri II's successor, King Ruse I, the Cimmerians invaded Urartu from the north. Although the Urartians managed to repel the attack and divert the main stream of Cimmerians from themselves, the power of the state weakened even more. Separatist tendencies appeared on the outskirts.
In 714 BC. The Assyrian king Sargon II inflicted a painful defeat on the Urartians, taking their sacred city of Mutsatsir. At the beginning of the 7th century, under Rus II, Urartu temporarily strengthened. But even the fall of Assyria under the joint blow of Babylon and Media did not help Urartu regain its former power. A new danger from the north - the Scythians - greatly undermined all the then kingdoms of Asia Minor.
A new factor has appeared in the Middle East, which will dominate the politics of the region for centuries - the Iranians, initially in the form of the Median kingdom (later the Persian state will rise in its place). At the very end of the 7th century BC. The Medes subjugated Urartu, and at the very beginning of the 6th century they put an end to it, annexing it to their possessions. Urartian statehood ceased to exist forever, and at the same time the Urartian language disappeared from the surviving inscriptions.
The mystery of the language and origin of the Urartians
The Urartian language was deciphered thanks to bilinguals - parallel recording of the same texts in Assyrian (already known) and Urartian languages. The Urartians, like almost all the peoples of the Middle East at that time, used syllabic cuneiform writing.
According to the most developed version, the Urartian language is distantly related to Sumerian, and together with it shows signs of similarity with the languages of the Nakh-Dagestan group. The closest language to Urartian is the Hurrian language, which existed in approximately the same region slightly earlier than Urartian. He also disappeared. Both languages are united by linguists into the extinct Hurrito-Urartian language family.
It is very likely that if the Urartians were not autochthons of the Armenian Highlands, then they came from the north, from the Caucasus Mountains. A similar version is also expressed for the Hurrians and even for the Sumerians.
There is a hypothesis that the Urartians are the linguistic ancestors of the Armenians, but it is not shared by most researchers.
The mystery of the disappearance of the Urartians
The Urartians as a people disappear simultaneously with the fall of their statehood. From this we can conclude that the dominance of the Urartians in the Armenian Highlands did not have strong folk roots. Apparently, the Urartians were an alien conquering people who formed the ruling elite in the conquered lands.
The population subject to the Urartians was multilingual, but, judging by the further development of the region, Armenians predominated in it. Considering that, according to many sources, the Armenians were autochthons of this territory, they made up the bulk of the population of Urartu. The few Urartians disappeared into this population after they lost power.
Thus, if there are no related ties between the languages of the Armenians and the Urartians (there are only about 70 borrowing words from the Urartian language into ancient Armenian; however, the Urartian and Nakh-Dagestan languages have more than 160 common roots, which more definitely indicates a relationship), then part of the Urartian gene pool , undoubtedly contributed to the emerging Armenian nation.
Civilization arose in the 33rd century. back.
Civilization stopped in the 25th century. back.
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This civilization of Transcaucasia originated from the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization..
Toynbee classifies it as a companion to the flourishing civilizations.
The Urartians are the ruling tribe of the Urartian civilization, which was heterogeneous in its ethnic composition..
The population of Urartu included a large Hurrian population.
Urartu also included proto-Armenian tribes, speakers of the proto-Armenian language.
The state of this civilization was the Urartian kingdom. Ararat. Biaynili. Kingdom of Van.
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This is the ancient civilization of Transcaucasia.
The Urartians were a tribe that spoke the written Urartian language.
WITHAmong the population of Urartu there were people of both sedentary and nomadic types. Migrants came to Urartu from the southeast, northeast and west. The population of Urartu included a large area of the Hurrian population, possibly designated by the Assyrians with the word “Nairi”, remaining after the collapse of the Mitanni state.
INUrartu also included proto-Armenian tribes, speakers of the proto-Armenian language. Proto-Armenian tribes (flies in Assyrian sources) migrated to the Armenian Highlands from the west and settled on the territory of historical Armenia before the formation of the state of Urartu - at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. (modern Turkish province of Malatya on the site of historical Melitene). In Armenian historiography, the prevailing tendency is to talk about the autochthony of the Armenians in the Armenian Highlands in the Hayas region.
The state of this civilization was the Urartian kingdom.Ararat. Biaynili. Kingdom of Van. An ancient state in southwestern Asia, located on the territory of the Armenian Highlands (modern Armenia, eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran). Urartian art of this time has Assyrian features.
UThe Rartian language is similar to Hurrian. The Urartians probably spread across the Armenian Plateau from the Revanduz region in Western Azerbaijan, where the ancient city of Musasir was located. It is likely that the ancient Urartian city of Musasir was located on the territory of the initial settlement of this tribe.
WITHThe existence of Urartu as a union of tribes has been documented since the 13th century.The process of decomposition of primitive relations received intensive development among the tribes that lived in the area of Lake Van and bore the name Urartians. Eight countries under the general name Uruatri are mentioned in this region in Assyrian sources as early as the 13th century. BC.
Urartu as a state has been mentioned in sources since the 8th century BC.
In the first quarter of the 1st millennium BC. Urartu occupied a leading position among the states of Western Asia.
Urartu ceased to exist in the 6th century BC.
Later, the civilizations of Colchis, Iberia, Armenia, and Caucasian Albania were formed here.
Sources.
1
. Assyrian mentions of Urartu in the period from the 13th to the 8th centuries BC. Assyrian sources are the basis of much of the historical data about Urartu, as well as the basis of the chronology of Urartu. The oldest known mention of Urartu is found in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (Shulman-Ashared I, reigned 1280-1261 BC). From the texts we can conclude that the “kings of Urartu” during this period were in a long military confrontation with Assyria, and the organized military campaigns of the Assyrians regularly brought them success in the wars with the Urartians. The stronger Assyrian troops at that time, as a rule, pursued predatory goals; the main purpose of raids on Urartu was to seize valuables and steal livestock.
2
. Babylonian chronicles of the 7th century BC, relating mainly to the decline of Urartu;
3
. brief mentions in Hittite hieroglyphic texts;
4
. Urartian inscriptions, made mainly in cuneiform, borrowed from the Assyrians.
5
. The Assyrian name for the state of Urartu has been in use since the 9th century BC. in Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions. There is an assumption that this name meant “high country.” In the 10th century BC. in Assyria there was also a variant “Uratri” (U-rat-ri).
6
. Biaini (Biainili). Local name with unclear etymology. The word Biaini acted both as the self-name of Urartu and as the name of the internal region of this country where the consolidation of the Urartian tribes first took place, in the area of the first capital of Urartu - the city of Arzashkun. The word “Van” in the name of the city of Van, located on the site of the former Urartian capital, and in the name of the lake of the same name probably etymologically go back to the word Biaynili.
7
. Kingdom of Van. The name Urartu currently used by many.
8
. Country of Nairi. Nairi is the early Assyrian name for a “group of tribes” living in the territories of Urartu. This name is found in the 13th-11th centuries BC, and Lake Van in Assyrian texts retained its old name “sea of the country of Nairi” (Akkadian tâmtu ša mât Nairi) in the subsequent period. Some researchers considered the Assyrian word "Nairi" to be the name of the Hurrian people, which is consistent with modern research on the relationship of the Urartian language with Hurrian.
9
. Ararat. Inaccurate Masoretic vowel of Aram. rrt = Urartu, which is used in biblical texts and is preserved in modern toponymy.
10
. Country of Alarodiev. Herodotus mentions the Urartians under the name Alarodia.
11
. Haldia. Some historians of the late 19th - early 20th centuries identified Urartu with the country of the “Chaldai” mentioned by ancient historians on the basis of a phonetic comparison with the name of the supreme deity of the Urartians, the god Khaldi.
12
. Aratta is an ancient mountainous country, mentioned back in the 3rd millennium BC. in Sumerian texts. The identification of Aratta with Urartu is not a generally accepted statement in scientific circles, made by individual researchers on a phonetic basis, and also partially argued by the English scientist David Rohl. But most scientists believe that Aratta was located in the mountains of central or southwestern Iran and is in no way connected with Nairi/Urartu.
In documents from the reign of the Assyrian king Ashurnasirpal II, instead of numerous small possessions, a country named Urartu is mentioned.
Another state association of Urartian tribes formed to the southwest of Lake. Urmia was called Mutsatsir. The all-Urartian cult center was located here.
WITHThe formation of Urartu statehood dates back to the 9th-8th centuries. BC. Geographically, it was located on the Armenian Highlands in the area of Lake Van. The state was called Biainili, the Assyrians called it Urartu and it became the successor to the intertribal union of Urautri. (Toynbee)
ANDIt was Assyria, through its actions, that contributed to the emergence of the state of Urartu on the Armenian Highlands. The desire of the local population to protect themselves from the predatory raids of the Assyrians contributed to the emergence of tribal unions, and over time, state formation. The natural resources of the Armenian Highlands initially created the economic prerequisites for the emergence of a state here, however, the military-political prerequisites and, accordingly, the opportunity to create such a state appeared only in the Iron Age: it became possible for the local population to effectively resist the formidable Assyrian army only after the technology of stone processing iron guns allowed the construction of numerous defensive fortresses on the Armenian Highlands.
PThe process of uniting tribes and developing technology for building fortresses continued for centuries. In the 9th century BC. Assyria managed to conduct its last successful campaigns against Urartu: under the leadership of Shalmaneser III (Shulman-Ashared III) in 858-856 BC. During the reign of Arama, Shalmaneser III destroyed the first capitals of Urartu, the cities of Suguniya and Arzashka, the exact location of which has not been established, and successfully advanced deeper into Urartu.
The first ruler of the united Urartu was King Aram (864-845 BC). However, the army of Shalmaneser III launched campaigns against him. Assyrian politicians apparently already sensed a potential threat in the emerging young state. However, these military actions did not affect the main regions of Urartu and Mutsatsir, and contrary to the hopes of the kings of Assyria, the strengthening of the new state continued.
The Urartian ruler Sarduri I (835-825 BC) had already formalized his ambitions. He adopted a pompous title borrowed from the Assyrian kings. This was a direct challenge to the power of Assyria. The capital of the Urartian state became the city of Tushpa in the area of \u200b\u200bLake. Van, around which powerful stone walls are being built.
PRi Sarduri I, Assyrian raids could no longer reach the capital of Urartu, but only disturbed the southern outskirts of the country. Although in a direct clash the Urartian army lost to the Assyrian, the fortresses built by the Urartians no longer allowed the Assyrian army to penetrate far into the interior of the country. In addition, the harsh winter climate of the Armenian Highlands made the task more difficult for the Assyrians; they could carry out all offensive campaigns only in the summer and were now forced to carry heavy siege weapons with them. Under such conditions, the power of the Assyrian army was only sufficient for small successes. The power of Assyria in the region began to come to an end, and a new power in the Middle East began to flourish - the united Urartu.
The reign of the Urartian king Ishpuini (825-810 BC) was marked by active activity. If the inscriptions of Sarduri were written in Assyrian, now the official texts are compiled in the Urartian language, for which slightly modified Assyrian cuneiform was used. PUnder King Ishpuini, son of Sarduri I, (reigned c. 828-810 BC), the central power of Tushpa was further strengthened. The borders of Urartu are expanding: from the south, Urartu is joined by the territory between lakes Van and Urmia, as well as the territory south of Lake Urmia; in the north, in Transcaucasia, successful military campaigns are being carried out to capture the fertile valley of the Araks River. There is also a “centralization” of the Urartian religion. The deities of individual tribes are united into a single pantheon, headed by the gods of the central part of the country: Khaldi, Teisheba and Shivini. During the same period, cuneiform tablets appeared in the Urartian language.
The young state more and more clearly asserted its independence. The borders of the ruler Tushpa's possessions expand to the lake. Urmia, and the second Urartian formation - Mutsatsir - becomes one of the dependent possessions.
For the ideological unity of the new state, a religious reform was carried out - a special role was given to the three main deities: Khaldi - the god of the sky; Teisheba - the god of thunder and rain; Shivini - to the sun god.
The influence of the ancient religious center of the Urartian tribes Mutsatsir, where the main temple of the supreme god of the Urartian pantheon, Khaldi, was located, was strengthened. Intensive construction activity covers almost the entire territory of the state. Numerous Ishpuini inscriptions tell about her; they also tell about numerous campaigns.
The true creator of Urartian power was King Menua.
WITHWith the accession of Ishpuini’s son Menua to the throne, massive construction work is being carried out on the territory of Urartu. During the reign of Menua (810-786 BC), fortresses were built protecting the approaches to Van, palaces and temples in many Urartian settlements, as well as a canal supplying water to the city of Tushpu, which has survived to this day. The period of Menua's reign overlaps with the reign of the famous Assyrian queen Semiramis. The lull in hostilities with Assyria was marked by the cultural influence of Assyria on Urartu.
Although many buildings near Lake Van during Menua’s life, including the canal to Tushpa, were associated with his name, after some time they began to be associated with the name of Semiramis, as those built in her time. The Armenian medieval historian Moses Khorensky cites legends about the personal participation of the queen in the construction of buildings near Van during the time of Menua. During the reign of Menua, irrigation work was also intensively carried out throughout the country, and the expansion of the Urartians continued to the north in Transcaucasia and to the southwest, where the borders of Urartu reached the middle reaches of the Euphrates.
Some of the official annals have been preserved, describing the activities of this ruler year after year (similar annals in Urartu were also one of Menua’s innovations). Menua's military campaigns went in two directions - to the south, towards Syria, where his troops captured the left bank of the Euphrates, and to the north, towards Transcaucasia. At the same time, special attention was paid to the organization of subordinate territories. Apparently, in a number of cases the power of local kings was retained, but at the same time representatives of the central government were appointed - the heads of the regions.
Obviously, administrative reform also dates back to the time of Menua - the division of the Urartian state into regions governed by representatives of the central government.
Menua's construction activities were also very large-scale. In the area of the capital city of Tushpa, a canal about 70 km long was built, and in some places water was transferred through aqueducts made of stone, reaching a height of 10-15 m. In addition to this structure, which in ancient times was called the “Menua Canal,” canals were also built in other regions of the kingdom.
INDuring the reign of Menua's son Argishti I in 786-764 BC, Urartu was at the zenith of its power and became the most powerful state in Western Asia.Urartian troops penetrate into Northern Syria, where they win over the local rulers to their side. In the southeast, having included the Mannaean kingdom in their orbit of influence, the Urartians descend along the mountain valleys to the Diala basin, practically reaching the borders of Babylonia. As a result, Assyria finds itself surrounded on three sides by the possessions of Urartu and its allies.
Urartu firmly took possession of the area around Lake Urmia, the territories of Transcaucasia and blocked trade routes from Asia Minor to Assyria. The eternal rival of Urartu, Assyria was thus deprived of militarily strategic supplies of horses and iron, and was at that time in a state of economic and political decline. King of Assyria Shalmaneser IV, a contemporary of Argishti I, called the Urartian king this way: “Argishti Urart, whose name is terrible, like a heavy storm, whose forces are vast.” Argishti I was succeeded on the throne by his son Sarduri II, who continued his father’s work, carrying out a series of military campaigns, expanding further the country’s borders.
MThe state of Urartu reached its height in 774 BC, when the army of Assyria was defeated under the leadership of King Argishti.
Argishti also attached great importance to advancement in Transcaucasia. Urartian troops reach Colchis in Western Georgia, cross the Araks and take possession of a vast territory on its left bank up to Lake. Sevan. An extensive program of economic and construction activities is being carried out in the newly annexed regions. Near Armavir in 776 BC. the large urban center of Argishtikhinili is being built. On the site of modern Yerevan in 782 BC. Another city is being built - Erebuni.
In the Argishtikhinili area, four canals are being built, vineyards and orchards are being established. Giant granaries are built in fortified cities, where state grain reserves are concentrated. The policy of creating a second important economic center of the Urartian state in Transcaucasia, in an area remote from the main theater of military operations, fully justified itself in the course of subsequent events.
The work of his father was continued by his son Argishti Sarduri II (764-735 BC).
IN744 BC Tiglath-Pileser III ascended the throne of neighboring Assyria and immediately began the struggle to restore Assyria's former dominance in Western Asia. Tiglath-pileser III carried out a number of reforms in the Assyrian army and began successful military operations on the western borders of Urartu, aimed at returning Assyria control over trade routes to Asia Minor. By 735 BC. A decisive battle took place between the Assyrian army and the Urartian army on the western bank of the Euphrates. The Assyrians defeated the Urartian army and captured a large number of prisoners and various trophies. Sarduri II, commander of the Urartian army, fled from the battlefield to Tushpa. Tiglath-pileser III continued his military campaign deep into Urartu:
But the fight was not over. King Rusa I (735-713 BC) sought to revive the power of Urartu. In foreign policy, he tried to avoid open confrontation with Assyria, while at the same time supporting anti-Assyrian sentiments everywhere. Carrying out an active policy in the south also made it difficult for the Cimmerian nomads to invade the northern regions of Urartu. But the Urartian possessions in Transcaucasia systematically expanded, new cities were founded. Extensive work to create a powerful economic complex was carried out by Rusa I in the area north of the city of Urmia. The king did not forget the traditional center of his state - the lake area. Wang. An extensive reservoir was built there, vineyards and fields appeared, and a new city called Rusakhinili arose.
IN722 BC A more decisive and warlike Sargon II, the youngest son of Tiglath-pileser III, came to power in Assyria.
Seeing the energy with which Rusa I strengthened the power of Urartu, Assyria hastened to strike a new blow. The trip was carefully prepared.
In 714 BC. Assyrian troops, led by Sargon II, moved to the area east of the lake. Urmia against local rulers, skillfully set against Assyria by the Urartian king. But Rusa I also considered the moment opportune for a decisive battle and tried with his army to go to the rear of the army of Sargon II. The battle ended with the defeat of the Urartians.Decisive for Urartu was the very fact of defeat in battle and the loss of Musasir, the religious center of Urartu, the place of coronation of the Urartian kings since the time of Ishpuini. With the death of Musasir, the greatness of the supreme Urartian god Khaldi was shaken.
As a result of this campaign, Urartu was defeated in the struggle for political hegemony in Western Asia and ceded this role to Assyria.
However, in the future both sides avoided direct clashes.During the period of truce, Rusa I devoted a lot of time to internal construction, especially in the area of the northern part of Lake Urmia, where through his efforts a large Urartian center arose - the city of Ulhu. In addition, Rusa I built the new capital of Urartu - Rusakhinili on a rock a few kilometers from Tushpa.
INlate 8th century BC Sargon II died as a result of a palace conspiracy, and soon after Assyria plunged into a crisis associated with the confrontation with Babylonia and Media, which eventually, 100 years later, in 609 BC. led to the destruction of the Assyrian state.
In the meantime, the son of Rusa I, Argishti II (reigned 714 - ca. 685 BC), ascended the throne in Urartu. The nature of relations between Assyria and Urartu after the campaign of Sargon II changed: the parties began to more often resolve conflict situations through negotiations, and Urartu, fearing new defeats, ceased to lay claim to the northern possessions or zones of influence of Assyria.
Under these conditions, Argishti II (713-685 BC) directed his campaigns to the east, reaching the coast of the Caspian Sea. Here the traditional policy of the Urartian kings continued - the defeated regions were not ruined, but were subjugated on the terms of paying tribute. Argishti II carried out irrigation work in the central regions of the Urartian state - near lake. Wang. This stable situation continued under Ruse II (685-645 BC).
INThe son of Argishti II, who later ascended the throne of Rusa II (reigned c. 685 - c. 639 BC), taking advantage of the long truce, devoted himself to capital construction. During the reign of Rusa II, a large number of new fortified cities, temples and other structures were built in Urartu. Rusa II built the new capital of Urartu - Rusakhinili, located near Tushpa.
Apparently, Ruse II managed to conclude an alliance with the Cimmerians, together with whom he made successful campaigns in Asia Minor. In Transcaucasia, he carried out large irrigation works and built the city of Teishebaini.
Rusa II carried out large construction both in the capital and in Transcaucasia. This was the time of establishing cultural contacts with the Scythians. There is information about the successful campaigns of the Urartu army together with Cimmerian detachments against Phrygia, when the king of the Phrygian kingdom Midas died. From that time on Lydia stood up.
However, the threat to Urartian power lay in a new force - in the Scythian nomadic tribes that penetrated into Western Asia and created in the 670s. BC. own "kingdom". The Scythians defeated the allies of Urartu - the Cimmerians. Apparently, a number of regions of Urartu were also affected at the same time.
ABOUTAround 654, Rusa established peaceful relations with the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, when the latter was preparing for war with Babylonia. (Toynbee)
PAfter the death of Rusa II, Urartu was quite quickly, within 100 years, completely destroyed and subsequently forgotten even by ancient authors. Over the years, Urartu has seen several rulers: Sarduri III (ruled from c. 639 to c. 625 BC), Sarduri IV (ruled from c. 625 to c. 620 BC) .), Erimena, who reigned during the period ca. 620 - approx. 605 BC. and saw the death of Assyria, as well as Rus III (ruled in the period ca. 605 - ca. 595 BC) and Rus IV (ruled in the period ca. 595 - ca. 585 BC) - the last king of Urartu. During the reign of these kings, almost no new construction was carried out, and, despite the deepening crisis in Assyria, Urartu did not resume attempts to take control of the strategic trade routes between Mesopotamia and Asia Minor until the end of its existence.Construction activity continues in the Van region and in Transcaucasia, but its scale is decreasing. At the beginning of the 6th century. BC. Urartu falls into vassalage from the new powerful state of the ancient East - Media, and by 590 BC. ceases to exist as an independent state.
TO590 BC. Urartu lost its independence. Under Sarduri III, the son of Rusa II, Urartu was already actually a vassal state in relation to Assyria. At this time, the Teishebaini (Karmir-Blur) fortress in Transcaucasia was destroyed. Local residents tried to defend the fortress, since the Urartu army detachment had left it by this time.
INIn the Urartian religion, an important place was occupied by the cults of deities of mountains, waters, and various natural phenomena. A special place was occupied by the Sky God Khaldi and his wife Uarubani, the God of thunder and rain Teisheba (Hittite-Hurrian Teshub), and the Sun God Shivini.
The Urartian state paid great attention to economic development, especially taking care of the construction of irrigation canals and the construction of reservoirs. Royal farms played a significant role in the economy. During the construction of Teishebaini, Rusa II simultaneously constructed a canal and created extensive agricultural land. According to rough estimates, Teishebaini's granaries and wine warehouses were designed for products obtained on an area of 4-5 thousand hectares. According to cuneiform inscriptions, the staff of the royal household in Rusakhinili was estimated at 5,500 people. On the royal farms, agricultural products were processed and craft workshops operated. Temple farms were of much less importance.
The achievements of the Urartians in the field of culture were remarkable. The history of Urartu is the history of the urbanization of Transcaucasia. The territory of cities is usually quite large - from 200 to 300 hectares (Argishtikhin or even 400-500 hectares). Cities, as a rule, were created at the foot of high hills, the tops of which were occupied by citadels. The layout of some Urartian cities had a regular character, for example, in Zernakitepe. Apparently, a rectangular planning system also existed in Teishebaini. City builders sought to ensure that the boundaries of urban development coincided with natural obstacles (river, steep hillsides, etc.). The defensive systems of cities consisted of one, usually two, and sometimes three lines of walls. City walls, 3.5-4 m thick, were usually equipped with buttresses and massive projecting square towers.
Urartian palaces were of two types. The basis of the composition of the palace in Erebuni consists of two courtyards, around which there are premises for various purposes. One of the courtyards is surrounded by a colonnade, and all the most important rooms of the palace are grouped around it. The core of the second type of palaces are the columned halls. The palace complex of the western citadel of Argishtikhinili was divided into two parts: ceremonial residential and economic. The center of the front part was a large columned hall (two rows of ten columns). The temple architecture of Urartu is very diverse. The temple of the god Khaldi in Erebuni consists of a main oblong hall with a columned portico in front of it and two square rooms, one of which is a tower. This type is close to the Hurrian-Mitannian structures. The most common, however, is another type of temple: a square one-room building, erected on a platform, with corner projections and a tent-shaped crosshair. Another type of temple is known only from its reproduction on the relief. This is a famous Assyrian relief depicting the capture of Mutsatsir. The temple in Mutsatsir is reminiscent of ancient ones.
The monumental art of Urartu is represented by stone reliefs, round sculpture, and wall paintings. Stone sculpture is divided into two clearly distinguishable groups. One includes monuments of Urartian sculpture proper, associated with the art traditions of the ancient Near East. True, finds of this sculpture are very rare. In particular, a damaged statue made of gray basalt, found in Van and apparently depicting one of the first Urartian kings, has been preserved. Much more common is folk sculpture of the “traditional conventional style”, which continues the traditions of Bronze Age sculpture. Monumental reliefs are best known from finds in Adyldzhevaz, where a procession of gods was apparently represented.
Urartian wall painting is the most studied. The picturesque panels were arranged in the form of often alternating horizontal stripes - ornamental and pictorial. Urartian paintings are included in the general circle of Western Asian ancient monumental painting. They are characterized by great conventionality and canonicity, reflected in the use of certain stereotypes when depicting living beings and plants, the use of a certain, strictly limited set of themes (images of deities, kings, ritual scenes predominate), very strong symbolism that links together both pictorial and ornamental motives.
The Urartians achieved great mastery in applied arts, especially in the production of works of art from bronze. This was achieved, in particular, thanks to the high technical level of Urartian metalworking.
The works of Urartian toreutics were extremely popular. Their finds have been recorded in Asia Minor (in particular, in Gordion), on a number of islands of the Aegean Sea (Rhodes, Samos), on mainland Greece (Delphi, Olympia), even in Etruria. Vivid examples of Urartu art are ceremonial shields, helmets, and quivers that served as offerings to temples. They were decorated with relief scenes (images of horsemen, war chariots, and sometimes sacred scenes). During the excavations, a large amount of gold and silver jewelry of high artistic level was also found.
Urartian culture played an exceptional role in the subsequent destinies of the culture of the entire Near East. Its greatest achievements were adopted by Media, then by Achaemenid Iran and spread widely throughout the Near and Middle East.
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Urartu is an ancient state in southwest Asia. It was located on the territory of the Armenian Highlands (modern Armenia, eastern Turkey and northwestern Iran). Urartu existed as a union of tribes from the 13th century BC, and as a state from the 8th century BC.
Interesting to know:Urartu has several names:
- Urartu is the Assyrian name of the state, which was used from the 9th century BC until the end of Assyria;
- Biaini (Biainili) is a local name whose origin is unknown;
- The Kingdom of Van is the modern name for Urartu, which is used by some researchers. It is connected with the fact that the capital of the state was located on the shores of Lake Van;
- the country of Nairi - this was the name of the early Assyrian tribes that lived on the territory of Urartu;
- Ararat is the Masorite vowel of the Aramaic "rrt", that is, Urartu, which is used in biblical texts;
- the country of the Alarods - this is how Herodotus mentioned the Urartians; Aratta is an ancient mountainous country that was mentioned as early as the 3rd millennium BC in Sumerian texts. Most scientists believe that Urartu and Aratta are in no way connected with each other.
Inscription on the foundation of the temple in the Erebuni fortress on the Arin-Berd hill near Yerevan. The inscription is written in the Urartian language in cuneiform, borrowed from the Assyrians. The text attributes the construction of the temple to King Argishti I.
Archaeological materials are so scarce that the question of the origin of the inhabitants of Urartu remains unclear, especially since there was no written language, from which something could also be found out. Researchers believe that among the population of Urartu there were both settled and nomadic tribes.
A fragment of a bronze helmet from the Sarduri II era, which depicts the “Tree of Life” motif, popular among ancient societies. The helmet was discovered during excavations of the Teishebaini fortress on the Karmir-Blur hill.
The oldest known mention of Urartu is found in the inscriptions of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I. From the texts we can conclude that Urartu was constantly at war with the Assyrians, who pursued predatory goals, in particular, they stole livestock and stole various valuables.
Assyrian bas-relief from the time of Shalmaneser III. The inscription on the bas-relief: “I placed my image by the sea of the country of Nairi, I made sacrifices to my gods.”
The Armenian Highlands were rich in natural values, and it would have been a sin not to organize a state in this region. However, the opportunity to create a state here appeared only in the Iron Age. Why in the Iron Age? you ask. Because the local population was only able to effectively resist the formidable Assyria when the technology of stone processing with iron tools made it possible to build numerous defensive fortresses on the Armenian Highlands. It was the endless raids of the Assyrians that contributed to the fact that the “tribes of Nairi” united into a single and strong state.
Remains of the fortress built by Sarduri I. The surviving wall of the fortress
In the 9th century BC, the last successful campaigns of the Assyrians against Urartu took place. The leader of the Assyrians at this time was Shalmaneser III, who destroyed the cities of Suguniya and Arzashka and successfully advanced deeper into Urartu. By the end of the 9th century, the Assyrians fought successfully only in the southern parts of Urartu.
It was at this time that the Urartian royal dynasty began to form, and the first ruler of Urartu was Arama. However, the main dynasty of Urartu was presumably founded by a representative of another clan or tribe, Sarduri I (son of Lutipri). He became king of Urartu around 844 BC. The residence of the kings was in the city of Tushpa, on the shores of Lake Van.
Fragment of a bronze quiver with the inscription Sarduri II. Discovered during excavations on the Karmir-Blur hill.
From the middle of the 9th century, Urartu became the most powerful state in Western Asia. After Sarduri I, power passed to his son Ishpuini. During his reign, the borders of Urartu were significantly expanded, and Urartian cuneiform appeared.
Bronze figurine of a winged bull that adorned the left side of the Urartian royal throne, Hermitage. A similar figurine that adorned the right side of the same throne ended up in the British Museum.
When Ishpuini's son Menua ascended the throne, massive construction work began on the territory of Urartu. Fortresses were built that protected the approaches to Van, palaces and temples, as well as a canal that supplied water to the city of Tushpu. During Menua's reign in Urartu, Queen Semiramis ruled in Assyria. At this time there were no wars or attacks by the Assyrians on Urartu; on the contrary, Assyria had a cultural influence on Urartu. During Menua’s life, many buildings were associated with his name, and after his death they began to be associated with the name of Semiramis, as those built in her time.
The borders of Urartu to the west continued to expand, which ultimately led to the fact that trade routes from Assyria to Asia Minor came under the control of the Urartians. Of course, Assyria was unhappy with this situation. As a result, the Assyrian king Shalmaneser IV spent six of the ten years of his reign on campaigns against Urartu. By this time, Menua’s son Argishti was in power in Urartu, who emerged victorious from the war with the Assyrians.
Sketch of the Van Rock by the first archaeologists of Urartu, late 19th century
Argishti I was succeeded by his son Sarduri II. He continued his father’s work, making campaigns and expanding the borders of the country further.
In the 8th century BC, Tiglath-pileser III ascended the throne of Assyria. He immediately started a war against Urartu. The Assyrian king wanted to regain control of trade routes to Asia Minor. As a result of a decisive battle on the western bank of the Euphrates, the Assyrians defeated the Urartian army and captured a large number of prisoners and various trophies. Taglatpalasar III did not stop there; he moved deeper into Urartu.
Sarduri II died under unclear circumstances. The state of Urartu partially collapsed. Many previously conquered tribes rebelled against the central government. Rusa I ascended the throne of Urartu and, despite everything, managed to preserve the statehood of Urartu. He suppressed the rebellions, and for a long time wisely avoided war with Assyria. During the reign of Shalmaneser V in Assyria, a truce was established between Urartu and the Assyrians. Rusa I built the new capital of Urartu, Rusakhinili.
Soon a more decisive and militant Sargon II came to power in Assyria. He wanted to return his country to its former power. Sargon II sent his troops against Urartu, who suffered a severe defeat. Rusa I himself was forced to flee. After he learned that Sargon II reached the religious center of Urartu Musasir and destroyed and plundered not only the city itself, but also the main temple of the god Khaldi, Rusa I committed suicide. All these events became the beginning of the destruction of the Urartic state.